CEP233 | FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

CHAPTER 4
MEASUREMENT OF
ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS

MODULE 9
MERIDIAN
This module contains the discussion on the different types of meridian including its
proper establishment and designation together with the introduction to various
units of angular measurement.

Objectives
• To understand the principle behind the several types of meridian and on
how to properly locate and designate those points.
• To be able to convert and differentiate the various units of angular
measurement.

9.1 Types of Meridian

The direction of a line is usually defined by the horizontal angle it makes with
a fixed reference line or direction. In surveying, this is done with reference
to a meridian which lies in a vertical plane passing through a fixed point of
reference and through the observer’s position.

1. True Meridian

The true meridian is sometimes known as the astronomic or geographic

meridian. It is the generally adapted reference line in surveying practice.
This line passes through the geographic north and south poles of the earth
and the observer’s position. Since all true meridians converge at the poles,
they are not parallel to each other. The direction of true meridian at a
survey station is invariable and any record of true directions taken remains
permanent and unchanged regardless of time. Lines in most extensive
surveys are usually referred to the true meridian. This meridian is also used
for marking the boundaries of land.

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2. Magnetic Meridian

A magnetic meridian is a fixed line of reference which lies parallel with the
magnetic lines of force of the earth. Its direction is defined by a freely
suspended magnetic needle of a compass held at the observer’s position.
Magnetic meridians are not parallel to the true meridians since they
converge at a magnetic pole which is located some distance away from
the true geographic poles. Since the location of the magnetic poles
changes constantly, the direction of the magnetic meridian is not fixed. As
a line of reference, the magnetic meridian is employed only on rough
surveys where a magnetic compass is used in determining directions.

3. Grid Meridian

A grid meridian is a fixed line of reference parallel to the central meridian

of a system of plane rectangular coordinates. One central meridian, which
coincides with a true meridian, is usually selected and all other meridians
are made parallel to this meridian. In this process, the need to calculate
the convergence of meridians when determining positions of points in the
system is eliminated. The use of grid meridians is applicable only to plane

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surveys of limited extent. In such types of survey, it is assumed that all

measurements are all projected to a horizontal plane and that all meridians
are parallel straight lines.

4. Assumed Meridian

An assumed meridian is an arbitrarily chosen fixed line of reference which

is taken for convenience. This meridian is usually the direction from a survey
station to an adjoining station or some well-defined and permanent point.
It is used only on plane surveys of limited extent since they are difficult or
may be impossible to re-establish if the original reference points are lost or
obliterated.

9.2 Methods of Establishing Meridian

1. Establishing Magnetic Meridian by Compass

The magnetic meridian can be established by setting up the compass over

any convenient point and then sighting a distant object that marks another
point on the meridian. For an accurate determination of the desired
meridian, several sights should be taken during the setup and the compass
must be rotated about its vertical axis and then positioned until the needle
reads zero. The mean of the points thus established is taken as the magnetic
meridian. The observations should, however, be made with the magnetic
declination is approximately at its mean value.

2. Determining True North by Aid of Sun and a Plumb Line

In a level piece of ground, lean a pole approximately toward the north and
rest it in a crotch made by two sticks. Suspend a weight from the end of the
pole so that is nearly touches the ground. About an hour before noon,

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attach a string driven directly under the weight and, with a sharpened stick
attached to the other end of the string, describe an arc with a radius equal
to the distance from the peg to the shadow of the tip of the pole. Drive a
peg on the arc where the shadow of the tip of the pole rests. At about an
hour after noon, watch the shadow of the tip as it approaches the eastern
side of the arc and drive another peg where it crosses. By means of a string,
find the middle point of the straight line joining the two pegs. A straight line
joining the mid-point and the peg under the weight will, for all practical
purposes, be pointing towards the direction of true north.

3. Determining True North by the Rising and Setting of the Sun

From a convenient position or station, observe the rising and setting of the
sun on the same day or at setting on one day and rising on the next. Along
each direction establish a peg or marker. Measure the horizontal angle
between the two markers then, establish another marker to define half of
the measured angle. The line joining the observation station and the last
marker established should point towards the direction of true north.

