2 Groundwater Properties

2.1  INTRODUCTION
Water in nature is in solid, liquid, and vapor form. It also exists in different places
like atmosphere (atmospheric water), surface of the ground (surface water), and
subsurface of the ground (groundwater and unsaturated zone water). The source of
surface and subsurface water is snow and rain precipitation. A portion of the pre-
cipitation flows on the land (surface runoff), a portion of that goes back to the atmo-
sphere because of evapotranspiration from surface water and the surface of plants,
and the remaining portion infiltrates into the land (subsurface flow). The movement
process of water in nature is called the hydrologic cycle. A schematic of the hydro-
logic cycle is shown in Figure 2.1.
Groundwater constitutes only about 0.62% of the entire amount of water in the
globe (Table 2.1). Although it is a small portion of the world’s total water resources,
it is considered as an important resource to supply water demands due to the popula-
tion increase and in consequence increasing needs for water supply.
In this chapter, the fundamental aspects of subsurface water are explained. It
should be noted that all of the subsurface water is not considered as groundwater.
Groundwater is a part of the subsurface water that totally saturates the soil pores
and flows with a pressure more than atmospheric pressure. The difference between
pressure in groundwater and atmospheric pressure is called gage pressure. At the
groundwater table, the gage pressure is zero. Depending on the location, the depth
of the groundwater varies. The zone between the land surface and the surface of
groundwater is called unsaturated or vadose water. The water is under the influ-
ence of capillary and adhesion forces (surface tension) between soil and water
molecules. Figure 2.2 shows the classification of the subsurface water which are
explained with some details in this chapter. As it is shown, hydraulic head at point A
in the saturated zone is equal to the pressure head ψ and elevation head z.

2.2  VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SUBSURFACE

Subsurface water flows below the ground surface. The water behavior in these areas
and the characteristics of these zones are as follows:

1. Soil-water zone: The main characteristics of this zone are

a. Water content is usually less than saturation.
b. It might be saturated during rainfall or irrigation.
c. Thickness depends upon the type of soil and vegetation.

27
28 Groundwater Hydrology: Engineering, Planning, and Management

Cloud

Precipitation
over lands
Melting of ice
and snow Cloud
Perched water table
Clay layer
Spring
Surface Precipitation
runoff over oceans
Infiltration

Evapotranspiration
Unsaturated zone Infiltration
Evapotranspiration ion
rat s
apo ver
Ev m ri
Evaporation fro Surface
Groundwater level Evaporation
runoff
Lake

Recharging from Ocean

Agricultural
adsorption wells
drains
Interaction of fresh Saline water
Saturated zone and saline water

FIGURE 2.1  Schematic representation of the hydrologic cycle.

TABLE 2.1
Water Resources in the World
Water Resources Volume (1,000 km3) Percentage
Atmospheric water 13 0.001
Surface water
Oceans saline water 1,320,000 97.2
Seas saline water 104 0.008
Lakes fresh water 125 0.009
Rivers fresh water 1.25 0.0001
Biosphere fresh water 29,000 2.15
Glacial water 50 0.004
Groundwater
Water in Vadose zone 67 0.005
Groundwater in the depth 4,200 0.31
less than 0.8 km
Groundwater in the depth 4,200 0.31
more than 0.8 km
Total 1,360,000 100
Groundwater Properties 29

Ground surface
Soil-water
zone

Zone of aeration

Vadose water
Intermediate
vadose
zone

Capillary
zone Water table
Gage pressure = 0 P = Atmospheric
pressure
Zone of saturation

Ground water
A hA = ψ + z

z=0
Impermeable rock

FIGURE 2.2  Classification of subsurface waters in a hypothetical section.

