MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

ME 353
COMPLEX ENGINEERING PROBLEM

GROUP MEMBERS REG NO.

WAQAS AHMED 2019539
MUNEER AHMED 2019412
SYED YOUSUF SHAH 2019506
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................3
1.1 Overview...........................................................................................................................3
1.2 Parts Description...............................................................................................................3
1.3 METHODOLGY………………………………………………………………………………………………….………….4
1.4 Assumptions……………………………………………………………………………………….……………………….4
1.5 METHODOLOGY SELECTION…………………………………………………….…………………………………..4
1.6 Selection of Material…………………………………………………….……………………………………………..4
1.7 PHYSICAL AND ECONOMICAL PROPERTIES: …….…………………………………………………………..5
1.8 Order of processes............................................................................................................6
2 Process......................................................................................................................................7
 Turning………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....…………7
 Sawing ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………..7
 Pocket Milling ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………7
 Drilling…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………8
 Reaming………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………8
 Boring ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….………8
 Hobbing………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..….………8
 Broaching………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……..9
3 NC code for pocket milling…………………………………………………………………………………………………10
4 Machines Required……………………………………………………………………………………………………………10
5 Machining Analysis........................................................................................................……….10
5.1 Time Analysis...................................................................................................................10
5.2 Environmental Analysis...................................................................................................17
5.3 Cost Analysis....................................................................................................................18
6 Conclusion..............................................................................................................................19
7 References..............................................................................................................................20
 Inner base diameter 20mm
Thickness 15mm
Module 1 teeth per mm
Number of inside teeth 80
Abstract:
The purpose of this project is to provide an economical, environment friendly and time efficient process for
manufacturing a batch of 500 spur gears. The main objective is to list down all the possible processes of
manufacturing and selecting the most suitable chain of processes.

INTRODUCTION:
Gears are very useful in numerous applications. They can transfer power from one shaft to another. Geared
devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source. The manufacture of gears has
involved machining processes such as Hobbing and shaving to achieve the required dimensional accuracy.
However, these conventional processes have some disadvantages such as excessive material loss, low
productivity, high-energy consumption, and high carbon emissions. However we have to select the best
manufacturing process, in terms of less CO2 emission, energy consumption should be low, and cost should
be low for the manufacturing of 500 pieces. Gear can be considered as the simple machine. There are
different types of gears used in the industry such helical, bevel, worm and spur gear. In this report we have
to analyze spur gear. Which consist of a disk shaped with teeth radially projected. The face and flank of
tooth are not flat, it has involute profile so special manufacturing processes are to be selected. No axial
thrust is created by the tooth loads. Spur gears are excellent at moderate speeds but tend to be noisy at
high speeds.

METHODOLGY:
After researching and consulting all the available processes for the manufacturing of the spur gear, a
suitable process is selected keeping in view the constraints provided by the instructor. The material selected
for the gear is mild steel, due to its low cost and availability in the market. Gathering the material from the
market for the 500 pieces and 20mm thickness of one piece in the cylinder form if available, if not then
gathered the raw material which can be turned. The Calculations were done by taking some assumptions
given bellow in Table 1. Firstly, material removal rate (MRR) was calculated for each machine and finding
time of machining. Gaps were added between each unit in which the machine was considered idle. Both
times were multiplied with the given data of specified machines. This gave us the time consumed for each
process and energy requirement. This data was further used to calculate the economic factor and the
impact on the environment. For this, standard charges of electricity and fuel were used that were available
at the time of research.

Assumptions:
Table 1
Characteristics Dimension
Outer pitch diameter 80mm
Outer base diameter 75mm
Inner pitch diameter 15mm
Number of outside teeth 20
Material Mild steel

METHODOLOGY SELECTION:
Mechanical Properties of material:
Mechanical properties of the material used to manufacture a product will define the behavior of the
product under the action of stresses during the mechanical operation and testing under plastic region. Some
of the specific mechanical properties that should be considered in this project are as follow:
  Tensile strength
 Density
 Ductility
 Wear resistance

Selection of Material:
The type of the material used depends on the purpose for which the gear will be used. Some commonly
used material for manufacturing of a spur gear are Cast Iron, Stainless Steel, mild steel and Acetal. The
material selected for this project was mild steel. Following characteristics should be kept in mind for the
selection of a material for the spur gear.
 High tensile strength to prevent failures against static loads
 High endurance strength to withstand dynamic loads
 Low co-efficient of Friction
 Good manufacturability.

