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Infectious Disease of the Chicken: a guide

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Contents
Page

Foreword 2

Bacterial Infections
Fowl Typhoid 4
Pullorum Disease 5
Salmonellosis 6
Campylobacter 7
Escherichia coli (APEC) 8
Pasteurella multocida (Fowl Cholera) 9
Necrotic Enteritis 10
Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale 11
Gallibacterium 12
Mycoplasma 13
Infectious Coryza 14
Other Bacterial Infections 15

Viral Infections
Newcastle Disease 17
Avian Influenza 18
Gumboro (Infectious Bursal Disease) 19
Marek’s Disease 20
Fowlpox 21
Avian retroviruses (ALV, REV) 22
Avian Metapneumovirus 23
Infectious Bronchitis (IBV) 24
ILT 25
Other viral infections 26

Other infections
Eimeria (coccidiosis) 28
Other Protozoal Infections 29
Helminths 30
Ectoparasites 31
Fungal Infections & Mycotoxins 35

Management of Chicken Production

Diet 38
Housing 38
Biosecurity 39
Hygiene & Disinfection 41
Management of Backyard Production in 42
Developing Countries
Foreword
The chicken is now the most reared livestock animal in the world; around
75% of all ‘farm’ animals being chickens. The reasons for this are many
and varied, ranging from the adaptability of the chicken to many
production systems to the high productivity of eggs or meat in modern
hybrid layer and broiler breeds.

The chicken represents an important source of income for village or

backyard and semi-intensive systems which can range from a handful of
birds in a village system, to small urban and peri-urban farmers who may
rear a few hundred animals. Large scale, intensive production of meat
and eggs brings affordable protein to many, though not without issues of
disease and welfare. Infectious disease remains the biggest threat to
chicken production. Zoonotic infection either from close contact with
birds, or perhaps more importantly through foodborne bacterial
infections also represent a real threat to human health.

The aim of this guide is to act as a basic reference for the main
infections associated with chickens regardless of the production system.
It is intended to be used by anyone working with or studying poultry. It
does not replace the definitive text ‘Diseases of Poultry’ now in its 13th
edition, or ‘Diseases of Poultry’ in its 6th edition. These are excellent
resources but are large and expensive volumes. The intention of this
guide is one that can be easily carried in a pocket or a bag and will be
accessible to anyone at no financial cost.

This book is free and made available under a creative commons licence.
An online PDF version will be free to download from the University of
Liverpool website and a free smartphone app based on this content will
also be available. This is made possible through financial support from
United Kingdom Research and Innovation via the GIAA scheme and
based around our BBSRC Newton Fund Project ‘Rapid Diagnostics and
Control Strategies for Enteric Pathogens in Backyard and Commercial
Production in Thailand and the Philippines’. I would also like to thank my
current and former colleagues in Liverpool and Ethiopia who provided
photographs and source material used in this guide particularly Rob
Christley, Marisol Collins and Judy Bettridge

Paul Wigley
University of Liverpool, March 2019

2
 Section One

Bacterial Infections

Bacterial infections of the chicken remain a major problem both as a

cause of ill-health for commercial and backyard chicken production, and
as the chicken is one of the main carriers of Salmonella and
Campylobacter, the most common causes of foodborne bacterial
infection through meat and eggs. Unlike some viral infections, bacterial
disease of the chicken is not usually associated with high-mortality
outbreaks but more usually with endemic disease that can lead to
mortality, morbidity and loss of productivity. As well as the specific
agents detailed here, many bacterial species may act as secondary
infections to viral or parasitic diseases.

Treatment and control of bacterial disease has relied on the use of

antimicrobial (antibiotic) drugs as a therapeutic, prophylactic and growth
promoting use. The rise in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a
considerable problem and needs us to address how antimicrobial are
used in poultry production. Growth promoting antimicrobials have been
banned in Europe since 2006 and other countries are following suit. In
the United Kingdom, the promotion of good antimicrobial stewardship
has led to more than a 70% reduction in use, with antimicrobial drugs
increasingly restricted to therapeutic use. The rise of AMR means that
care and consideration is need in the use of antimicrobials and that other
control measures including improvements to hygiene and biosecurity,
the use of vaccines and live therapeutics such as probiotic bacteria will
play a more important part.

3
Fowl Typhoid (Salmonella Gallinarum)
The Pathogen
• Gram negative bacterial rod
• Facultative anaerobe
• Avian-adapted serovar of Salmonella enterica now rare in Europe
& North America
• 09 serotype, no flagella
Clinical signs
• Acute, high mortality infection
• Diarrhoea, frequently bloody, at
later stages of infection
• Inflammation of liver and spleen
(hepatosplenomegaly)
• White spot lesions on liver and
spleen, with ‘bronzing’ of liver on
exposure to air
• Persistent carriers may not show
symptoms
Transmission/Epidemiology
Experimental Fowl Typhoid in
• Bird-to-bird transmission via
3-week old layer (right)
faeces
shows hepatosplenomegaly
• Vertical transmission to chicks
and liver discolouration
Zoonotic risk
compared to uninfected bird
• Low risk (left). On prolonged exposure
Diagnosis to air the liver can develop a
• Culture of faeces or post ‘bronzed ’appearance
mortem material on selective
media (e.g Brilliant Green/XLD
agar)
• Low numbers can be detected by enrichment culture (selenite/RV
media)
• Serology (ELISA, slide agglutination) can detect exposure and
carriers
Controls
• Vaccination
• Good hygiene and biosecurity
• Culling of infected birds is recommended

4
Pullorum Disease (Salmonella Pullorum)

The Pathogen
• Gram negative bacterial rod
• Facultative anaerobe
• Avian-adapted serovar of Salmonella enterica now rare in Europe
& North America
• 09 serotype, no flagella
Clinical signs
• Acute high mortality infection of chicks
• White diarrhoea
• Inflammation of liver and spleen (hepatosplenomegaly) with small
white spot lesions
• Frequent persistent carriage-carriers may not show symptoms
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Frequent vertical transmission to chicks
• Bird-to-bird transmission via faeces
Zoonotic risk
• Low risk
Diagnosis
• Culture of faeces or post mortem material on selective media (e.g
Brilliant Green/XLD agar)
• Low numbers can be detected by enrichment culture (selenite/RV
media)
• Serology (ELISA, slide agglutination) can detect exposure and
carriers
Controls
• Vaccination
• Good hygiene and biosecurity
• Culling of infected birds is recommended

