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Earth and Life

Science
Finals - Module 1-4

Prepared by: Ms. Deborah A. Dumape

Teacher

Property of Butuan City Colleges | bcc1950.edu.ph | (085) 300-1337 | 09125315725

 Finals - Module 1-2
How Animals Survive

Nutrition: What Plants and Animals Need to Survive

Learning Objectives
1. Distinguish essential, beneficial, macro- and micro-nutrient requirements for plants
and animals
2. Predict the symptoms of nutrient deficiencies in plants and animals
3. Describe the diversity of adaptations for acquisition of nutrients in plants and animals

Living Cells Need Materials to Grow: NUTRIENTS

Macronutrients

Cells are essentially a well-organized assemblage of macromolecules and water. Recall

that macromolecules are produced by the polymerization of smaller units called
monomers. For cells to build all of the molecules required to sustain life, they need
certain substances, collectively called nutrients. When prokaryotes grow, they obtain
their nutrients from the environment. Nutrients that are required in large amounts are
called macronutrients, whereas those required in smaller or trace amounts are called
micronutrients. Just a handful of elements are considered macronutrients carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. (A mnemonic for remembering
these elements is the acronym CHONPS.)
Why are these macronutrients needed in large amounts? They are the components of
organic compounds in cells, including water. Carbon is the major element in all
macromolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and many other
compounds. Carbon accounts for about 50 percent of the composition of the cell.
Nitrogen represents 12 percent of the total dry weight of a typical cell and is a
component of proteins, nucleic acids, and other cell constituents. Most of the nitrogen
available in nature is either atmospheric nitrogen (N2) or another inorganic form.
Diatomic (N2) nitrogen, however, can be converted into an organic form only by certain
organisms, called nitrogen-fixing organisms. Both hydrogen and oxygen are part of
many organic compounds and of water. Phosphorus is required by all organisms for the
synthesis of nucleotides and phospholipids. Sulfur is part of the structure of some amino
acids such as cysteine and methionine, and is also present in several vitamins and
coenzymes. Other important macronutrients are potassium (K), magnesium (Mg),
calcium (Ca), and sodium (Na). Although these elements are required in smaller
amounts, they are very important for the structure and function of the prokaryotic cell.

Micronutrients

In addition to these macronutrients, prokaryotes require various metallic elements in

small amounts. These are referred to as micronutrients or trace elements. For example,
iron is necessary for the function of the cytochromes involved in electron-transport
reactions. Some prokaryotes require other elements—such as boron (B), chromium
(Cr), and manganese (Mn)—primarily as enzyme cofactors.
Nutritional Needs and Adaptations in Plants
Essential Nutrients
Plants require only light, water and about 20 elements to support all their biochemical
needs: these 20 elements are called essential nutrients. For an element to be regarded
as essential, three criteria are required: 1) a plant cannot complete its life cycle without
the element; 2) no other element can perform the function of the element; and 3) the
element is directly involved in plant nutrition.
Macronutrients and Micronutrients

The essential elements can be divided into two groups: macronutrients and
micronutrients. Nutrients that plants require in larger amounts are called macronutrients.
About half of the essential elements are considered macronutrients: carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulfur. The first of
these macronutrients, carbon (C), is required to form carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic
acids, and many other compounds; it is therefore present in all macromolecules. On
average, the dry weight (excluding water) of a cell is 50 percent carbon. As shown
below, carbon is a key part of plant biomolecules.

Cellulose, the main structural component of the plant cell wall, makes up over thirty
percent of plant matter. It is the most abundant organic compound on earth. Plants are
able to make their own cellulose, but need carbon from the air to do so.
The next most abundant element in plant cells is nitrogen (N); it is part of proteins and
nucleic acids. Nitrogen is also used in the synthesis of some vitamins. While there is
an overwhelming amount of nitrogen in the air (79% of the atmosphere is nitrogen gas),
the nitrogen in the air is not biologically available due to the triple bond between the
nitrogen atoms. Only a few species of bacteria are capable of “fixing” nitrogen to make it
bioavailable; thus nitrogen is often a limiting factor for plant growth.
Phosphorus (P), another macromolecule, is necessary to synthesize nucleic acids and
phospholipids. As part of ATP, phosphorus enables food energy to be converted into
chemical energy through oxidative phosphorylation. Likewise, light energy is converted
into chemical energy during photophosphorylation in photosynthesis, and into chemical
energy to be extracted during respiration. Phosphorous is typically available in a form
that is not readily taken up by plant roots; the form that is bioavailable is present in small
quantities and rapidly “fixed” into the bioavailable form once again. Phosphorus is
therefore often a limiting factor for plant growth.
Potassium (K) is important because of its role in regulating stomatal opening and
closing. As the openings for gas exchange, stomata help maintain a healthy water
balance; a potassium ion pump supports this process. Potassium may be present at low
concentrations in some types of soil, and it is the third most common limiting factor for
plant growth.
Other essential macronutrients: Hydrogen and oxygen are macronutrients that are part
of many organic compounds, and also form water. Oxygen is necessary for cellular
respiration; plants use oxygen to store energy in the form of ATP. Sulfur is part of
certain amino acids, such as cysteine and methionine, and is present in several
coenzymes. Sulfur also plays a role in photosynthesis as part of the electron transport
chain, where hydrogen gradients play a key role in the conversion of light energy into
ATP.
Magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) are also important macronutrients. The role of
calcium is twofold: to regulate nutrient transport, and to support many enzyme functions.
Magnesium is important to the photosynthetic process. These minerals, along with the
micronutrients, which are described below, also contribute to the plant’s ionic
balance.
In addition to macronutrients, organisms require various elements in small amounts.
These micronutrients, or trace elements, are present in very small quantities. They
include boron (B), chlorine (Cl), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu),
molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), silicon (Si), and sodium (Na).
Deficiencies in any of these nutrients, particularly the macronutrients, can adversely
affect plant growth. Depending on the specific nutrient, a lack can cause stunted growth,
slow growth, or chlorosis (yellowing of the leaves). Extreme deficiencies may result in
leaves showing signs of cell death.