PHYSICAL AND ECONOMICAL PROPERTIES:

Environmental Properties:
With the increase in awareness of the environmental problems cause by the waste material or during the
manufacturing of the product from the material, it is very important to select the material which has least
effect of the environment. Properties which are associated with this task are as follows:
Embodied Energy
CO2 footprints
Recyclability
Material selected for manufacturing the product should have low embodied energy for lower environmental
effect. CO2 footprints are calculation of the amount of the CO2 associated with the material during its
complete lifecycle that is from extraction to decomposition. It is very important with respect to the
environmental aspects and the selected material should have lowest CO2 footprint to have lowest effect on
the environment.

Economic Aspect:
Economic aspects is most concerned point in the industry that should be considered during the material
selection. In economic aspects material rate and material availability are the factor which influences the
material selection process. Selected material should be cheap and easily available to manufacture product
effectively.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS:
The two types manufacturing processes can be 1). Machining Process 2). Non-traditional Process, Machine
Process required use of hard cutting tool and industrial machinery to remove material, however on the
other hand non-traditional machining uses various forms of thermal, mechanical, electrical and chemical
energy, and no cutting tool is required. For the manufacturing of the spur gear we will use the machining
processes as non-tradition processes required high capital cost, skilled labor and highly complex equipment
setup. So the traditional machining is opted in this CEP.
The following processes are carried out for manufacturing of spur gear:
 Turning
 Sawing
 Pocket Milling
 Drilling
 Reaming
 Boring
 Hobbing
 Broaching
 Filleting
For greater understanding the photos are attached of the processes.

Turning:
A cutting operation in which single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating work-piece to
generate a cylinder. Performed on a machine tool called a lathe.
Sawing:
Sawing is a process wherein a narrow slit is cut into the work piece by a tool consisting of a series of
narrowly spaced teeth, called a saw blade. Sawing is used to separate work parts into two or more pieces.
After sawing our workpiece will be as shown below. There will 500 pieces of mild steel like these.

Pocket Milling:
In pocket milling the material inside an arbitrarily closed boundary on a flat surface of a work piece is
removed to a fixed depth. After pocket milling our workpiece will be as shown below.
Drilling:
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid materials. The
drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often multi-point. The bit is pressed against the work-piece and
rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute.

Boring:
boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled (or cast) by means of a single-point
cutting tool (or of a boring head containing several such tools), such as in boring a gun barrel or an engine
cylinder. After drilling and boring our workpiece will be as shown below.

Hobbing:
Gear hobbing is the process of generating gear teeth with a helical cutting tool, or hob. The gear blank and
hob rotate continuously until all gear teeth are cut into the blank.
Gear-hobbing machines use a rotating, multiple-tooth cutting tool called a hob for generating teeth on spur
gears, worm gears, helical gears, splines, and sprockets.
Broaching:
Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool, called broach. There are two types of broaching:
linear and rotary. Broaching can be used to generate external as well as internal gears. In this project we will
use gear broaching process to generate internal gear with 34 teeth in the work pieces after the hobbing
process. [6] After hobbing and broaching our workpiece will be as shown below.

Machines Required:
Hobbing Machine
To create the outer teeth of the gear the hobbing machine will be used. We will using the Small Module
Gear Cutting Machine MLT-N120. It is a six axis control horizontal gear hobbing machine for small module
gears, reduce labor work and increase efficiency. It also has high speed driven structure with B-axis. It also
has multiple hobbing tools for different finishes. Considering all the properties, this model is an optimal
hobbing machine for the machining of the part. [7]
Basic specifications:

CNC Milling Machine:

It is a type of machining that uses cutters to shape a workpiece, often on a moveable tabletop. To create 500
pieces, it would be very time-consuming gear with universal milling machine. Apart from time-consuming it
will reduce productivity and require labor, so we will be using CNC milling method for drilling, pocket milling,
filleting. It will be highly accurate, highly productive, safe to operate and affordable.
Basic specification
Power Rating=1.8 kWh
Cost of 1 kWh=25 Rs
Cost of energy consumed∈1 hour=1.8 kWh × 25=45 Rs

LATHE MACHINE:
Lathe machine is used for multiple processes. A lathe is a machine tool that rotates a workpiece about an
axis of rotation to perform various operations such as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, deformation,
facing, and turning, with tools that are applied to the workpiece to create an object with symmetry about
that axis.In this project we are using lathe machine for turning.

