Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Testing

The purpose of this review is to get acquainted with one of the Non-Destructive methods in
Flaw Detection. I would like to present Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Testing, how it works, what
materials it can test, and what are the pros and cons of using this method.

Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Testing is a method of characterizing a test piece through the use of
high-frequency sound waves. The frequencies, or pitch, used for Ultrasonic Testing are many times
higher than the limit of human hearing.

There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform: reflection, and attenuation. In
reflection mode, the transducer performs both the sending and the receiving of the pulsed waves as the
"sound" is reflected back to the device. The diagnostic machine displays these results in the form of a
signal, representing the arrival time of the reflection. In attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a
transmitter sends ultrasound through one surface, and a separate receiver detects the amount that has
reached it on another surface after traveling through the medium. Imperfections or other conditions in
the space between the transmitter and receiver reduce the amount of sound transmitted, thus revealing
their presence.

In industrial applications, ultrasonic testing is widely used on metals, plastics, composites, and
ceramics. Ultrasonic technology is also widely used in the biomedical field for diagnostic imaging and
medical research.

There are many advantages of Ultrasonic Testing, such as it is completely non-destructive;

access to only one side is required, unlike measurement with mechanical thickness tools like calipers
and micrometers; there are no potential health hazards; when a test has been properly set up, results are
highly repeatable and reliable. Moving on to the disadvantages which are: it requires a trained operator
who can set up a test with the aid of appropriate reference standards and properly interpret the results;
inspection of some complex geometries may be challenging.

Summing up, Ultrasonic Testing is the second most popular method of NDT. It allows
inspectors to collect information about the condition of an asset without having to damage it. In
general, Ultrasonic Testing uses sound waves to detect defects or imperfections on the surface of
material created. With Non-Destructive Testing, defects may be found before they become dangerous.
 What is a Non-Destructive Testing?

Non-destructive testing (NDT) relates to the examination of materials for flaws without
harming the object being tested. As an industrial test method, NDT provides a cost-effective means of
testing while protecting the object's usability for its designed purpose.

The ability to inspect castings, weldments, wall thicknesses and roll shells in an accurate and
comprehensive manner is critical; and even more important when the machine has been in use for
several years, possibly with changes made to the original framework, and operating conditions that are
now placing more stress on the equipment than original design allowed.

NDT uses several methods, including: visual inspection, ultrasonic, dye penetrant, magnetic
particle, acoustic emission, electromagnetic and radiography. Common tools used include: trained
expert's eyes, caliper micrometers, ultrasonic wall thickness gauges, and portable grinders in addition
to the specific tools used for more complex testing methods.

Methods of non-destructive testing have been in use for centuries, with the easiest form – visual
inspection – being the oldest. Other ancient methods of NDT include weighing, perhaps to determine
whether an object is solid gold as opposed to some inexpensive base metal, or a simple leak test to find
out if a vessel will hold a fluid successfully. None of these testing methods damage the object being
tested.

Unfortunately, with modern, massive, complex equipment occupying the space of a football
field, the old methods no longer allow accurate measurement within a relatively short period of time,
such as a machine shutdown. Nor do they measure things that the human eye, aided or otherwise,
cannot detect. Access to every point on the machine to be inspected may be impossible. Disassembly
for the purpose of testing is rarely a cost-effective option. At this point more modern methods are
needed. This is when non-destructive testing becomes a vital maintenance tool.

Overall, Non-Destructive Testing is an important part of any industrial process nowadays.

Today modern nondestructive tests are used in manufacturing, fabrication and in-service inspections to
ensure product integrity and reliability, to control manufacturing processes, lower production costs and
to maintain a uniform quality level.
 Infrared Thermography as a Non-Destructive Tool for Materials

Infrared thermography for non-destructive testing and evaluation aims at the detection of
subsurface features, owing to temperature differences observed on the investigated surface during
monitoring by an infrared camera. I would like to describe the method and consider its advantages and
limitations.

First of all, there is a fact that at temperatures above absolute zero all bodies emit
electromagnetic radiation. Infrared thermography or thermal imaging is a measurement technique
based on the detection of radiation in the infrared spectrum. These two spectral bands are commonly
used because of their low atmosphere absorption.

The principal problem where infrared measurements are concerned is the emissivity, emittance
of the material(s). Emissivity plays an essential role in infrared thermographic surveys and is
dependent on temperature, wavelength and surface condition. A surface with a low emissivity value
acts as a mirror (high reflectance). However, such problem is usually overcome using high emittance
flat paints (i.e. black colour water based paints) for painting the investigated surface(s).

The main advantage of infrared thermography over the destructive testing techniques is that
large areas can be scanned fast and with no need to be destroyed during testing. This results in major
savings in time, people, work and machinery. The infrared thermographic device is risk-free, as it does
not emit any radiation; it only records the infrared radiation emitted from the material that is under
assessment.

Thermography, due to the fact that it uses infrared technology it is not possible to penetrate in
extended depths (only a few mm's). That of course is one of the main limitations of the technique.
Finally, environmental conditions also play an important role on outdoor infrared thermographic
surveys utilizing the passive approach (i.e. cloud cover, solar radiation, wind speed).

All in all, active thermography has emerged in recent years as a means of NDT. Its advantages
are that it is a rapid large area non-contact imaging technique that produces images of defects that are
relatively straightforward to interpret. Nonetheless, thermography is an inherently near surface
technique whose effectiveness will decrease with the material's thickness and it also depends on the
thermal properties of the material.
 Why do we need Non-Destructive Testing?

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is the application of areas of science to create methods of testing
that leave the item under test totally undamaged. This means that the component – the casting, weld or
forging, for example – can continue to be used and that the non-destructive testing method has done no
harm.
But why do we need it? NDT is necessary whenever we need to assure ourselves of the
integrity of our infrastructure. Aircraft, trains, pipelines, oil rigs, bridges and pressure vessels are
examples of everyday things that are regularly examined.
In addition to the need to ensure safety, non-destructive testing can be used to improve output
and profitability. Furthermore, a component or an entire structure or machine can be tested many times
using several types of tests through the complete life cycle to ensure its continued integrity.
Consider an offshore oil platform standing on the seabed and projecting upwards above sea
level. The supporting structure consists of a complex array of tubular steel fabrications.
The starting point will be steel plate made to the correct specification in a steel mill. It will be
formed then welded to produce a pipe. Many pipe sections will be welded together onshore and the
finished structure towed out to sea and placed in position.
Non-destructive tests will be used to examine the original steel plate, the pipes and the welds in
the finished structure. The important point is that non-destructive testing can be applied at each stage
of construction, from the initial plate to the finished structure, and materials and welds can either be
accepted or, if unsatisfactory, rejected and repaired.
Finally, non-destructive methods can be employed to monitor the integrity of the structure
through its useful life. They supplement other techniques, which can be applied without interruption to
normal operation of a structure or a machine. These techniques are known as condition monitoring.
In general, NDT is one of the most important practices of today, and it only becomes more
important day by day. It is used at every step of production and after that for maintenance. It reduces
costs, increases efficiency and safety, lessens ecological damage, and there is no technique that can
provide same benefits.