5
 Salmonellosis (Salmonella enterica)
The Pathogen
• Gram negative bacterial rod
• Facultative anaerobe
• Around 2,500 serotypes of Salmonella enterica can infect warm
blooded animals including birds
• Most frequent serovars are Typhimurium & Enteritidis
Clinical signs
• Intestinal carriage usually without clinical signs
• Dependent of serotype and isolate may cause transient diarrhoea
or systemic infection
• Hatchery infections can lead to high mortality outbreaks
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Bird-to-bird transmission via faeces
• Vertical transmission to chicks either via transovarian infection (S.
Enteritidis) or via faeces in hatchery
Zoonotic risk
• Major foodborne zoonotic pathogen
• Associated with eggs (S. Enteritidis) and poultry meat
Diagnosis
• Culture of faeces or post mortem material on selective media
• Low numbers can be detected by enrichment culture (selenite/RV
media)
• Serology (ELISA, slide agglutination) can detect exposure and
carriers
Salmonella Typhimurium grown on
XLD (left) and Brilliant Green Agar
(right). Selective chromogenic
(colour changing) culture media
such as these are effective in
isolating Salmonella from faecal or
food material. Both turn a red-pink
colour when Salmonella grow
Controls
• Vaccination of breeders and layers
• Live attenuated (mainly drinking water) and inactivated injectable
vaccines
• Good hygiene and biosecurity
• Routine surveillance of flocks is practiced in some countries such
as within the EU.

6
Campylobacter

The Pathogen
• Highly motile Gram negative spiral rod with “gull wing” appearance
• Slight thermophile (41°C) and microaerophile (low oxygen) for
• Main species associated with poultry is Campylobacter jejuni
• Low infectious dose
Clinical signs
• Often carried without apparent disease
• May cause mild-to moderate transient diarrhoea
• Invasive infection may be associated with vibrionic hepatitis with
‘spotted’ lesions on the liver
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Rapid spread from bird-to bird via faeces
• Can be carried by wild birds and vermin or transferred on boots,
clothing and tools.
Zoonotic risk
• Most common cause of foodborne bacterial infection with poultry
meat main source
• High levels of contamination in commercial poultry production
Diagnosis
• Culture on selective media under microaerophilic conditions
(approx. 10% O2) using cabinet or gas jar.
• Blood free media includes Charcoal-Cefoperazone-Deoxycholate
Agar (CCDA)
• Media with blood such as Skirrow’s Agar or Columbia Blood Agar
• Confirmation based on morphology and Gram stain
Controls
• No vaccine available
• Good biosecurity and hygiene can reduce transmission

Campylobacter jejuni on
modified CCDA. C. jejuni has
distinct flat and silvery or
metallic-looking colonies on
this selective media

7
Escherichia coli (APEC)

The Pathogen
• Facultative anaerobic Gram negative rod
• Wide range of strains ranging from part of the natural flora of the
gut to highly pathogenic Avian Pathogenic E. coli (APEC) often of
O1 or O78 serotype
Clinical signs
• Most E. coli carried without disease
• Wide range of disease from opportunistic infection through to
systemic colibacilllosis
• Systemic colibacillosis is a syndromic condition ranging from
respiratory disease (infection of air sacs) to lesions on organs
including heart, liver and kidneys
• Reproductive tract infection in laying hens can lead to egg
peritonitis
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Spread from bird-to bird via faeces including via aerosols to
respiratory tract
• Almost always carried in the intestines that may lead to
opportunistic infections e.g. following viral infection.
Zoonotic risk
• Limited, though some strains common to humans and chickens

Typical pathologies associated

with APEC. (From right to left)
Perihepatitis with fibrinous
lesions, pericarditis and
airsacculits with exudate in
respiratory tract

Diagnosis
• Largely based on pathology including fibrinous or caseous lesions
of air sacs, lungs, liver and heart.
• Culture can determine presence of E. coli
• Serotyping or molecular methods (MLST or genome sequence) to
determine pathotype
Controls
• Vaccine to O78 serotype has some efficacy
• Good biosecurity and hygiene can reduce transmission
• Antimicrobial treatment of layers may be appropriate

8
Pasteurella multocida (Fowl Cholera)

The Pathogen
• Gram negative non-motile rod
• Wide range of strains specific to species i.e. ruminant strains do
not cause disease in chickens and vice versa
Clinical signs
• Acute high mortality systemic disease which can be mistaken for
Fowl Typhoid-septicaemia, anaemia, haemorrhage and lesions on
liver are all common
• Chronic form is often associated with some increased mortality
• Chronic form typically leads to facial swelling (Comb & wattles),
decrease appetite and sometimes green
diarrhoea occurs
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Spread from bird-to bird via feed or water
contamination
• Contamination of feed and water by vermin
Zoonotic risk
• Low
Diagnosis
• Bacterial culture or PCR
• Further typing needed to confirm avian-
specific variants
Controls
• Vaccines (mainly killed bacteria)
• Good biosecurity, hygiene and rodent
control can reduce transmission Green diarrhoea is a
common feature of Fowl
• Culling of infected birds is recommended
Cholera in its chronic form
• Antimicrobial treatment can stop Picture by Hassan Iraqui
outbreaks, but care must be taken to
remove any carrier birds.

9
Clostridium perfringens (Necrotic enteritis/NE)

The Pathogen
• Gram positive spore-forming rod
• A wide range of strains produce various toxins
• Type A and NetB toxin producing strains associated with NE
• Increased prevalence when antimicrobial growth promoters are
withdrawn
Clinical signs
• Increased mortality and reduced productivity in flock
• Diarrhoea and ruffled feathers
• At post mortem necrotic lesions of the small intestine, sometimes
with a pseudomembrane structure and occasional liver lesions

A B C

Intestinal lesions in experimental necrotic enteritis. Figure A shows a heavy

pseudomembrane structure with a tan-yellow ‘Turkish Towel’ appearance. B & C
show typical lesions with some pseudomembrane.
Pictures: Filip Van Immerseel, Martina Husta & Evelien Dierick

Transmission/Epidemiology
• C. perfringens is a normal part of the intestinal microflora and
ubiquitous in the environment
• Disease most frequent in broiler chicks 2-5 weeks of age
• A number of factors (diet, stress, immunosuppression, coccidial
infection) may trigger disease
• Isolates may be transferred horizontally or vertically between birds
Zoonotic risk
• Low
Diagnosis
• Anaerobic culture on blood or clostridial isolation agar followed by
Gram staining & biochemical confirmation
• Toxin typing (PCR)
Controls
• Good biosecurity, management and hygiene
• Control of coccidiosis & modification of diet-lower content of
certain cereals such as wheat and barley may reduce incidence.

10
 Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ORT)

The Pathogen
• Gram negative, non-motile, slow-growing rod
• Recently emerging pathogen of poultry
Clinical signs
• Respiratory disease with increased mortality and reduced
productivity in flock
• Birds may have difficulty breathing and show signs of pneumonia
• Air sacculitis at post mortem and in sub-clinical cases at slaughter
is common and can lead to carcass condemnation
• May be a secondary infection to a range of viral pathogens and
can be mistaken for the chronic form of Fowl Cholera
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Bird-to-bird transmission via aerosol
• Vertical transmission via egg
• Difficulty in culture may mean infection is often overlooked
Zoonotic risk
• Negligible
Diagnosis
• Optimal culture on 5-10% sheep blood agar under microaerophilic
conditions to reduce overgrowth of other bacteria. ORT forms
small white/grey colonies
• Identification by ELISA or specific PCR
Controls
• Good biosecurity, management and hygiene
• Some success with antimicrobial treatment but assessment of
sensitivity important
• Autogenous vaccines have been used in commercial production
with mixed success.