d. It consists of hydroscopic water, which sticks to soil and is unavailable

to plants; capillary water, which is held by surface tension and is avail-
able to plants; gravitational water (excess and drain through soil).
e. Field capacity is the water held after gravity water drains away. In other
words, field capacity is the water content of the soil when a thoroughly
wetted soil has drained for approximately 2 days.
f. Water in root zone (after gravity water drains) varies between field
capacity and “wilting point.” Wilting point is the near dry condition,
which, if prolonged, causes plants to wilt beyond recovery. It is also
defined as the water content of soil when plants, growing in the soil,
wilt and do not recover.
g. The amount of water held in the soil between field capacity and wilting
point is considered to be the water available for plant extraction.
2. Intermediate zone: Water must move through this zone to reach groundwater.
In this zone, excess water moves downward due to gravity force. But part of
intermediate zone has pellicular water, which is nonmoving water and consists
of hydroscopic and capillary water.
3. Capillary zone: The capillary zone (or capillary fringe) extends from the
water table up to the limit of capillary rise of water. The water table is
defined as the depth at which the water pressure equals atmospheric pres-
sure. If a pore space could be idealized to represent a capillary tube, the
30 Groundwater Hydrology: Engineering, Planning, and Management

hcap D = 2r

Water table

FIGURE 2.3  A schematic of capillary rise.

capillary rise hcap (Figure 2.3) can be derived from an equilibrium between
surface tension of water and the weight of water raised:

2τ
hcap = cos λ (2.1)
rγ

where
τ is the surface tension (kg/s2)
γ is the specific weight of water (N/m3)
r is the tube radius (m)
λ is the angle of contact between the meniscus and the wall of the tube

For pure water in clean glass, λ = 0, and τ = 0.074 kg/s2 at 20°C, so that the
capillary rise approximates

0.15
hcap = (2.2)
r

hcap is less than 2.5 cm for gravel, about 200 cm for silt and several meters
for clay.
4. Saturated zone: It is the source of water supply. In the zone of saturation,
groundwater fills all of the pores; therefore, the (effective) porosity shows
a direct measure of the water contained per unit volume. Available water
depends upon various factors such as porosity, specific yield, specific
retention.
All of these layers are shown in Figure 2.2.
Groundwater Properties 31

2.3  AQUIFERS, AQUITARDS, AND AQUICLUDES

Dingman (1994) defined an aquifer as “a geologic unit that can store enough water
and transmit it at a rate fast enough to be hydrologically significant.” If significant
quantities of water cannot be transmitted under ordinary hydraulic gradients in a
saturated geologic formation, this formation is called an aquiclude. In general, it can
be claimed that an aquifer is permeable enough to be economically exploited, while
it is not economic to withdraw water from aquicludes.
Less-permeable geologic formations are termed as aquitards. Significant quanti-
ties of water might be transmitted through these media; however, their permeability
is not sufficient to exploit water through wells within them. Very few geological
formations have the characteristics of an aquiclude and most of the geologic strata
are considered as either aquifers or aquitards.
Unconsolidated sand and gravel, permeable sedimentary rocks such as sandstone
and limestone, and heavily fractured volcanic and crystalline rocks are most com-
mon aquifers. The most common aquitards are clay, shale, and dense crystalline
rocks (Todd, 1980).
However, it is hard to specify whether a formation with given constituents is
aquifer or aquitard. In other word, there is vagueness in the definition of aquifers and
aquitards. For instance, in an interlayered sand–silt formation, the silt layer may
be considered an aquitard; while if the formation is a silt–clay system, the silt may be
considered aquifer. In general, aquifer has different meanings to different people and
it might even have various meanings to the same person at different times.

2.4  TYPES OF AQUIFERS

Most aquifers are underground storage reservoirs made up of water-bearing per-
meable rock or unconsolidated materials. Water penetrates downward through the
pores by gravitational forces until it reaches the saturated area. The water level,
which is termed water table, is not always at the same depth below the land surface.
Depending on the presence or absence of a water table, aquifers are classified as
unconfined or confined while a leaky aquifer is considered as a semi-confined aquifer,
which has the characteristics of both types of the aquifers.