NC code for pocket milling

N00 G21 Machining in metric system
N00 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z-5 Machine return to Home Position
N02 M06 T01 Tool Change to milling cutter of R15
N03 M03 S2000 Spindle rotate in CW direction
N04 G90 absolute programming
N05 G00 X40 Y20 rapid movement
NO6 G01 Z2.5 circular movement in clockwise direction
N07 G02 I0 J20 circular movement in clockwise direction
N08 G01 X40 Y22.5 linear interpolation
N09 G02 I0 J17.5 circular movement in clockwise direction
N10 G01 Z-5 linear movement in upward z direction
N11 G00 X0 Y0 rapid movement to home position
N12 G00 X-100 Y -100 rapid movement to safe position for dismounting
N13 M05 spindle off
N14 M99 repeat the program

Cost Analysis:
Cost of Material (mild steel):
Mild steel properties:
Density = 7850 kg/m3
Cost per kilogram: 50 Rs (Pakistani rupee)
Volume of one spur gear = π x R2 x T = π(40x10-3)2(20x10-3) = 1.0x10-4m3
Volume of 500 spur gear = 500x1.0x10-4 = 0.05m3
Mass of 500 spur gear = density * vol500 = 7850kg/m3 * 0.05 = 394.58 kg
Cost for raw material = 19729.2 Rs
Approximate amount = 20000 Rs

Calculations:
1. Turning:

1. Roughing:

Known Quantities:
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ = 1.25 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑟𝑒𝑣

𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ = 0.51 𝑚⁄𝑠

𝐷𝑂,𝐼 = 83 𝑚𝑚

𝑇 = 15 𝑚𝑚
Length= 7500mm (whole length) for 500 gears
𝑑 = 2 𝑚𝑚

0.51
𝑁= = 1.96 𝑟𝑒𝑣⁄𝑠
π × 83 × 10−3

𝑓𝑟,𝑅 = 1.96 × 1.25 × 10−3 = 2.45 × 10−3 𝑚/𝑠

𝑇𝑚,𝑅 = 7500 × 10−3⁄2.45 × 10−3 = 3061 𝑠 = 51 hours

2. Finishing:

Known Quantities:
𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ = 0.750 𝑚𝑚/𝑟𝑒𝑣

𝑉𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ = 0.7 𝑚/𝑠

𝐷𝑂,𝐹 = 80 𝑚𝑚

𝑇 = 15 𝑚𝑚
𝑑 = 1 𝑚𝑚
𝑁 = 0.70⁄ π × 80 × 10−3 = 2.78 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠

𝑓𝑟,𝐹 = 2.78 × 0.750 × 10−3 = 2.085 × 10−3 𝑚/𝑠

𝑇𝑚,𝐹 = 7500 × 10−3⁄2.085 × 10−3 = 3597 𝑠 =59 hours

Total Time for turning for 500 parts:

𝑇𝑇,𝑇 = 51 hour+ 59 hour = 110 hour

Power Rating of a Single Column Vertical Lathe= 8 KW

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 100 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 = 2.24 x 25= Rs. 56

Sawing:
f = 1 (mm/rev)

v = 30480 (mm/min)

𝑁 = 116.9 𝑟𝑒𝑣⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛

Now,

So, 𝐹𝑟 = 116.9 𝑟𝑒𝑣⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛 × 1 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑟𝑒𝑣

𝐹𝑟 = 116.9 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛
Now,

𝑇𝑚 = = 64.15 𝑚𝑖𝑛 for 500 parts

116.9 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛

64.15
E=3 × =3.21 kwh
60
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 3.21 × 25 = 𝑅𝑠. 80.25
Therefore, sawing electricity cost = Rs.80.25

Pocket Milling:

For this process, we will perform face milling to create the circular pocket.

𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑝 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 0.25 𝑚𝑚/𝑟𝑒𝑣

𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑁 × 𝑛𝑡 × 𝑓 = 2000 × 4 × 0.25 = 2000 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑙 = 15 𝑚𝑚

𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 = 75𝑚𝑚

Here, the path of the work tool will be in a series of concentric circles. The path will take a circular path
starting from the inner circle and then moving outwards radially.
 75−20
Number of concentric circles = 2 = 1.8333 = 2 circles
15
Radius of first circle = 10 + 7.5 = 17.5 mm
Circumference of the first circle = 2 x π x 17.5 = 109.96mm
Radius of second circle = 10 + 7.5 + 2.5 = 20mm
Circumference of the second circle = 2 x π x 20 = 125.66mm
Total length = 109.96+125.66 = 235.62mm
235.62
Total time for one side milling = =0.11781 min = 7.0687sec
2000
Total depth of the area to be pocket each side = 2.5mm
Depth of each mill = 2.5mm
Total time for pocket milling = 14.137 sec (for 1 gear)
Total time for pocket milling of 500 gears = 7068.711 sec
Time required for filling and changing of work piece = 3 sec/piece
Total time for machining and manual work =7068.711+ 3x500=8568.711sec = 2.38hr

2. Drilling
1. Drilling 8 small holes:

Known Quantities:

𝑓𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙 = 0.50 mm/rev

𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙 = 0.75m/s
𝐷𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙,𝑠 = 6 mm

𝑇𝑛𝑒𝑤= 5 mm
Ѳ = 118ᵒ

𝑁 = 0.75 ⁄ π × 6 × 10−3 = 39.79 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠

 𝑓𝑟,𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙 = 39.79 × 0.50 × 10−3 = 20 𝑚𝑚/𝑠

118
𝐴 = 0.5 × 6 × 10−3 × tan (90 − ) = 1.8025 𝑚𝑚
2

𝑇𝑇,𝐷𝑆 (10 × 10−3 + 1.8025 × 10−3)⁄0.02

= = 0.59 𝑠
Time for 8 holes = 4.72s

2. Drilling 8 large holes:

Known Quantities:2

𝑓𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙 = 0.50 mm/rev

𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙 = 0.75m/s
𝐷𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙,𝑠 = 15 mm

𝑇𝑛𝑒𝑤= 5 mm
Ѳ = 118ᵒ

𝑓𝑟,𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙 = 15.92 × 0.50 = 7.96 𝑚𝑚/𝑠

(10
𝑇𝑇,𝐷𝐿 =
+ 4.51)
⁄
7.96 = 1.82 𝑠

Time taken for 8 holes = 14.58 s

3. Drilling Central Hole:

Known Quantities:

𝑓𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙 = 0.50 mm/rev

 𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙 = 0.75m/s
𝐷𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙,𝑠 = 12 mm

𝑇= 15 mm
Ѳ = 118ᵒ

𝑓𝑟,𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙 = 19.89 × 0.50 × 10−3 = 9.95 𝑚𝑚/𝑠

118
𝐴 = 0.5 × 12 × tan (90 − ) = 3.61𝑚𝑚
2

(15 + 3.61)⁄
𝑇𝑇,𝐷𝐶 = 9.95 = 1.87 𝑠
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝑫𝒓𝒊𝒍𝒍 (𝑇𝑇,𝐷) = 4.72 𝑠 + 14.58 s + 1.87 𝑠

𝑇𝑇,𝐷 = 21.17 s

Time for 500 parts = 10585 s

Power Rating of a Multi Spindle Drilling Machine= 3.7 kW

10585
𝐸𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = × 3.7 = 10.9 𝑘𝑊ℎ
3600
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 500 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 = 25 × 10.9 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 𝑅𝑠 272

Hobbing
𝑚𝑚 𝑚

Known Quantities: 𝐾 = 1, 𝑍 = 74, 𝑓ℎ𝑜𝑏 = 6 𝑤 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚, 𝐷ℎ𝑜𝑏 = 24𝑚𝑚, 𝑉ℎ𝑜𝑏 = 1.3
𝑟𝑒𝑣, 𝑠

𝐿ℎ𝑜𝑏 = 15 + 11.75 = 31.75 𝑚𝑚

𝑁 = 1.3⁄ π × 24 × 10−3 = 17.24 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠

𝑇𝑇,𝐻 =
 74 × 31.75 = 22.7 𝑠
17.24 × 1 × 6
Time for 500 parts= 11350 s =189 hours

Power rating of Hobbing Machine= 8 kW

11350
𝐸ℎ𝑜𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑔 = × 8 = 25.2 𝐾𝑊ℎ
3600
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 500 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 = 15 × 25.2 𝐾𝑊ℎ = 𝑅𝑠. 378