11
 Gallibacterium anatis
The Pathogen
• Gram negative non-motile rod of family Pasteurellacae
• Previously known as Pasteurella anatis/haemolytica or
Mannheimia haemolytica
• Haemolytic isolates are associated with disease
• Both haemolytic and non-haemolytic isolates may be carried as a
commensal in upper respiratory tract
Clinical signs
• Main site of infection is reproductive tract
• Infection of ovaries and oviduct can lead to lesions and salpingitis
• Infection most typical at point-of-lay and may be accompanied by
diarrhoea
• Respiratory tract infections may also occur
Transmission/Epidemiology
• As normal commensal organism, it may be carried in flocks without
disease
• Bird-to-bird transmission
Zoonotic risk
• Low but human cases are recorded

Gallibacterium anatis after 48h

growth on Columbia Blood Agar.
Smooth grey colonies with zones
of haemolysis

Picture Stefan Walkowski

Diagnosis
• Culture on enriched media such as Columbia Blood Agar gives
smooth greyish colonies with haemolysis
• PCR and ELISA based tests are in development for confirmation
Controls
• Limited as carried as commensal
• Good biosecurity, management and hygiene

12
Mycoplasma

The Pathogen
• Mycoplasmas are small bacterial species of the family Mollicutes
which lack a bacterial cell wall
• Several species are associated with poultry with Mycoplasma
gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae most frequently
associated with chicken
Clinical signs
• M. gallisepticum causes chronic respiratory disease with reduced
productivity and reduction in egg quality. Some strains may cause
conjunctivitis
• M. synoviae may cause respiratory disease, but also affects joints
leading to lesions and often thickening of the synovial membrane
leading to swollen joints and difficulty in moving
• Mycoplasmas are frequent secondary infections
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Mycoplasmas are shed in secretions so may be spread by aerosol,
direct contact or via the environment
Zoonotic risk
• Minimal
Diagnosis
• Growth from swabs (e.g. nasal swabs)
• PCR detection
• Serological detection of exposure by ELISA or serum agglutination
-particularly useful for monitoring at flock level
Controls
• Mycoplasmas have been eliminated from many breeding flocks so
sourcing chicks from such flocks can reduce risk
• Live and killed vaccines are available
• Therapeutic antimicrobials following diagnosis

13
Infectious Coryza
Pathogen
• Caused by Avibacterium paragallinaraum (Haemophilus
paragallinarum) and less frequently Avibacterium gallinarum
• Gram-negative non-motile rod shaped bacterium with capsule
Clinical signs
• High morbidity but relatively low mortality with rapid spread
• Initial signs are nasal and eye discharge with facial swelling
• Conjunctivitis, facial swelling and swollen wattles with breathing
difficulties are main signs
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Disease is spread from bird-to-bird by direct contact or via
contaminated feed and water
• The disease is relatively short in duration but carrier birds can lead
to re-infection
Zoonotic risk
• Low
Diagnosis
• Primarily based on symptoms
• PCR or ELISA based detection
• Culture difficult
Controls
• Good biosecurity, management and hygiene
• Removal (culling) of infected and carrier birds

Swollen Wattles are a common sign of

Infectious Coryza

Photograph Sakina Rubab

14
Other Bacterial Infections

Brachyspira (Fowl Spirochaetosis)

Diarrheal (watery, often yellowish) disease caused by colonisation of
intestine with species of Brachyspira, a Gram negative spirochaete.

Enterococcus & Streptococcus

Gram positive cocci that are facultative anaerobes that may associated
with septicaemia, bone and joint infections, cellulitis and endocarditis.
Enterococci form part of the early intestinal microbiome in commercial
production and opportunistic infections may be a significant cause of
mortality in young broilers.

Staphylococcus
Staphylococci are Gram positive facultative anaerobes that may be
associated with septicaemia; bone, joint and tendon infections including
arthritis, pneumonia and infectious dermatitis and skin abscesses.

Clostridia
Other Clostridium species may also affect chickens. Clostridium colinum
can cause ulcerative enteritis. Infection with Clostridium botulinum can
lead to botulism or limberneck. As in mammals the action of the
neurotoxins produced can cause paralysis and can be fatal. A range of
species may be associated with gangrenous oedema, cellulitis and
dermatitis.

Erysipelas
Caused by the Gram-positive rod shaped bacterium Erysipelothrix
rhusiopathiae. Erysipelas manifests as a rapid-onset, acute infection
with despression and diarrhea. Inflammation may occur in multiple body
systems, which may result is patches of dark thickenned skin.

Mycobacterium avium (Avian Tuberculosis)

M. avium is a complex of mycobacteria that can infect multiple hosts. In
chickens infection is usually chronic with lesions found in lungs, liver,
spleen and digestive tract. The health of infected birds tends to
deterioate over many months.

15
 Section Two
Viral Infections

Poultry viruses are often more ‘headline grabbing’ than other infectious
agents due to the high mortality rates of some infections, and in the case
of influenza its very real potential of causing human infections. Perhaps
more than any other area the development of molecular tools have
advanced both the study and our capacity to diagnose infection directly,
rather than reliance on serological tests of exposure. Great advances
have been made in viral vaccines. On the other hand intensification of
poultry production has led to the increased prevalence of infections such
as Marek’s Disease Virus and respiratory diseases including infectious
bronchitis in allowing these viruses to spread through housed flocks.
Indeed endemic viral infections like IBV, although not responsible for
high mortality outbreaks lead to a high disease burden and economic
costs.

Unlike bacteria, there has not been the capacity for either therapeutic or
preventative drug treatment hence the greater reliance on vacination. As
genomic approaches open up new diagnostics, they also open our
understanding of disease processes and potentially new targets to allow
anti-viral therapies.