Photo (a) shows a tomato plant with two green tomato fruits. The fruits have turned dark
brown on the bottom. Photo (b) shows a plant with green leaves; some of the leaves
have turned yellow. Photo (c) shows a five-lobed leaf that is yellow with greenish veins.
Photo (d) shows green palm leaves with yellow tips. Nutrient deficiency is evident in the
symptoms these plants show. This (a) grape tomato suffers from blossom end rot
caused by calcium deficiency. The yellowing in this (b) Frangula alnus results from
magnesium deficiency. Inadequate magnesium also leads to (c) intervenal chlorosis,
seen here in a sweetgum leaf. This (d) palm is affected by potassium deficiency. (credit
c: modification of work by Jim Conrad; credit d: modification of work by Malcolm
Manners)

Plants obtain inorganic elements from the soil, which serves as a natural medium for
land plants. Soil is the outer loose layer that covers the surface of Earth. Soil quality is a
major determinant, along with climate, of plant distribution and growth. Soil quality
depends not only on the chemical composition of the soil, but also the topography
(regional surface features) and the presence of living organisms. In agriculture, the
history of the soil, such as the cultivating practices and previous crops, modify the
characteristics and fertility of that soil.

Plants obtain food in two different ways. Autotrophic plants can make their own food
from inorganic raw materials, such as carbon dioxide and water, through photosynthesis
in the presence of sunlight. Green plants are included in this group. Some plants,
however, are heterotrophic: they are totally parasitic and lacking in chlorophyll. These
plants, referred to as holo-parasitic plants, are unable to synthesize organic carbon and
draw all of their nutrients from the host plant.

Plants may also benefit from microbial partners in nutrient acquisition. Particular species
of bacteria and fungi have co-evolved along with certain plants to create a mutualistic
symbiotic relationship with roots. This improves the nutrition of both the plant and the
microbe. The formation of nodules in legume plants and mycorrhization can be
considered among the nutritional adaptations of plants. However, these are not the only
type of adaptations that we may find; many plants have other adaptations that allow
them to thrive under specific conditions.

Nutrients from Other Sources

Some plants cannot produce their own food and must obtain their nutrition from outside
sources. This may occur with plants that are parasitic or saprophytic. Some plants are
mutualistic symbionts, epiphytes, or insectivorous.

Parasitic Plants
A parasitic plant depends on its host for survival. Some parasitic plants have no leaves.
An example of this is the dodder, which has a weak, cylindrical stem that coils around
the host and forms suckers. From these suckers, cells invade the host stem and grow to
connect with the vascular bundles of the host. The parasitic plant obtains water and
nutrients through these connections. The plant is a total parasite (a holoparasite)
because it is completely dependent on its host. Other parasitic plants (hemiparasites)
are fully photosynthetic and only use the host for water and minerals. There are about
4,100 species of parasitic plants.

Saprophytes
A saprophyte is a plant that does not have chlorophyll and gets its food from dead
matter, similar to bacteria and fungi (note that fungi are often called saprophytes, which
is incorrect, because fungi are not plants). Plants like these use enzymes to convert
organic food materials into simpler forms from which they can absorb nutrients. Most
saprophytes do not directly digest dead matter: instead, they parasitize fungi that digest
dead matter, or are mycorrhizal, ultimately obtaining photosynthate from a fungus that
derived photosynthate from its host. Saprophytic plants are uncommon; only a few
species are described.
Symbionts
A symbiont is a plant in a symbiotic relationship, with special adaptations such as
mycorrhizae or nodule formation. Fungi also form symbiotic associations with
cyanobacteria and green algae (called lichens). Lichens can sometimes be seen
as colorful growths on the surface of rocks and trees. The algal partner
(phycobiont) makes food autotrophically, some of which it shares with the fungus;
the fungal partner (mycobiont) absorbs water and minerals from the environment,
which are made available to the green alga. If one partner was separated from
the other, they would both die.

Epiphytes

An epiphyte is a plant that grows on other plants, but is not dependent upon the
other plant for nutrition. Epiphytes have two types of roots: clinging aerial roots,
which absorb nutrients from humus that accumulates in the crevices of trees; and
aerial roots, which absorb moisture from the atmosphere.

Insectivorous Plants

An insectivorous plant has specialized leaves to attract and digest insects. The
Venus flytrap is popularly known for its insectivorous mode of nutrition, and has
leaves that work as traps. The minerals it obtains from prey compensate for
those lacking in the boggy (low pH) soil of its native North Carolina coastal
plains. There are three sensitive hairs in the center of each half of each leaf. The
edges of each leaf are covered with long spines. Nectar secreted by the plant
attracts flies to the leaf. When a fly touches the sensory hairs, the leaf
immediately closes. Next, fluids and enzymes break down the prey and minerals
are absorbed by the leaf. Since this plant is popular in the horticultural trade, it is
threatened in its original habitat.

Nutritional Needs and Adaptations in Animals

Most animals obtain their nutrients by the consumption of other organisms. At the
cellular level, the biological molecules necessary for animal function are amino acids,
lipid molecules, nucleotides, and simple sugars. However, the food consumed consists
of protein, fat, and complex carbohydrates. Animals must convert these
macromolecules into the simple molecules required for maintaining cellular functions,
such as assembling new molecules, cells, and tissues. The conversion of the food
consumed to the nutrients required is a multi-step process involving digestion and
absorption. During digestion, food particles are broken down to smaller components,
and later, they are absorbed by the body.