2.4.1  Unconfined Aquifer

In an unconfined aquifer the top of the aquifer is defined by the water table which
varies in fluctuation form and in slope. The water table fluctuation depends on
changes in volume of water storage prepared by areas of recharge and discharge,
pump from wells, and permeability. In Figure 2.4, the upper aquifer represents an
unconfined aquifer. Using the water elevations in wells, the contour maps and pro-
files of the water table are prepared. Typically, the shallowest aquifer at a given loca-
tion does not have a confining layer between it and the surface, and it is considered
as an unconfined aquifer.
The perched water body is the groundwater accumulating above an impermeable
stratum such as a clay layer. This term is a special case of an unconfined aquifer,
32 Groundwater Hydrology: Engineering, Planning, and Management

Recharge Monitoring well

Piezometric Ground
Monitoring well Artesian well surface surface
Water table

Water table

Unconfined aquifer
Confining stratum
Impermeable
strata
Confined aquifer

FIGURE 2.4  Schematic cross section illustrating unconfined and confined aquifers.

which refers to a small local area with an elevation higher than a regionally extensive
aquifer. Clay lenses in sedimentary deposits often have shallow perched water bod-
ies overlying them.

2.4.2  Confined Aquifers

Confined aquifers are restricted on the top by impermeable material. Water in a
confined aquifer is normally under pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. This
pressure in a well can cause the water level to rise above the ground surface, which
is designated a flowing artesian well as shown in Figure 2.4. An area where water
flows into the Earth to resupply a water body or an aquifer is known as a recharge
area. Water fluctuations in wells discharging water from confined aquifers lead to
variations in pressure rather than in storage volumes. Therefore, small change in
storage volume will occur in confined aquifers and carry water from recharge areas
to locations of natural or artificial discharge.
Figure 2.4 shows the potentiometric surfaces, which are known as isopotential
level and piezometric surface. This surface represents the static head of groundwater
and is defined by the level to which water will rise. In general, the piezometric sur-
face at a point in a well, penetrating a confined aquifer, is shown by the water level
at that point in the well. If the potential level of piezometric surface is higher than
the land surface, it results in overflow of the well. When the piezometric surface is
lower than the bottom of the upper confining bed, a confined aquifer becomes an
unconfined aquifer.

2.4.3  Aquitard (Leaky) Aquifer

Aquitards are zones within the earth that limit the groundwater flow from one aqui-
fer to another. They are beds of low permeability along an aquifer. In general, the
existence of leaky or semi-confined aquifers is more expected than confined or
unconfined aquifers. This is because it is hard to find an aquifer that is completely
confined or unconfined. Such characteristics are common in alluvial valleys, plains,
or former lake basins.
Groundwater Properties 33

2.5  GROUNDWATER BALANCE

For a particular area, the groundwater balance study is accomplished for the follow-
ing purposes:

• To check if all flow components in the system are quantitatively accounted

for and what components have the greatest bearing
• To calculate one unknown component of the groundwater balance equa-
tion, if the values of all other components are known with an acceptable
accuracy
• To model the hydrological processes in the study area

To be able to estimate groundwater balance of a region, all individual inflows to or

outflows from a groundwater system as well as changes in groundwater storage over
a given time period must be quantified. The general form of water balance over a
period of time is

Input to the system − outflow from the system = Change in storage of the system
 (2.3)

To compute the groundwater balance of a system, the significant components are

identified first. After that, the quantifying individual components are evaluated. Now
these quantified components can be presented in the form of water balance equation.
Considering the various inflow and outflow components in a given study area, the
groundwater balance equation can be written as

ΔS = Rr + Rs + Ri + Rt + Si + I g − Et + Tp − B f − Og (2.4)

where
ΔS is the change in groundwater storage
Rr is the recharge from rainfall
Rs is the recharge from canal seepage
Ri is the recharge from field irrigation
Rt is the recharge from tanks
Si is the influent seepage from rivers
Ig is the inflow from other basins
Et is the evapotranspiration from groundwater
Tp is the draft from groundwater
Bf is the baseflow, the part of the groundwater inflows to rivers
Og is the outflow to other basins

The following data are required to accomplish a groundwater balance study in an

area over a given time period:

• Rainfall data
• Land use data and cropping patterns