16
Newcastle Disease (NDV)
The Pathogen
• Single stranded enveloped RNA virus
• Member of Paramyxovirdiae
• Frequent cause of high mortality disease outbreaks
Clinical signs
• High mortality (up to 100%) with respiratory and nervous system
problems including twisting of head (torticollis), green diarrhoea
and swollen heads
• Mild form of infection can lead to
respiratory disease including
sneezing, nasal discharge and
coughing
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Main route of transmission from bird-
to bird via faeces
• Transmission by respiratory route
from nasal discharges etc.
• Can be carried by wild birds,
transmitted via carcasses or
transferred on boots, clothing and
tools.
Zoonotic risk
Torticollis (twisting of head)
• Negligible
due to NDV infection
Diagnosis
• Serology via Haemagglutination
Inhibition (HAI) test
• Growth of virus from tissue samples
• Molecular detection by sequencing or quantitative RT-PCR
Controls
• A range of live attenuated and inactivated vaccines available
• Culling of infected birds
• Good biosecurity and hygiene, including effective disposal of
carcasses can reduce transmission

17
 Avian Influenza (AI)
The Pathogen
• Type A Influenza (RNA) virus
• Member of Orthomyxovridiae
• Highly variable with newly evolving variants
• High Pathogenicity (HPAI) and Low Pathogenicity (LPAI) based on
variant
• Multiple serotypes (H and N), with HPAI primarily H5 & H7
serotypes
Clinical signs
• HPAI- High mortality (up to 100%) with respiratory and nervous
system problems including twisting of head (torticollis), green
diarrhoea and swollen heads (similar to NDV)
• LPAI-mainly respiratory distress and diarrhoea
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Main route of transmission from bird-to bird via
faeces.
• Transmission by respiratory route from nasal
discharges etc.
• Transmission from wild birds and rodents
including migratory birds,
• Waterfowl including a ducks a major carrier of AI. H1N1 virus
Zoonotic risk (gold) in cultured
• Significant risk of zoonotic transmission MDCK cells
• LPAI can lead to conjunctivitis (green)
• HPAI can lead to human influenza
Picture: Centers for
• H5N1 HPAI associated with significant mortality Disease Control

Diagnosis
• Serology via Haemagglutination Inhibition (HAI) test or ELISA
• Growth of virus in embryonated eggs
• Molecular detection by sequencing or quantitative RT-PCR
Controls
• No treatment
• Some vaccines available, but high variability limits protection.
Vaccines protect against disease but not carriage of virus
• Culling of infected birds
• Good biosecurity and hygiene, including effective disposal of
carcasses can reduce transmission

18


Gumboro (Infectious Bursal Disease)

The Pathogen
• Double stranded non-enveloped RNA virus
• Member of Birnoviridiae
• Cause of immunosuppressive disease that targets the Bursa of
Fabricius/B lymphocytes
Clinical signs
• Depletion of B lymphocytes leading to reduced antibody production
• Increased susceptibility to a range of infections and poor vaccine
responses
• Acute infection in older birds can lead to a disseminated infection
leading to listless birds that often huddle together
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Rapid spread from bird-to bird via faeces or respiratory route
Zoonotic risk
• Negligible
Diagnosis
• Serology by ELISA
• RT-PCR
Controls
• Live attenuated vaccines and immune complex (live vaccines
coupled with antibody) available-usually delivered via drinking
water
• Vaccination of breeders is important to give early protection via
maternally-derived antibody
• Good biosecurity and hygiene can reduce transmission
 Marek’s Disease (MDV)

The Pathogen
• Marek’s Disease Virus is an alpha herpesvirus (large DNA virus)
Clinical signs
• Classical Marek’s- nervous system infection leading to paralysis
typically leading to birds with a ‘hurdle jumper’ appearance.
Infection may also lead to eye infection. Classical Marek’s is most
likely to be seen in low intensity production environments
• Virulent and very virulent MDV (vMDV & vvMDV) lead to
neoplastic or tumour-forming infection more frequent in
commercial flocks. Infection leads to transformation of
lymphocytes in the blood causing them to become cancerous. This
leads to lymphoma or cancer of the blood system which is usually
fatal. MDV may also persist or become latent within the chicken
where it can persist for life or
re-emerge to cause
lymphoma.
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Rapid spread from inhalation
of feather dust/dander. Virus
particles are released from
feather follicles.
Zoonotic risk
• Negligible
Diagnosis
• Serology by ELISA
• PCR
Controls
Classical Marek’s Disease in a Backyard
• Multiple live attenuated,
Chicken in Ethiopia. Nervous system
vector and DNA vaccines
used in commercial infection leading to paralysis and ‘hurdle
jumper’ appearance
production delivered by
spray, drinking water or
in ovo.
• Early vaccines such as HVT did not prevent infection and drove
evolution of the current virulent neoplastic form.
• No treatment available so affected birds should be culled.
• Good biosecurity and hygiene can reduce transmission.

20
 Fowlpox

The Pathogen
• Double stranded DNA virus
• Member of Avipoxvirus genus
Clinical signs
• Cutaneous or ‘Dry’ Fowl Pox causes raised scab-like lesions on
un-feathered areas (Comb, Wattle, mouth, legs, vent) and may
lead reduced production
• Infection of the trachea or oesophagus may lead to lesions that
lead to impaired feed uptake and frequent secondary bacterial
infections known as ‘Wet Pox’
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Transmission is slow and primarily via airborne spread.
• Biting insects can also transmit the virus in its cutaneous form.
Zoonotic risk
• Negligible
Diagnosis
• Serology by ELISA
• RT-PCR
Controls
• Live attenuated and recombinant injectable vaccines
• Vaccination often leads to a small lesion or ‘take’ at the vaccination
site
• No direct treatment of infection, but antimicrobials
may be used against secondary bacterial infections.

Fowl Pox showing lesions

on comb and wattle.
Picture Roman Halouzka

21
 Avian Retroviruses

The Pathogen
• Avian Leukosis Virus (ALV)-alpha retrovirus group associated with
formation of tumours including sarcoma
• Rous Sarcoma Virus-first discovered oncogenic virus. Closely
related to ALV. Together form the Avian Leukosis Sarcoma Vorus
Group (ALSV or ASLV)
• Reticuloendothelial Virus (REV)-Gamma retrovirus which can lead
to leukosis (tumour) formation but often carried without disease
Clinical signs
• ALV- Can lead to a range of leukosis or cancer of blood cells
including erythroid, myeloid and lymphoid leukosis. May lead to
tumours of connective tissue (sarcoma).
• Rous Sarcoma- formation of sarcoma
• REV-Leads to three different syndromic conditions
1. Acute neoplastic disease leading to tumours in various body
systems
2. Chronic neoplasia leading to lymphoid leukosis
3. Runting disease where there is a failure of chicks to fully grow.
Transmission/Epidemiology
• ALSV-vertical and horizontal transmission, though not very
infectious.
• REV mainly horizontally transmitted in flock.
• Some possibility of biting insects transmitting viruses.
Zoonotic risk
• Negligible
Diagnosis
• ELISA & PCR-based diagnostic tests
• Similarity of clinical signs to Marek’s means specific diagnosis is
important
Controls
• Lack of specific controls and no vaccines
• Elimination of ALV in breeding flocks through culling
• REV may be present without disease