Animals obtain their nutrition from the consumption of other organisms. Depending on
their diet, animals can be classified into the following categories: plant eaters
(herbivores), meat eaters (carnivores), and those that eat both plants and animals
(omnivores). The nutrients and macromolecules present in food are not immediately
accessible to the cells. There are a number of processes that modify food within the
animal body in order to make the nutrients and organic molecules accessible for cellular
function. As animals evolved in complexity of form and function, their digestive systems
have also evolved to accommodate their various dietary needs.

Herbivores, Omnivores, and Carnivores

Herbivores are animals whose primary food source is plant-based. Examples of

herbivores, as shown below, include vertebrates like deer, koalas, and some bird
species, as well as invertebrates such as crickets and caterpillars. These animals have
evolved digestive systems capable of handling large amounts of plant material.
Herbivores can be further classified into frugivores (fruit-eaters), granivores (seed
eaters), nectivores (nectar feeders), and folivores (leaf eaters).

Carnivores are animals that eat other animals. The word carnivore is derived from Latin
and literally means “meat eater.” Wild cats such as lions and tigers are examples of
vertebrate carnivores, as are snakes and sharks, while invertebrate carnivores include
sea stars, spiders, and ladybugs. Obligate carnivores are those that rely entirely on
animal flesh to obtain their nutrients; examples of obligate carnivores are members of
the cat family, such as lions and cheetahs. Facultative carnivores are those that also eat
non-animal food in addition to animal food. Note that there is no clear line that
differentiates facultative carnivores from omnivores; dogs would be considered
facultative carnivores.
Omnivores are animals that eat both plant- and animal-derived food. In Latin, omnivore
means to eat everything. Humans, bears and chickens are example of vertebrate
omnivores; invertebrate omnivores include cockroaches and crayfish.

Animal Nutritional Requirements (Human Focus)

Organic Precursors

The organic molecules required for building cellular material and tissues must
come from food. Carbohydrates or sugars are the primary source of organic
carbons in the animal body. During digestion, digestible carbohydrates are
ultimately broken down into glucose and used to provide energy through
metabolic pathways. Complex carbohydrates, including polysaccharides, can be
broken down into glucose through biochemical modification; however, humans
do not produce the enzyme cellulase and lack the ability to derive glucose from
the polysaccharide cellulose. In humans, these molecules provide the fiber
required for moving waste through the large intestine and a healthy colon. The
intestinal flora in the human gut are able to extract some nutrition from these
plant fibers. The excess sugars in the body are converted into glycogen and
stored in the liver and muscles for later use. Glycogen stores are used to fuel
prolonged exertions, such as long-distance running, and to provide energy during
food shortage. Excess glycogen can be converted to fats, which are stored in the
lower layer of the skin of mammals for insulation and energy storage. Excess
digestible carbohydrates are stored by mammals in order to survive famine and
aid in mobility.

Another important requirement is that of nitrogen. Protein catabolism provides a

source of organic nitrogen. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins and
protein breakdown provides amino acids that are used for cellular function. The
carbon and nitrogen derived from these become the building block for
nucleotides, nucleic acids, proteins, cells, and tissues. Excess nitrogen must be
excreted as it is toxic. Fats add flavor to food and promote a sense of satiety or
fullness. Fatty foods are also significant sources of energy because one gram of
fat contains nine calories. Fats are required in the diet to aid the absorption of fat-
soluble vitamins and the production of fat-soluble hormones.

Essential Nutrients

While the animal body can synthesize many of the molecules required for
function from the organic precursors, there are some nutrients that need to be
consumed from food. These nutrients are termed essential nutrients, meaning
they must be eaten, and the body cannot produce them.
The omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid and the omega-6 linoleic acid are essential
fatty acids needed to make some membrane phospholipids. Vitamins are another
class of essential organic molecules that are required in small quantities for many
enzymes to function and, for this reason, are considered to be co-enzymes.
Absence or low levels of vitamins can have a dramatic effect on health, as
outlined in the tables below. Both fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins must be
obtained from food. Minerals are inorganic essential nutrients that must be
obtained from food. Among their many functions, minerals help in structure and
regulation and are considered co-factors. Certain amino acids also must be
procured from food and cannot be synthesized by the body. These amino acids
are the essential amino acids. The human body can synthesize only 11 of the 20
required amino acids; the rest must be obtained from food in the form of protein.
When eaten, proteins are broken down into their amino acid building blocks and
are then used almost immediately to synthesize new proteins needed by the
body. The essential amino acids are listed below (note, you are not required to
memorize vitamins and minerals included in these tables).

Mechanisms for Gas Exchange

All living things obtain the energy they need by metabolizing energy-rich compounds,
such as carbohydrates and fats. In the majority of organisms, this metabolism takes
place by respiration, a process that requires oxygen (see Chapter 6). In the process,
carbon dioxide gas is produced and must be removed from the body.

In plant cells, carbon dioxide may appear to be a waste product of respiration, too, but
because it is used in photosynthesis (see Chapter 5), carbon dioxide may be
considered a by-product. Carbon dioxide must be available to plant cells, and oxygen
gas must be removed. Gas exchange is thus an essential process in energy
metabolism, and gas exchange is an essential prerequisite to life, because where
energy is lacking, life cannot continue.

The basic mechanism of gas exchange is diffusion across a moist membrane. Diffusion
is the movement of molecules from a region of greater concentration to a region of
lesser concentration, in the direction following the concentration gradient. In living
systems, the molecules move across cell membranes, which are continuously
moistened by fluid.

Simple organisms
Single-celled organisms, such as bacteria and protozoa, are in constant contact with
their external environment. Gas exchange occurs by diffusion across their membranes.
Even in simple multicellular organisms, such as green algae, their cells may be close to
the environment, and gas exchange can occur easily.