4. Determining True North by Polaris

The big dipper is a useful reference constellation of the northern

hemisphere. As a star group, it is the most familiar and easiest to recognize.

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It has been so named because of the distinctive dipper-like pattern formed

by seven bright stars. Two stars, Merak and Dubhe, forming the side of the
dipper which is farthest from the handle are known as the pointer stars. They
point towards Polaris which is also known as the north star, pole star, or
cynosure. Polaris lies almost directly above the earth’s north pole. When a
person faces Polaris, he is actually facing towards the direction of true
north. Polaris is visible the whole year but only in the northern hemisphere.

Aside as a reference for determining directions, this star can tell a person in
the northern hemisphere what latitude he is in. The observed vertical angle
from the horizon to Polaris is approximately the same degree of latitude that
the observer is from the equator. At the equator the vertical angle to Polaris
is zero since the star is on the horizon. At the north pole, the angle is about
90 degrees since Polaris is found directly overhead.

5. Determining True South by The Southern Cross

The southern cross (or crux) is a constellation of the southern hemisphere

which serves as a reference group of stars for determining the location of
the earth’s south pole. It is composed of four stars formed in the figure of a
cross. An imaginary line joining the two stars forming the longer side of the
cross is used to locate a point directly above the south pole. This reference
point is located along the extension of this imaginary line. Its distance from
the lower star of the cross is about 4.5 times the distance between the two
stars along the same line.

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6. Determining Direction of True North (or South) by a Wristwatch

An ordinary wristwatch can be used to determine the approximate

direction of true north or south. In the north temperate zone only the hour
hand is pointed toward the sun. A south line can be found midway
between the hour hand and 12 o’clock.

The wristwatch may also be used to determine directions in the south

temperate zone. It is done, however, in a different manner. Twelve o’clock
is pointed toward the sun, and half-way between 12 o’clock and the hour
hand will be the direction towards true north.

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The two methods stated above applies primarily to standard time. On

daylight saving time, the method applicable at the north temperate zone
yields a north-south line which is midway between the hour hand and the
one o’clock. At the south temperate zone, the north lies midway between
the hour hand and one o’clock. In both cases, it is important to remember
that the sun is in the eastern part of the sky before noon and in western
direction in the afternoon. Also, the method explained are applicable
basically in the temperate zones. These zones extend from latitude 23.5
degrees in both hemispheres.

9.3 Units of Angular Measurement

1. Degree

The sexagesimal system is used in which the circumference of a circle is

divided into 360 parts or degrees. The angle of one degree is defined as
the angle which requires 1/360 of the rotation needed to obtain one
complete revolution. The basic unit is the degree, which is further
subdivided into 60 minutes, and the minute is subdivided into 60 seconds.
The ° ‘ and ‘’ are used to denote degrees, minutes, and seconds,
respectively. Thus an angle 26 degrees, 32 minutes, and 15 seconds may
be written as 26°32’15’’. If decimal parts of degrees is desired the above
value may be written as 26.5375 degrees. This system is used extensively in
surveying practice.

2. Grad

The grad is the unit of measure in the centesimal system. In this system the
circumference of a circle is divided into 400 parts called grads. The grad is
subdivided into 100 centesimal minutes, and a centesimal minute is further

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subdivided into 100 centesimal seconds. The symbols, g, c, and cc are used
to denote grads, centesimal minutes, and centesimal seconds,
respectively. It will be noted that 200 grads is equal to 180 degrees. This
system is a decimal one which is of some advantage when mathematical
calculations are required. It is a standard unit used in Europe. An angle may
be expressed as 235.2618g where the first pair of digits to the right of the
decimal point represents centigrads and the last pair of digits farther to the
right of the decimal point represents the decimilligrads. The preceding
value may also be written as 235g26c18cc.

3. Mil

The circumference is divided into 6400 parts called mils, or 1600 mils is equal
to 90 degrees. The mil will subtend very nearly one linear unit in a distance
of 1000 such units. It is commonly used in military operations as in fire
direction of artillery units.