22
Avian (Metapneumovirus aMPV)

The Pathogen
• Enveloped group of RNA viruses
• Member of Paramyxovirus family
Clinical signs
• Can lead to ‘swollen head’ syndrome in broiler chickens and
breeders
• Low mortality respiratory disease in chickens which can lead to
swelling around the eyes and a nasal discharge.
• Infection in chicken can show little or no clinical signs
• Bacterial secondary infections are common
• In turkeys, infection causes a more serious disease-Turkey
Rhinotracheitis Virus
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Direct contact within flocks
Zoonotic risk
• Negligible
Diagnosis
• Serology by ELISA
• RT-PCR
Controls
• Live attenuated and inactivated vaccines
• Use of antimicrobials to control secondary bacterial infections
• Good management

23
 Infectious Bronchitis Virus (IBV)

The Pathogen
• Avian restricted Coronavirus (RNA virus)
Clinical signs
• Respiratory distress often affecting the whole flock
• Signs include coughing/sneezing, gasping and discharge from the
nasal cavity and reduced productivity
• Although morbidity is high, mortality is usually less than 5%.
• Some isolates may cause kidney damage(nephritis).
• Secondary infections are common
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Highly transmissible via aerosol route and contamination of
environment
• Multiple serotypes with distribution around the world
• The recently emerged QX-like type is a particular problem in many
countries.
Zoonotic risk
• None
Diagnosis
• Serology by ELISA or slide agglutination
• RT-PCR/ PCR can also rapidly identify serotype
Controls
• Multiple live vaccines available across serotypes including against
QX strain
• Protection across serotypes is limited, so ideal vaccination
regimen may require multiple vaccines e.g. triple vaccine.

24
 Infectious Laryngotracheitis (ILT)

The Pathogen
• Alpha herpesvirus
• Gallid herpesvirus 1
Clinical signs
• Acute respiratory disease
• Affected birds may display gasping, coughing and a foamy,
sometimes blood-stained or caseous or cheesy exudate from
mouth and nasal cavity.
• Significant mortality may occur due to haemorrhagic lesions of the
trachea restricting breathing
• Mild and latent forms of infection show few if any clinical signs
through virus may still be carried.
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Transmission primarily via airborne spread of droplets due to
coughing etc.
• Infected birds may remain carriers for life
Zoonotic risk
• Negligible
Diagnosis
• Based on clinical signs
• Serology by slide agglutination
• PCR
Controls
• Live attenuated vaccines including a fowlpox vector vaccine
• Biosecurity & management

25
 Other Viral Infections

Avian Encephalomyelitis Virus

A Picornavirus that causes Epidemic Tremor. Infection can lead to a
range of neurological problems including tremors.

Adenoviruses
Avian Adenoviruses or Aviadenoviruses are a group of DNA viruses. At
least 12 serotypes infect the chicken where they initially grow in the
intestines but may spread to cause infection throughout the body.
Disease has no specific symptoms. Infection may persist and become
latent and re-emerge later. Transmission is largely vertical through eggs.

Reoviruses
Double stranded RNA viruses including reovirus and rotavirus. Reovirus
can cause an acute viraemia, but primarily affects the joints leading to
viral arthritis. Vaccines are occasionally used in breeding flocks.
Rotaviruses, which are species-specific, can lead to enteritis and
diarrhoea.

Chicken Anaemia Virus (CAV)

A circovirus with a DNA genome. CAV is commonly carried in chicken
flocks usually sub-clinically. CAV can lead to immune suppression, with
its effects enhanced when a co-infection with other agents such as
IBDV.

Caliciviruses
A family of small non-enveloped RNA viruses associated with liver
infections in poultry giving rise to Big Liver & Spleen Disease and
Hepatitis-Splenomegaly Syndrome.

Chickens and vector-borne viruses

Birds can act as hosts for several arthropod-borne viruses. Chickens can
carry and amplify West Nile Virus, a mosquito-borne infection that can
lead to encephalitis in humans. Young chicks are susceptible to disease,
but older birds do not amplify infection and can be used as a sentinel
species in surveillance. Chickens may also carry the tick-borne zoonotic
infection Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Virus.

26
 Section Three

Other Infections

Whilst parasitic and fungal infections of the chicken are rarely a cause of
mortality, with the notable exception of some Eimeria species, they do
represent a considerable economic burden in terms of reduced
productivity. Many of these infections are more commonly seen in
backyard production where controls are often difficult to apply. Red Mite
has emerged more recently as a problem in commercial laying flocks
causing considerable welfare problems.

Fungal infection and contamination of feed stuff with fungal toxins

(mycotoxins) is both a risk to animal health and may be passed on to
people through the food chain. For example, Afalotoxins in the food
chain are associated with high levels of liver cancer.

In many cases, simple low-cost steps can be taken to reduce parasitic

infections, especially infestations with ectoparasites, that can improve
health and welfare considerably.

27
 Eimeria (coccidiosis)
The Pathogen
• Seven species of the apicomplexan protozoa Eimeria can lead to
coccidiosis in chickens
• Clinical signs
Disease can be divided into three groups based on the disease
caused:
Severe-E. brunetti. E. necatrix & E. tenella
Moderate-E. acervulina, E. maxima
Mild- E. mitis, E. praecox:
• Infection can lead to diarrhoea or dysentery, reduced food and water
intake, weight loss and visibly depressed birds.
• Can be life-threatening to birds as infection can lead to bloody
dysentery in severe cases.
• Milder disease leads to general poor health including susceptibility
to other infections and reduced productivity.
Transmission/Epidemiology
• Transmission via consumption of occysts (eggs) in faeces.
• Contamination of environment, litter, feed etc can lead to
persistent infection within flock as occysts may survive for 4 years.
Zoonotic risk
• Negligible
Diagnosis
• Detection and speciation of oocysts in faeces by microscopy or
RT-PCR.
Eimeria are mainly diagnosed through
microscopy of their oocysts from
faeces with differentiation into species
based on size and morphology. E.
maxima (pictured) are the largest
oocysts at up to 30 µm

Picture USDA-ARS
Controls
• Vaccines (live and subunit) are available but relatively expensive
and can have limited efficacy.
• Prophylactic treatment with coccidiostatic drugs (ionophoric
antimicrobials) widely used but problems with resistance, toxicity
and entry of residues into food chain mean care is needed in use.
• Good hygiene and management reduces risk of transmission.

28
Other protozoal infections
Histomonas (Blackhead)

Histomonas meleagridis is more usually associated with turkeys, but can

cause disease in chickens. It is usually transmitted via infection of the
nematode Heterakis gallinarum which colonises the caeca. Histomonas
may spread through the gut and into the liver forming lesions. Protozoa
are spread by infection of the larval stages of Heterakis shed in faeces.
Earthworms may also act as an intermediate host for the nematode and
protozoan.

Cryptosporidium

Avian-specific Cryptosporidium baileyi and Cryptosporidium meleagridis

are associated with respiratory and enteric disease respectively.
Oocysts may be shed in faeces and persist in the environment for some
time.