In larger organisms, adaptations bring the environment closer to the cells. Liverworts,
for instance, have numerous air chambers in the internal environment. Sponges and
hydras have water-filled central cavities, and planaria have branches of their
gastrovascular cavity that connect with all parts of the body.
Plants
Although plants are complex organisms, they exchange their gases with the
environment in a rather straightforward way. In aquatic plants, water passes among the
tissues and provides the medium for gas exchange. In terrestrial plants, air enters the
tissues, and the gases diffuse into the moisture bathing the internal cells.

In the leaf of the plant, an abundant supply of carbon dioxide must be present, and
oxygen from photosynthesis must be removed. Gases do not pass through the cuticle of
the leaf; they pass through pores called stomata in the cuticle and epidermis. Stomata
are abundant on the lower surface of the leaf, and they normally open during the day
when the rate of photosynthesis is highest. Physiological changes in the surrounding
guard cells account for the opening and closing of the stomata (see Chapter 20).

Animals
In animals, gas exchange follows the same general pattern as in plants. Oxygen and
carbon dioxide move by diffusion across moist membranes. In simple animals, the
exchange occurs directly with the environment. But with complex animals, such as
mammals, the exchange occurs between the environment and the blood. The blood
then carries oxygen to deeply embedded cells and transports carbon dioxide out to
where it can be removed from the body.

Earthworms exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide directly through their skin. The
oxygen diffuses into tiny blood vessels in the skin surface, where it combines with the
red pigment hemoglobin. Hemoglobin binds loosely to oxygen and carries it through the
animal’s bloodstream. Carbon dioxide is transported back to the skin by the
hemoglobin.

Terrestrial arthropods have a series of openings called spiracles at the body surface.
Spiracles open into tiny air tubes called tracheae, which expand into fine branches that
extend into all parts of the arthropod body.

Fishes use outward extensions of their body surface called gills for gas exchange. Gills
are flaps of tissue richly supplied with blood vessels. As a fish swims, it draws water into
its mouth and across the gills. Oxygen diffuses out of the water into the blood vessels of
the gill, while carbon dioxide leaves the blood vessels and enters the water passing by
the gills.

Terrestrial vertebrates such as amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals have well-
developed respiratory systems with lungs. Frogs swallow air into their lungs, where
oxygen diffuses into the blood to join with hemoglobin in the red blood cells. Amphibians
can also exchange gases through their skin. Reptiles have folded lungs to provide
increased surface area for gas exchange. Rib muscles assist lung expansion and
protect the lungs from injury.

Birds have large air spaces called air sacs in their lungs. When a bird inhales, its rib
cage spreads apart and a partial vacuum is created in the lungs. Air rushes into the
lungs and then into the air sacs, where most of the gas exchange occurs. This system is
birds’ adaptation to the rigors of flight and their extensive metabolic demands.

The lungs of mammals are divided into millions of microscopic air sacs called alveoli
(the singular is alveolus). Each alveolus is surrounded by a rich network of blood
vessels for transporting gases. In addition, mammals have a dome-shaped diaphragm
that separates the thorax from the abdomen, providing a separate chest cavity for
breathing and pumping blood. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and flattens to
create a partial vacuum in the lungs. The lungs fill with air, and gas exchange follows.
Reminders: During submission only activity paper will be submitted. The rest of the module will
be yours to keep so that during examination you can review. Don’t forget to write your name,
subject Teacher and date neatly. Follow the instructions! 😊

Semi-Finals Activity 1-2 Earth and Science

Name:_______________________________________________ Grade 11

Subject Teacher:_________________________________ Date:______________

Direction: Arrange 5 things that you must do before, during, and after
earthquake according to your level of importance. Justify your
arrangement.
High or Most BEFORE DURING AFTER
Important

1.

2.

3.

4.

Low or Least
Important
5.

Semi-Finals - Module 3-4

GEOLOGIC PROCESSES and HAZARDS
Hydrometeorological Hazards and Disasters
Hydrometeorological hazard is a process of atmospheric, hydrological or
oceanographic nature that may cause loss of life. Ex. tropical cyclones,
thunderstorms, tornados, storm surges, floods, and
drought. These are phenomenon of atmospheric,
hydrological or oceanographic nature that may cause loss
of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage,
loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic
disruption, or environmental damage.

EXAMPLES OF HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS

-Tropical Cyclones
-Thunderstomrs
-Hailstorms
-Tornadoes
-Blizzards
-Heavy snow fall
-Avalanches
-Coastal storm surges
-Flash floods
-Drought
-Heatwaves
-Cold Spells

EXAMPLES OF HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS IN THE PHILIPPINES

CYCLONE

A cyclone is an intense low-pressure system which is characterized by strong

spiral winds towards the center, called the “Eye” in a counter-clockwise fl ow in
the northern hemisphere.

Hazards due to tropical

cyclones are strong winds
with heavy rainfall that can
cause widespread flooding,
storm surges, landslides and
mudflows.

Tracking of tropical cyclones Tracking of the tropical cyclones in India is done with
the help of:
Conventional surface and upper air observations from inland and island stations,
coastal Automatic Weather Station (AWS), ships and buoy observations;
Cyclone detection radar including Doppler Weather Radar;
Satellite cloud pictures from the Geostationary Satellite (INSAT 3A & Kalpana1).

Tropical cyclone warnings The bulletins and warnings issued in connection with
tropical cyclones in India may be divided into the following broad categories:
Warning bulletins for shipping on the high seas.
Warning bulletins for ships plying in the coastal waters.
Port warnings.
 Fisheries warnings. (Fishermen & Fisheries Officials)
Four stage warnings for the State and Central Government officials.
Warnings for recipients who are registered with the department
(Designated/registered users).
Aviation.
Warnings for the general public through All India Radio, Doordarshan and the Press.
Warning for Indian Navy.
Bulletins for Print / Electronic media.