4. Radian

The radian is another measure of angles used frequently for a host of

calculations. One radian is defined as the angle subtended at the center

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of a circle by an arc length exactly equal to the radius of the circle. One
radian is equals 180/π or approximately 57.2958 degrees and, one-degree
equal π/180 or approximately 0.0174533 radians. The radian is sometimes
referred to as the natural unit of angle because there is no arbitrary number
in its definition. It is used in computations such as determining the length of
circular arcs and where high speed electronic digital computers are used.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

E9-1 CONVERSION OF AN ANGLE TO DECIMAL DEGREES. Convert the angle

238°25’50’’ into its equivalent decimal degrees.

Solution:

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 238°25′ 50′′

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐷𝑒𝑔 = 238°, 𝑀𝑖𝑛 = 25′ , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 50′′
𝑀𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑒𝑐
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐷𝑒𝑔 + +
60 3600
25′ 50′′
238° + + = 238° + 0.4167° + 0.0139° = 𝟐𝟑𝟖. 𝟒𝟑𝟎𝟔°
60 3600

E9-2 CONVERSION FROM DEGREES TO GRADS, MILS, AND RADIANS. Convert 270°
into its equivalent value in grads, mils, and radians.

Solution:

400 𝑔
𝑎) 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 = 270° ( ) = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒈
360°
6400 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠
𝑏) 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑖𝑙𝑠 = 270° ( ) = 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒔
360°
2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑐) 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 270° ( ) = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟏𝟐𝟒 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔
360°

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E9-3 CONVERSION FROM MILS TO GRADS, DEGREES, AND RADIANS. Convert 1600
mils into its equivalent value in grads, degrees, and radians.

Solutions:

360° 400𝑔
𝑎) 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 = 1600 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠 ( )( ) = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒈
6400 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠 360°
360°
𝑏) 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 = 1600 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠 ( ) = 𝟗𝟎°
6400 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠
360° 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑐) 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 1600 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠 ( )( ) = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕𝟎𝟖 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔
6400 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠 360°

9.4 Designation of North Points

1. True North

Is the north point of the true meridian. In maps and sketches, it is portrayed
in the direction of the actual location of the earth’s north geographic pole
and is always shown along a vertical line. It is symbolized by a star, an
asterisk, or the letters TN.

2. Magnetic North

A north point that is established by means of a magnetized compass

needle when there are no local attractions affecting it. Any point on the
earth’s surface its direction is indicated by the direction of the magnetic
lines of force passing through the point at a particular time. Magnetic north
may be located either east or west of true north. The point is usually
symbolized by a half arrowhead or the letters MN.

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3. Grid North

A north point which is established by lines on a map which are parallel to a

selected central meridian. It may coincide with lines directed toward true
north. Grid north may be symbolized by a full arrowhead or the letters GN
or Y.

4. Assumed North

Is used to portray the location of any arbitrarily chosen north point. It may
be symbolized by a small blackened circle or the letters AN.

Modular Questions

M9-1 CONVERSION OF AN ANGLE TO DEGREES, MINUTES, AND SECONDS. Convert

to degrees, minutes, and seconds the decimal angle 325.7541667 degrees.

M9-2 CONVERSION FROM GRADS TO DEGREES, MILS, AND RADIANS. The value of
an observed interior angle (A) in a closed traverse is 350 grads. Convert that
angle into its equivalent value in degrees, mils, and radians.

M9-3 CONVERSION FROM RADIANS TO DEGREES, GRADS. AND RADIANS. If the

value of an angle of elevation (ϴ) is computed to be π/4 radians,
determine the equivalent value in degrees, grads, and mils.

M9-4 Differentiate the four types of meridian.

References
La Putt, J.P. (1987). Elementary Surveying (3rd ed.). Baguio City, Philippines:
Baguio Research & Publishing Center

Disclaimer
This module may contain copyrighted material, the use of which may not
have been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. However, this
module was created and made to serve as a tool for educational purposes
only and will be distributed without any profit.

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