Leucocytozoon

Leucocytozoon spp. are arthropod-transmitted protozoa related to

Plasmodium the parasite that causes malaria. L. caulleryi is the main
species associated with the chicken infection and common in SE Asia.
Infection leads to increased mortality and anaemia. The main vectors
are blackflies and Culicoides midges.

Avian Malaria

Multiple Plasmodium species may infect birds via mosquito vectors with
P. gallinaceum, P. juxtanucleare, and P. durae considered most
pathogenic for chicken. Avian malaria may cause significant mortality in
wild and caged bird species including penguins. Although avian malaria
can cause mortality in commercial flocks, local indigenous chicken
breeds in Asia or Africa are rarely susceptible and it is not a major threat
to chicken production.

29
 Helminths (Worms)
Chickens may be infected with a range of many intestinal worms. In
general worm infections are not associated with mortality but can have
an adverse effect on productivity. Worm burdens are usually greater in
backyard production due to difficulty in control and the frequent use of
anti-helminthic drugs in commercial production. The clinical signs
associated with heavy intestinal worm burden are non-specific, but
include loss of weight, appetite, condition and productivity, and in some
cases diarrhoea with or without passage of worms or worm segments.
Diagnosis is by clinical signs, the visible presence of worms and the
identification of worm eggs in faeces by microscopy. Worm eggs shed in
the faeces are directly picked up by chickens and can also lead to
contaminated feed or water. Certain worm species, require an
intermediate host, such as an earthworm or beetle, which can be readily
eaten by the chicken when scavenging. Worm eggs can survive in
temperate conditions in the environment for many months.

Intestinal Nematodes
• Perhaps the easiest intestinal heminths to diagnose are large
roundworms, such as Ascaridia galli which can measure 5-10cm
in length. Ascaridia live in the small intestine and infection can
cause to damage of the intestinal mucosa that can lead to enteritis
and failure to thrive.
• Capillaria spp. are small nematodes that parasitize different parts
of the intestinal tract dependent on the species. High Capillaria
burdens can lead to disease.
• Heterakis gallinarum is a caecal nematode which causes little
damage itself, but in the main carrier of Histomonas.

Gapeworm
The gapeworm Syngamus trachea can be found in the trachea and
lungs of infested birds, with high burdens cause the disease gapes
which may manifest as difficulty breathing (breathing with an open beak)
and cyanosis leading potentially to death. Syngamus eggs may persist
for a long time in environment meaning the infection is most frequent in
outdoor reared animals.

Tapeworms
Multiple species of Tapeworms may be found in the chicken, with
species such as Raillietina species and Davainea proglottina found in
the small intestine the most frequently associated with clinical disease.

30
Ectoparasites

Scaly Leg Mite

• Scaly leg mites (Cnemidocoptes mutans) are common microscopic

parasites that burrow and live within the skin of the birds’ feet and
legs.
• Heavy infestation will cause raised scales, crusting and distortion
of the skin which in severe cases can lead to malformation,
lameness and secondary infection of affected tissue.
• Transmitted by direct contact with infected birds.

Scaly Leg Mite infestation on an

adult bird.
Scaly leg mite is a difficult parasite to
treat. Treatment involves a
combination of softening the scales,
via gentle regular washing, together
with application of treatment to
suffocate or kill the mites, such as
paraffin jelly (Vaseline), paraffin,
mineral oil or an insecticide.
Treatment may take several months
to have effect.

Red Mite & other skin mites

• Mites are generally very small arthropods, just visible to the naked
eye, and fast moving on the skin of the bird.
• They are bloodsucking and heavy infestations can lead to irritation
and severe blood loss that affects the overall condition of the birds
• The Red Poultry Mite, Dermanyssus gallinae, lives in the housing
environment and largely feeds on birds at night.
• Ornithonyssus sylviarum and Ornithonyssus bursa are other main
species of mites that live on chicken but feed during day and night.

31
 • Mites can be controlled by use of insecticides or through
fumigation of houses. There should be a withdrawal period on
consuming eggs of met following insecticide treatment

The Red Poultry Mite

(Dermanyssus gallinae)

Picture Gilles San Martin

Ticks
• Ticks are blood-sucking parasites that can be found on the skin,
particularly areas with little or no feather cover, such as the face
and under wings. Although small, all life stages, usually a blue-
brown colour, are typically visible on the bird.
• Infested animals may lose condition and show reduced
productivity. The skin, comb and wattles may become pale due to
blood loss, and red spots may be seen on the skin where the ticks
have fed
• The main species is the Fowl Tick (Argas persicus) though
chickens may host other species normally associated with
mammals including sheep and cattle ticks
• Ticks often feed at night, living in cracks and crevices of housing in
the day.
• Reduction of ticks in housing, including use of insecticides can
help in control.
• Ticks may also act as vectors/carriers of several infections.

Fleas
• The stick-tight or stick-fast flea (Echidnophaga gallinacea) is
commonly found in warm tropical and sub-tropical climates.
• Fleas are often visible in clusters firmly attached to the skin,
typically around the eyes, on the face, comb and wattles.
• Adult fleas feed on blood and stay firmly attached to the bird, while
eggs and nymphs remain in the surrounding environment.

32
 • Flea infestations may lead to irritation and blood loss leading to
poor condition. Heavy infestations in young birds can lead to death
through anaemia.

Heavy infestation with

the stick-tight flea,
E.gallinacea. Clusters
of female fleas can be
seen attached to the
featherless skin around
the eyes, wattle and
face. Fleas should not
be physically removed
but treated with
Vaseline or paraffin.

Lice

• Chewing lice are small, rapidly moving, yellow/brown parasites,

often visible to the naked eye, which can be found over the entire
skin and feathers of the bird.
• Species commonly found include Menacanthus stramineus,
Menacanthus cornutus, Menopon gallinae, Goniodes gigas and
Goniocotes gallinae.
• Lice are transmitted mainly through direct contact between birds,
though heavy infestations and overcrowding can lead to
transmission via shared infested bedding and roosts.
• Birds can usually tolerate mild to moderate infestations, but heavy
infestations can lead to anaemia through blood loss and lead to
lost productivity.
• Infestations may also lead to local skin irritation and damage.
• Strict sanitation, avoiding overcrowded housing, providing dust or
ash baths for the birds can help to treat lice, as will keeping
roosting areas, nests, bedding and litter clean.
• Insecticidal treatments and powders licensed for the treatment of
mites can be used under the guidance of a veterinary or poultry
specialist.

33
 The yellow body louse Menacanthus cornutus on light microscopy
(100x).

Clusters of lice seen infesting the vent area of a hen. (Right), feather and
skin damage typical of lice infestation (Left)

34
Fungal Infections & Mycotoxins

Aspergillosis
Respiratory infection caused by various species of Aspergillus.
Inhalation of spores, usually coupled with poor flock management (cold,
high ammonia, excessively dusty housing) may lead to granulomatous
lesions in trachea, lungs or air sacs. More frequent in chicks where it is
called Brooder Pneumonia.