Safety Tips
Do’s and Don’ts Before and During
Listen to radio or TV weather reports and alert everyone through a loud speaker or by
going home to home.
Identify safe shelter in your area. These should be cyclone resistant and also find the
closest route to reach them.
Keep your emergency kit and basic food supply, medicines, torch and batteries etc.
ready.
Doors, windows, roof and walls should be strengthened before the cyclone season
through retrofitting and repairing. Store adequate food grains and water in safe places.
Conduct Mock Drills for your family and the community.
Do not venture into the sea. Stay Indoors under the strongest part of the house if not
moved to the cyclone shelter.
Remain indoors until advised that the cyclone has passed away.

After
Do not go out till officially advised that it is safe. If evacuated, wait till advised to go
back.
Use the recommended route to return to your home. Do not rush.
Be careful of broken powers lines, damaged roads and house, fallen trees etc

CLASSIFICATIONS OF CYCLONES

-Tropical Depression – maximum winds from 35 kph to 63 kph

-Tropical Storm – maximum winds from 64 kph to 118 kph

-Typhoons – maximum winds exceeding 118 kph

TYPHOON

A typhoon is can be identified by increased ocean swell, barometric pressure

drop, wind speed, and heavier rainfall. It is a low-pressure area rotating
counterclockwise and containing rising warm air that forms over warm water in
the Western Pacific Ocean. Typhoons can damage due to thunderstorms, violent
winds, floods, and large waves with storm surges.

Public Storm Warning Signals

1. Signal #1 – tropical cyclone will affect the locality. Winds of 35 up to 60 KPH (36 hours)
2. Signal #2 – moderate tropical cyclone. Winds up of more than 60 to 100 KPH (24 hours)
3. Signal #3 – strong tropical cyclone. Winds of more than 100 to 185 KPH (18 hours)
4. Signal #4 – very intense typhoon. Winds of more than 185 KPH (12 hours)

FLOODS/ FLASH FLOODS

Flash floods are inundation of land areas which are not normally covered by
water. Floods are hydrological phenomena and they are also caused by storm
surges, and tsunami. They are identified by continuous storms/ rain, distant
thunders, rapidly rising water, muddy water, and water that carries logs and other
debris.

Floods are among the most frequent and costly natural disasters. Conditions that
cause floods include heavy or steady rain for several hours or days that saturates
the ground. Flash floods occur suddenly due to rapidly rising water along a
stream or lowlying area. A flood is an excess of water (or mud) on land that's
normally dry and is a situation wherein the inundation is caused by high flow, or
overflow of water in an established watercourse, such as a river, stream, or
drainage ditch; or ponding of water at or near the point where the rain fell. This is
a duration type event. A flood can strike anywhere without warning, occurs when
a large volume of rain falls within a short time.

Types of Floods2

Flash Floods: Floods occurring within six hours, mainly due to heavy rainfall
associated with towering cumulus clouds, thunderstorms, tropical cyclones or
during passage of cold weather fronts, or by dam failure or other river
obstruction. This type of flood requires a rapid localized warning system. River
Floods: Floods caused by precipitation over a large catchment‟s area, melting of
snow or both. Built up slowly or on a regular basis, these floods may continue for
days or weeks. The major factors of these floods are moisture, vegetation cover,
depth of snow, size of the catchment‟s basin, etc.

Coastal Floods:- Floods associated with cyclonic activities like Hurricanes,

Tropical cyclones, etc. generating acatastrophic flood from rainwater which often
aggravate wind-induced storm and water surges along the coast.

Urban Flood: As land is converted from agricultural fields or woodlands to roads

and parking lots, it loses its ability to absorb rainfall. Urbanization decreases the
ability to absorb water 2 to 6 times over what would occur on natural terrain.
During periods of urban flooding, streets can become swift moving rivers, while
basements can become death traps as they fill with water.

Ice Jam: Floating ice can accumulate at a natural or human-made obstruction

and stop the flow of water thereby causing floods. Flooding too can occur when
there the snow melts at a very faster rate.

Glacial Lake Outbursts Flood (GLOF): Many of the big glaciers which have
melted rapidly and gave birth to the origin of a large number of glacier lakes. Due
to the faster rate of ice and snow melting, possibly caused by the global warming,
the accumulation of water in these lakes has been increasing rapidly and
resulting sudden discharge of large volumes of water and debris and causing
flooding in the downstream.

Characteristics of flood

Depth of water- Building foundations and vegetation will have different degrees of
tolerance to bring inundated water.

Duration – Damage to structures, infrastructure vegetation related to duration l of

time with water inundation.
Velocity – High velocities of flow create erosive forces, hydrodynamic pressure,
which destroy foundation supports and may occur on floodplains or in the main
river channel.

Frequency of occurrence – The frequency of occurrence measured over period

of time determines types of construction or agricultural activities on the
floodplain.

Seasonality – Flooding during a growing season destroy crops while cold

weather, floods seriously affect the community.

Causes of Floods

Inadequate capacity of the rivers to contain within their banks the high flows
brought down from the upper catchment areas following heavy rainfall, leads to
flooding. The tendency to occupy the flood plains has been a serious concern
over the years. Because of the varying rainfall distribution, many a time, areas
which are not traditionally prone to floods also experience severe inundation.
Areas with poor drainage facilities get flooded by accumulation of water from
heavy rainfall. Excess irrigation water applied to command areas and an increase
in ground water levels due to seepage from canals and irrigated fields also are
factors that accentuate the problem of water-logging. The problem is
exacerbated by factors such as silting of the riverbeds, reduction in the carrying
capacity of river channels, erosion of beds and banks leading to changes in river
courses, obstructions to flow due to landslides, synchronisation of floods in the
main and tributary rivers and retardation due to tidal effects.