3. Internal Broaching
Known Quantities: 𝐿𝑏 = 500𝑚𝑚, 𝑇 = 𝐿𝑤 = 15𝑚𝑚, 𝑉𝑏 = 0.05 𝑚/𝑠

𝑇𝑇, 𝐼𝐵 ((500 + 15) × 10−3) ⁄0.05

= = 10.3 𝑠

Time for 500 parts= 5150 s

Power Rating of an Internal Broaching Machine= 4 KW

5150
Ebroaching = × 4=5.722 KWh
3600
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 500 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 = 25 × 5.722 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 𝑅𝑠 143.05

CARBON ANALYSIS:
0.947 (kWh) produce 0.351 kg of CO2

PROCE ENERGY CONSUMED MASS(

SS kg)
(kW Calculation Answ
h) er
Sawing 3.21 0.351 × 1.19
3.21
0.947
Turning 14.8 0.351 × 5.49
14.8
0.947
Pocket milling 4.33 0.351 × 1.60
4.33
0.947
Drilling 10.9 0.351 × 4.04
10.9
0.947
 Hobbing 25.2 PROCESS Time 0.351 × 9.34
25.2
Taken(s)
0.947
Internal broaching 5.722 0.351 × 2.12
Pocket 7,068.71
1.14
milling 0.947
TOTAL CO2 EMISSION - - 23.78
Drilling 10,585
 Total carbon emission for 1 gear: 0.04756 kg
 Total carbon emission for 500 gears: 23.8 kg
Total 17,653.71

TIME TAKEN
PROCESS

CNC MILLING MACHINE 64.15min PROCESSES

Sawing

110hrs
Turning

117.61hrs
Total

HOBBING AND BROACHING TIME TAKEN (s) PROCESS

PROCESS

11,350
Hobbing

5,150
Broaching

16,500
Total
 Other processes:

TOTAL ANALYSIS FOR 500 PARTS:

PROCESS FUNCTION POWER CO2 EMISSIONS TIME TAKEN PRICE (PKR)

CONSUMPTION(Kw) (KG) (SEC)

Turning Diameter 5.4 396

Reduction . 8 9 0 . 56

Sawing Cutting Rod 3.21 1.19 3849 80.75

Drilling Drilling holes 3.7 1.60 10585 324.75

Hobbing Forming teeth 8 4.04 11350 272

Pocket milling Crate pocket 5 9.34 7068.71 378

Internal Broaching Internal teeth 4 2.12 5150 143.05

Total 31.91 23.78 41,962.71 1254.55

CONCLUSION
After comparing different ways of producing a spur gear above mentioned process was selected as the best
suitable process keeping in mind the following restrictions i.e. number of parts, accuracy, carbon emission
and cost. By following this method one can generate a spur gear with minimum cost. After doing cost,
energy and environmental analysis the following results were achieved.
Total machining cost= PKR 1254.55 Rs
Total estimated cost = PKR 3254.55 Rs
Carbon emission = 23.78 kg
Energy Consumed = 31.91 kWh.

REFERENCES:

1. http://www.difference.minaprem.com/ntm/difference-between-conventional-machining-and-
non-traditional-machining-ntm/
2. https://bobcad.com/cnc-software-what-is-pocket-milling/
3. https://www.millerbroach.com/what-is-broaching/
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broaching_(metalworking)
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbing
6. https://www.quora.com/What-are-important-properties-of-material-for-gear-application
7. https://www.ctemag.com/news/articles/fundamentals-industrial-sawing
8. https://www.machinesells.com/new-machine/new-machine-for-sell-871498699
9. https://www.lzcncmachine.com/cnc-vertical-milling-machine/xk7136-cnc-milling-machine-
159.html
10. : Efunda, Engineering fundamentals.
11. NASA GISS: Science Briefs: Greenhouse Gases: Refining the Role of Carbon Dioxide
12. Robert Endoy Ford New Holland, Inc. “Estimating Hobbing Times”
13. Ghulam Hussain, Khalid A. Al-Ghamdi, “On the CO2 characterization in incremental forming of roll bonded
laminates”;
14. Degarmo, E. Paul, Black, J T Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), Materials and Processes in Manufacturing
15. https://www.elmatic.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/CalculationofPowerRequired.pdf
16. http://info.cpm-industries.com/blog/bid/393339/Estimating-Casting-Costs