Candidiasis
Infection of crop, oral cavity or oesophagus with species of Candida,
most frequently Candida albicans, can lead to crop mycosis or thrush.
More common in younger birds. Most frequently occurs following
antimicrobial therapy.

Favus/Ringworm/White Comb
Dry, scaly and often crusty lesions on unfeathered skin (comb, wattle,
legs) caused by dermatophytic fungi, most commonly Trichophyton
species.

Mycotoxicoses
Disease caused by ingesting fungal (myco) toxins found in feed or litter
are called mycotoxicoses. Growth of fungi may take place on grain used
for food, or more frequently during storage of grain or processed feeds.
Avoiding contaminated grain and good storage conditions for grain and
feed (dry and cool) reduce risk. Commercially produced feeds should
test for mycotoxins in grain prior to formulation. Mycotoxins can both
directly affect the health of birds or lead to increased susceptibility to
common infections. In general, the effects of toxins are more
pronounced in younger birds. Mycotoxins may also accumulate in
muscle and in eggs which can enter the food chain and pose a risk to
human health, notably increased risk of liver cancer.

35
The major mycotoxins found in poultry are summarised in the table
below:

Toxin Type & Where Effects of toxin Comments

Source found
Afalotoxins- Maize, Liver damage, Most frequent
Aspergillus Peanuts Immunosuppression, toxicosis of
flavus/parasiticus Millet, Metabolic problems poultry.
Sorghum and
other grains
Ochratoxin- Maize, Kidney damage, Often found
Aspergillus Peanuts Immunosuppression in conjunction
ochraceus Millet, with
Sorghum and afalotoxins
other grains
Trichothecence Wheat Necrotic Ulcers most
mycotoxins- Maize lesions/ulcers on common in
Fusarium, epithelial mouth and on
Stachybotrys & membranes, tongue
others Feather loss,
Immunosuppression
Others: Cereals Various-but tend to
Citrinin manifest as poor
Oosporein wait gain/low
Moniliformin productivity
Ergot

36
 Section Four

Management of chicken production

Management of poultry is a complex subject and largely outside of the

intentions of this guide. Here we aim to give some basic understanding
of good practice that can be used by large or small producers and to
give veterinarians and animal health officers some information to help
provide advice in maintaining health and welfare.

37
Diet

Providing chickens with clean water and a balanced feed is very

important to the health of poultry, as well as to maximize production. The
feed should be high in its nutritional content and fulfil the nutrient
requirement of chickens, which varies with age and production stage. In
commercial production feed requirements are met to maximise
production of the bird. For example, in Europe diets are based mainly
around wheat or barley with vegetable protein and other supplements. In
North America maize-based diets are more common.
In developing industries access to commercial feed is not always
available or may be variable in nutritional content. Backyard production a
scavenging-based diet, with or without supplement to the diet may be
more common. However, it is clear that supplementary feeding is
needed to maximise productivity and support health and should be use
whenever possible. Feed may be commercially-produced or sourced
locally with what is available. In certain countries, such the United
Kingdom, the use of ‘left over’ human food for chickens is prohibited due
to concerns around zoonotic infections.

Fresh drinking water should always be available and it is important that

both feeders and drinkers are kept clean and regularly disinfected to
reduce the risk of disease transmission.

Top tips.

• Ensure feed is stored in a cool, dry place to avoid fungal growth

and mycotoxins
• Ensure birds are fed a balanced diet. Absence of some
micronutrients (minerals and vitamins) from the diet can lead to
range of nutritional diseases
• Ideally commercial feed should be heat treated to reduce the risk
of pathogen transmission
• Excessive feed should not be left on the ground to avoid attracting
vermin
• Drinkers and feeders should be cleaned and disinfected regularly

Housing

Commercially produced chickens, both layers and broilers, are usually

housed. Layers may be caged, barn-housed or have access to outside
space (free range). Broilers are usually reared in sheds on the floor,
though like layers may have outside access in free range systems. In

38
backyard production, specific housing may be provided, shared with
other livestock or even people.

Housing provides shelter, protection from predation and can help

reduce the entry of infection into a flock. Ideal housing should provide
warmth but be well-ventilated. For hens, the provision of perches and
next boxes helps promote natural behaviours and improves welfare and
productivity with even large-scale egg producers adopting these
enhancements. Housing should be designed to allow easy cleaning and
disinfection as required.

Litter should be provided to absorb faecal material. A range of substrate

including straw, paper, cocoa shells and wood shavings may be used.
In Europe litter is replaced between broiler flocks, but in North America
‘Deep Litter’ systems are used, meaning additional litter is added with
the theory that heat acts to kills any pathogens present. There is
increasing evidence that deep litter systems are poorer for bird welfare
and pose a greater risk in disease transmission.

A separate brooder area for rearing chicks may also be useful,

especially in backyard systems. This can allow supplementary feeding of
the chicks without competition from older birds and provide protection.
Simple constructions, even based around cardboard boxes can be used
successfully.

Top Tips:

• Housing helps reduce the risk of predation and improve welfare

• Housing should be well-ventilated with clean and absorbent litter
material
• Cleaning and regular replacement of litter material can help reduce
disease transmission
• Provision of nest boxes and perches should be considered

Biosecurity

The basis of biosecurity is to limit the exposure of flock to disease-

causing organisms. Whilst there is no single correct way to undertake
biosecurity as all farms and production systems may differ, there are
common approaches and rules that can be followed.

39
Isolation, traffic control and sanitation are the three biosecurity
principles which should be implemented in all production systems to
prevent occurrence of disease in a flock, but how these are applied can
be based on three main approaches

1. Procedural Biosecurity- identifying strategies to implement

biosecurity, who will manage them and how they will be achieved
2. Physical biosecurity- The structural components around
biosecurity such as equipment, buildings, hygiene barriers such as
foot dips and vehicle washes, barriers to vermin etc.
3. Operational biosecurity- putting the identified procedures into
place and appropriate record keeping.

Procedural Biosecurity is based around identification of risks and what

can be done in a practical way to reduce these risks.
Step one: Identify what are the main disease risks and how are these
likely to be brought into a flock.
Step two: What can be done to reduce these risks?
Step three: Put in place controls and management procedures.
Physical Biosecurity is the mainstay of biosecurity. It is putting in place
barriers to reduce the likelihood of a disease entering a farm. It can
include:
• Ensuring poultry houses are well built and maintained to reduce
the risk of vermin entering
• Buildings are located away from water where migratory waterfowl
may land
• Procedures are in place to effectively deal with waste litter and
faecal material
• Safe disposal (e.g. incineration of dead birds)
• Provision of clean water and feed
• Fencing to prevent vermin or unwanted visitors
• House chickens separately from other animals
• Providing hygiene barrier such as foot dips on entry, vehicle
washes
• Vaccination and disease monitoring prorammes
• Providing quarantine quarters for new birds brought onto a farm
• Provision of dedicated protective clothing and equipment for a farm
or each house in large scale farms

Operational Biosecurity is the day-today delivery of a biosecurity plan.