The primary causes for Floods are:

Intense rainfall when the river is flowing full.

Excessive rainfall in river catchments or concentration of runoff from the

tributaries and river carrying flows in excess of their capacities.

Cyclone and very intense rainfall when the EL Nino effect is on a decline.

Synchronization of flood peaks in the main rivers or their tributaries.

Landslides leading to obstruction of flow and change in the river course.

Poor natural drainage system.

Backing water in tributaries at their confluence with the main river.

Tropical Cyclones (Typhoons) – intense low pressure system with a minimum

sustained wind velocity of 35 kph.

Flood Preparedness and Mitigation

Since ages, people have coped and learned to live with floods. They have
generally settled in areas away from flood and have adapted agricultural
practices which can sustain in flood waters. Traditional methods based on locally
available resources have been used to minimize the damages during flood. With
the increase in population, flood prone areas have been occupied and this is a
principal factor in the huge losses presently seen. The various mitigation
measures for flood can be categorized into structural and non-structural
measures.
Regulation and Enforcement Unplanned and unregulated developmental
activities in the flood plains of the rivers and encroachments into the waterways
have led to increase in flood losses as well as flood risk. The colossal loss of
lives and property due to the flooding of the towns and cities and the areas which
get flooded almost every alternate year is a recent phenomenon and effective
steps are required for regulating unplanned growth in the flood plains and
preventing encroachment in the waterways.

Structural Measures

Embankments This has been one of the major structural approaches in which the river
is restricted to its existing course and prevented from overflowing the banks. Usually
embankments are constructed with earth but at some places masonry and concrete
walls are also used. However what is important is to note here that embankments are
designed to provide a degree of protection against flood of a certain frequency and
intensity or a maximum recorded flood depending on the location and economic
justification. During recent times, divergent views have emerged concerning
effectiveness of embankment. While there are serious concerns over their usefulness
over a long time frame, there have also been arguments in favor such as providing only
road communication during flood seasons and shelter in low lying areas. Studies on
effectiveness of embankments conducted around the world, have pointed out some of
the problems such as poor congestion in protected areas, silting of rivers which not only
means rising river bed level and consequent decrease in carrying capacity but also
depriving neighboring agricultural land from fertile soil and ground water recharge.
There have also been concerns on the issue of embankment capacity to withstand
erosion.

Dams, Reservoirs and other Water Storage Mechanism

Dams, reservoirs and other water storages, both natural and man-made, are an
effective means for reducing the flood peaks in the rivers. The important role played by
them in flood moderation and comprehensive mechanism for the operation and
regulation of reservoirs, which takes into account the international, inter-state and inter-
regional aspects, have been dealt with in the fifth
chapter. As large dams and reservoirs have potential for huge damage guidelines for
ensuring safety thereof have also been detailed therein. Channel Improvements The
aim of Channel Improvements is to increase the area of flow or velocity of flow or both
to increase carrying capacity. Normally this measure involves high cost and there are
also problems of topographical constraints to execute such a measure.

De-silting and Dredging of Rivers

The de silting approach is still to be perfected in the sense that various committees and
expert groups appointed by Government of India are yet to recommend this measure as
an effective mitigation strategy. However, selective de silting and dredging of rivers at
outfalls/confluences or local reaches can be adopted.

Drainage Improvement This aims at construction of new channels or improving

capacity of existing channels to decongest and prevent flooding. However, what is
important is to ensure that such an approach do not cause congestion and flooding in
downstream areas.

Diversion of Flood Water This involves diverting all or part of flood water into natural
or artificial constructed channels which may be within or outside the flood plain. The
diverted water may or may not be returned to the river at a down stream. Usually
effective to prevent flooding around cities, the flood spill channel for Srinagar and the
supplementary drain in Delhi are examples of this approach.

Catchments Area Treatment The aim in this approach is to provide protection to

catchment areas through measures such as afforestation which minimize siltation of
reservoirs and silt load in the rivers. This can be a very useful approach to control flood
peaks and suddenness of run offs.
Sea Walls/Coastal Protection Works
The construction of Sea walls and other such work, try to prevent flooding from
Sea water. These are highly cost intensive apart from the fact that complexity of
sea behavior and other environmental aspects should also be considered.

Non-Structural Measures Flood Plain Zoning

Flood Plain Zoning

The basic idea here is to regulate land use in the flood plain in order to restrict
the damages. It aims at determining the location and extent of areas for
developmental activities so that damage is minimized. It lays down guidelines for
various types of development so that adequate mitigation is built for the worst
flood scenario. There can be different consideration for preparing flood plain
zoning for example, one can locate parks, playgrounds etc. for area which have a
up to 10 year frequency while prohibiting residential colonies, industries, etc. and
allowing residential and other public utilities with specific design guidelines in
areas which have a 25 year frequency.

Flood Forecasting and Warning

A nationwide flood forecasting and warning system is developed by Central

Water Commission (CWC) and this initiative has also been supplemented by
states who make special arrangements for strategically important locations in
their states. The forecasts can be of different types such as forecast for water
level (stage forecast), discharge (flow forecast) and area to be submerged
(inundation forecast). The forecast when carries definite risk information is called
warning. The flood forecasting services involve collection of hydrological data
(gauge, discharge), meteorological data such as rainfall.

Flood Safety Tips

Do’s and Dont’s Before and During
All your family members should know the safe routes to nearest shelter/raised pucca
house.
If your area is flood-prone, consider suitable flood resistant building materials.
Tune to your local radio/TV for warnings and advice. Have an emergency kit ready.
Keep dry food, drinking water and clothes ready. Drink preferably boiled water. Keep
your food covered, don't take heavy meals.
Do not let children and pregnant woman remain an empty stomach.
Be careful of snakes, as snake bites are common during floods.

After
Pack warm clothing, essential medication, valuables, personal papers, etc. in
waterproof bags, to be taken with your emergency kit.
Raise furniture, clothing and valuable onto beds, tables and in attic.
Turn off the main electricity power supply. Do not use electrical appliances, which
have been in flood water.
Do not get into water of unknown depth and current.
Do not allow children to play in, or near flood water.

DROUGHT

It is difficult to provide a precise and universally accepted definition of drought

due to its varying characteristics and impacts across different regions of the
world, such as rainfall patterns, human response and resilience, and diverse
academic perspectives.

Drought is a temporary aberration unlike aridity, which is a permanent feature of

climate. Seasonal aridity (i.e. a well-defined dry season) also needs to be distinguished
from drought. Thus drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate and occurs in all
climatic regimes and is usually characterized in terms of its spatial extension, intensity
and duration. Conditions of drought appear when the rainfall is deficient in relation to the
statistical multi-year average for a region, over an extended period of a season or year,
or even more. Drought differs from other natural hazards such as cyclones, floods,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis in that:
No universal definition exists;
Being of slow-onset it is difficult to determine the beginning and end of the event;
Duration may range from months to years and the core area or epicentre changes
over time, reinforcing the need for continuous monitoring of climate and water supply
indicators;
No single indicator or index can identify precisely the onset and severity of the event
and its potential impacts; multiple indicators are more effective;
Spatial extent is usually much greater than that for other natural hazards, making
assessment and response actions difficult, since impacts are spread over larger
geographical areas;
Impacts are generally non-structural and difficult to quantify;
Impacts are cumulative and the effects magnify when events continue from one
season or year to the next.

Types of Drought

Meteorological Drought is defined as the deficiency of

precipitation from expected or normal levels over an
extended period of time. Meteorological drought usually
precedes other kinds of drought. According to the
legend, meteorological drought is said to occur when
the seasonal rainfall received over an area is less than
25% of its long-term average value. It is further
classified as moderate drought if the rainfall deficit is
26–50% and severe drought when the deficit exceeds
50% of the normal.

Hydrological Drought is best defined as deficiencies

in surface and subsurface water supplies leading to a lack of water for normal and
specific needs. Such conditions arise, even in times of average (or above average)
precipitation when increased usage of water diminishes the reserves.

Agricultural Drought, usually triggered by meteorological and hydrological droughts,

occurs when soil moisture and rainfall are inadequate during the crop growing season
causing extreme crop stress and wilting. Plant water demand depends on prevailing
weather conditions, biological characteristics of the specific plant, its stage of growth
and the physical and biological properties of the soil. Agricultural drought thus arises
from the variable susceptibility of crops during different stages of crop development,
from emergence to maturity. In India, it is defined as a period of four consecutive weeks
(of severe meteorological drought) with a rainfall deficiency of more than 50% of the
long-term average (LTA) or with a weekly rainfall of 5 cm or less from mid-May to mid-
October (the kharif season) when 80% of India‟s total crop is planted or six such
consecutive weeks during the rest of the year (NRSC, Decision Support Centre).

Impacts of Drought
Drought produces wide-ranging impacts that span many sectors of the national
economy. These impacts are felt much beyond the area experiencing physical drought.
The complexity of these impacts arises because water is integral to our ability to
produce goods and provide services. Drought produces both direct and indirect
impacts. Direct impacts or primary impacts are usually physical / material and include
reduced agricultural production; increased fire hazard; depleted water levels; higher
livestock and wildlife mortality rates; and damage to wildlife and fish habitats. When
direct impacts have multiplier effects through the economy and society, they are
referred to as indirect impacts. These include a reduction in agricultural production that
may result in reduced income for farmers and agribusiness, increased prices for food
and timber, unemployment, reduced purchasing capacity and demand for consumption,
default on agricultural loans, rural unrest, and reduction in agricultural employment
leading to migration and drought relief programmes. The more removed the impact from
the cause, the more complex is the link to the cause. These multiplier effects are often
so diffuse that it is very difficult to generate financial estimates of actual losses caused
by a drought. The impacts of drought are generally categorized as economic,
environmental, and social:

Economic impacts refer to production losses in agriculture and related sectors,

especially forestry and fisheries, because these sectors rely on surface and subsurface
water supplies. It causes a loss of income and purchasing power, particularly among
farmers and rural population dependent on agriculture. All industries dependent upon
the primary sector for their raw materials would suffer losses due to reduced supply or
increased prices. Drought thus has a multiplier effect throughout the economy, which
has a dampening impact on employment, flow of credit and tax collections. If the
drought is countrywide, macroeconomic indicators at the national level are adversely
impacted.

Environmental impacts, such as lower water levels in reservoirs, lakes and ponds as
well as reduced flows from springs and streams would reduce the availability of feed
and drinking water and adversely affect fish and wildlife habitat. It may also cause loss
of forest cover, migration of wildlife and their greater mortality due to increased contact
with agricultural producers as animals seek food from farms and producers are less
tolerant of the intrusion. A prolonged drought may also result in increased stress among
endangered species and cause loss of biodiversity. Reduced streamflow and loss of
wetlands may cause changes in the levels of salinity. Increased groundwater depletion,
land subsidence, and reduced recharge may damage aquifers and adversely affect the
quality of water (e.g., salt concentration, increased water temperature, acidity, dissolved
oxygen, turbidity). The degradation of landscape quality, including increased soil
erosion, may lead to a more permanent loss of biological productivity of the landscape.