It may include:

40
 • Record keeping of cleaning, sanitation, use of vaccines or
medication
• Exclusion of unauthorised visitors and records of any visitors kept
• Ensuring any staff comply with measures in place e.g. use
protective clothing, foot dips etc.
• Providing staff training and updates
• Provide protective clothing for visitors
• Avoid bringing equipment onto site unless disinfected thoroughly

The biosecurity regime adopted will depend very much on the type of
production and site. Whilst the above would be appropriate for a large
commercial farm, not all are practical or affordable for a small backyard
farm. However, basic measures such as foot dips, dedicated protective
clothing and prevention of wild birds and vermin should be considered
on even the smallest farm.

Hygiene & disinfection

As mentioned above disposal of waste material and dead birds safely

can reduce the likelihood of disease persisting within a flock. Whilst
large scale producers will have a dedicated waste procedure, for small
scale producers, disposal of dead birds by incineration or burying (with
lime) can reduce disease transmission. Used litter may be burned or
composted to reduce pathogen load.

Regular cleaning or disinfection are important, especially if using an ‘all,

in all out’ system which means housing can be regularly cleaned and
disinfected between flocks. Cleaning of drinkers and feeders is
important. All equipment should be cleaned and disinfected on a regular
basis. Many different disinfectants are available and choice should be
made based on the nature of housing and affordability.

Ideally in use disinfectants should:

• Have low toxicity.
• Be made up to the appropriate working concentration
• Replaced regularly, especially in foot dips and where there is high
organic contamination (litter, faeces etc.) and records kept of this
• Have a wide spectrum of activity and stably maintain its activity
over a period of time.
• Be cost effective.

41
Management of backyard flocks in developing countries

Every backyard or village system is, by its definition, unique to the

householder but in many households, relatively low input improvements
in management can increase productivity of both eggs and meat. There
are obvious advantages in both vaccination and the use of
supplementary feeding if affordable, and there is an argument that
rearing smaller flocks with improved health and welfare may be more
economically viable than over-extending flock sizes. The information
given here is very much a guideline of good practice rather than ‘an
ideal’ production system.

Stock selection
The following points should be considered when selecting or rearing
birds:
• Purchase of chicks or breed from existing stock. Whilst rearing
chicks is cheaper, it will require more time.
• When purchasing stock ensure you use a reliable disease-free
supplier.
• Consider having a period of quarantine for newly purchased flock in
case of carriage of infectious agents.
• Consider whether commercial hybrid breeds or local breeds are
better suited to your needs. Whilst in theory commercial breeds are
more productive, local chickens are better adapted to local
conditions and are usually more resistant to diseases found in the
area and better adapted to local environmental conditions.

Housing
Basic housing constructed out of locally available materials can help
decrease losses of birds and improve welfare. Rearing birds away from
the family house can also reduce the chance of transmission of a
zoonotic infection. Any housing should provide shelter but be easy to
clean and well-ventilated.

42
 Basic accommodation constructed from
local materials such as this chicken shed
in Ethiopia can protect birds from
predation and the spread of infection from
wildlife. Chickens are usually housed
overnight and forage outside at day.


Feeding

As described above, the provision of high quality, nutritious feed can

enhance productivity. This can range from a simple handful of grain to
more complex commercial diets. It is also vital that chickens have
access to a clean and plentiful water source. Storage of feed to avoid
contamination with pathogens, especially from faecal contamination by
rodents and wild birds is important, as is ensuring a dry and relatively
cool storage area to avoid the growth of fungi and production of
mycotoxins. In general it is better to avoid ‘medicated‘ feeds as their use
in the absence of disease can led to antimicrobial resistance and
furthermore it is difficult to be certain that the listed ingredient is present
in the quantity stated or indeed may not be that ingredient at all. It is
more advisable to medicate animals as and when required.

The simplest form of feeding is

ground feeding, where small
quantities of grain or pelleted
feeds are scattered amongst a
flock. For small numbers of birds
this is a good method as it is quick
and easy and allows the birds to
forage for the feed promoting
natural behaviour. However, in
larger flocks it is difficult to ensure
all birds receive feed and leaving
larger amounts on the floor is not recommended as this may attract
vermin or wild birds.

43
For larger groups, it is better to place larger quantities of feed in a
dedicated feeder. These can be purchased commercially or constructed
at home. Metal and plastic are
easier to disinfect, but wooden
feeders that use readily available
materials can also be effective. Any
feeder should be cleaned regularly
to avoid contamination. Any feed
left uneaten in feeders after several
days should be discarded to avoid
fungal growth.

Fresh water should be provided for

birds at all times. Bell drinkers are a
good choice for small producers as the
water does not evaporate and is less
likely to become contaminated. Metal or
plastic drinkers are widely available, but
it is also possible to use waste plastic
bottles to form a basic drinker. Bell
drinkers such as the picture shown
here also allow several animals to drink
at the same time.


Nesting and brooding chicks

Perching and nesting are key natural behaviours for hens. Provision of
nest boxes allows this behaviour
and means that eggs are more
likely to be laid in the same place
regularly and make collection for
sale, consumption or to be used
to hatch new chicks easier. Eggs
in a nest are less likely to be
trampled on or broken than those
laid on the ground. Simple nests
can be made from a cardboard or
plastic box with some bedding
material. The material should be changed regularly and the box cleaned,
though nesting birds are best left undisturbed.

44
For larger groups a simple nest box construction may be made insider a
poultry house that allows several hens to nest and perch.

Where eggs are to be set to hatch

chicks, it is best to select hens with
good brooding instincts. A fertile
egg takes around 21 days to
develop and can be incubated by a
hen or in an incubator. Small
incubators are widely available but
need a constant power supply.
When hatched, chicks need
protection from predation and from
older, larger birds. They also need to be kept warm. Whilst some of this
can come from the mother, it is also possible to use a brooder to rear the
chicks on from hatch. In cooler climates, chicks may be provided with a
heat source such as a lamp or a burner, though care must be taken to
avoid direct contact with the chick or bedding and litter. In warm
climates, such as South East Asia, chicks may not need an additional
heath source. Various home constructed brooders can be made to help
rear chicks.

Home constructed brooder

in the Philippines.
Construction is a large
cardboard box with mesh
roof and newspaper on the
base. Chicks are provided
with a bell drinker and feed
in small troughs

45
 A ‘Hay Box’ Brooder in Ethiopia. Of
simple wooden construction these
boxes can protect and keep chicks
warm especially overnight. Their
use leads to increased productivity.

46

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