Social impacts arise from lack of income causing out migration of the population from
the drought-affected areas. People in India seek to cope with drought in several ways
which affect their sense of well-being: they withdraw their children from schools,
postpone daughters‟ marriages, and sell their assets such as land or cattle. In addition
to economic hardships, it causes a loss of social status and dignity, which people find
hard to accept. Inadequate food intake may lead to malnutrition, and in some extreme
cases, cause starvation. Access and use of scarce water resources generate situations
of conflict, which could be socially very disruptive. Inequities in the distribution of
drought impacts and relief may exacerbate these social tensions further.

Prevention and Preparedness2 Prevention and Preparedness means predisaster

activities designed to increase the level of readiness and improvement of operational
and institutional capabilities for responding to a drought. Drought prevention and
preparedness involve water supply augmentation and conservation (e.g. rainwater
harvesting techniques), expansion of irrigation facilities, effective dealing with drought,
and public awareness and education. Transport and communication links are a must to
ensure supply of food and other commodities during and just after a drought. Successful
drought management requires community awareness on the mitigation strategies,
insurance schemes for farmers, crop contingency plans, etc. Basic to drought
management in the Indian context is the delineation of drought prone areas. At the
block level, the following indicators are generally used. Drought Prone Area Delineation
Criteria and data base:
 Rainfall (long term average - 30 to 50 yrs) (Short Term average – 5 to 10 years for
giving real picture as a rainfall pattern may change over the period for e.g. Cherapunji);
Cropping pattern (past 3 to 5 years);
Available supplement irrigation (well, tank, ponds, ground water etc.);
Satellite derived indicators (last 10 years);
Soil map;
Ground water availability map;
Cattle population and fodder demand;
Socio-economic data;
Other water demands like for drinking, industrial use etc.; and
Collection and creation of data base and spatial framework for analysis

Climate Change and Drought

Forecasting weather related information could become more complex with
climate change. Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes, both of
which take place on a global scale. Global warming is projected to have significant
impacts on conditions affecting agriculture, including temperature, carbon dioxide,
glacial run-off, precipitation and the interaction of these elements. These conditions
determine the carrying capacity of the biosphere to produce enough food for the human
population and domesticated animals. Mitigation Mitigation actions, programs, and
policies are implemented during and before drought to reduce the magnitude of risk to
human life, property, and productive capacity. Emergency response will always be a
part of drought management, because it is unlikely that government and others will
anticipate, avoid, or reduce all potential impacts through mitigation programs. A future
drought event will also exceed the “drought of record” and the capacity of a region to
respond. However, emergency response will be used lesser and only, if it is consistent
with the longer-term drought policy goals and objectives. Considering the increase in
the frequency of droughts in different parts of the country, it is necessary that there is a
shift in public policy from drought relief to drought mitigation measures. These
measures are important for adapting to climate change, restoring ecological balance,
and bringing development benefits to the people.

Drought Safety Tips

Do’s and Dont’s
Never pour water down the drain, use it to water your indoor plants or garden.
Repair dripping taps by replacing washers.
Check all plumbing for leaks and get them repaired.
Choose appliances that are more energy and water efficient.
Develop and use cop contingency plan to meet drought situation
Plant drought-tolerant grasses, shrubs and trees.
Install irrigation devices which are most water efficient for each use, such as micro
and drip irrigation.
Consider implementing rainwater harvesting wherever it is suitable
Avoid flushing the toilet unnecessarily
Avoid letting the water run while brushing your teeth, washing your face or shaving.

STORM SURGE

Storm surge is a rise of seawater above normal sea level on the coast, generated
by the action of weather elements such as cyclonic wind and atmospheric
pressure. Storm surge can sweep across large portions of coastal areas. They
can be identified by cumulu-nimbus dark skies, low pressure, strong winds, and
rising of seawater.
LIGHTNING STORMS/ THUNDERSTORMS

A thunderstorm is a weather condition that produces lightning and thunder, heavy

rainfall from cumulonimbus clouds and possibly a tornado. It is identified by
Cloud formations, Darkening skies, Lightning and wind.

El Niño – having no rain, hence the fear of drought and consequently dried-up
fields.

La Niña – heavy rainfall and hazards such as flood.

Pacific Ocean occur in a cycle known as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation

(ENSO), ocean temperatures become warmer than usual or cooler than usual at
different locations.
Reminders: During submission only activity paper will be submitted. The rest of the module will
be yours to keep so that during examination you can review. Don’t forget to write your name,
subject Teacher and date neatly. Follow the instructions!

Final Activity 1-2 Earth and Life Science

Name:_______________________________________________ Grade 11

Subject Teacher: Ms. Deborah A. Dumape Date:______________

1. Differentiate the gas exchange and how do they

survive.
FISH MAMMALS BIRDS INSECTS

2. Do human and animals are the same regarding

for survival?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Ms. Deborah A. Dumape

Finals - Module 3-4

The Process of Evolution

The Great Chain of Being

Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) – Established the modern system of taxonomy in an attempt to

discover order in the diversity of life “for the greater glory of God”.
 Groupings based on similarity
 Hierarchal relationships of organisms
Early Ideas About Evolution
 The lineage of lobe-
finned fish leads to
tetrapods

 What genetic and developmental

changes occurred during this
transition?

Fig 4.19 & 4.21 in

Z&E
Reminders: During submission only activity paper will be submitted. The rest of the module will
be yours to keep so that during examination you can review. Don’t forget to write your name,
subject Teacher and date neatly. Follow the instructions!

Final Activity 3-4 Earth and Life Science

Name:_______________________________________________ Grade 11

Subject Teacher: Ms. Deborah A. Dumape Date:______________

Direction: Find and circle the vocabulary words in the grid. Lokk for them in all directions
including backwards and diagonally.