Formula and physical significance for the gradient of a, scalar field .

1•

The scalar field can be mapped out by a -series of level surfaces (surface where scalar field has
constant value) .. Consider two such surfaces, very close to each other, as ~ .
shown in fig. (1 ). These surfaces are specified by constant scalar function S s + dS-:.---r----
ap.~.s + dS respectively. Let A and Bare two points on these surfaces and O
is a point outside the surfaces. Let r and r + dr be the radius vectors of
points A and B with respect to origin O respectively. The vector drawn from
A to B will be dr (·: AB= OB - OA = r + dr - r = dr). Let the normal
-
dn

drawn from the point A of surface S is AC and fi is the unit vector along the
normal. Now certainly AC will be minimum distance between the two A
surfaces. Suppose the angle between AB and AC is e.
Now the magnitude of the rate of increase of Sat point A .in the direction
AB is as J Br. Similarly, the rate of increase of Sin the direction AC is as I an. Fig. (1)
From L\. ABC, AC= AB cos 8 or an =ar cos 8
as
-----
·as or
as as
-=-cose.
an ar cos e ar an ... (1)

It is obvious from eq. (1) that as Jar is maximum when 8 = 0 because now cos e = l S th .
· r· · o e maximum
value of as Jar is as Jan. In this way the maximum rate o increase of a scalar function S t . . .
. . . a anypomtma
scalar field is given, in magrutude and direction by the vector
as,..
-0,
an
W here O is the unit normal vector at that point. The vector is definer, as the gradi· t f h ·
that point and is written as
en °
t e seal ti Id S t
ar re a
grads= as fi ,
en
Thus the 5'oradient
., A .,_.......,
of a scalar
.
field
h Sis. a. vector
nd h whose. magnitude
. at a ny point
. is
.
. ~......m rate of-increase
,naxt,,. .. ,,.... ·
of S at t at point a w ose direction is along th
· .... h · I · ;r. ·
equal to the
e normal t 'I.
swfdee· at that poinJ. This gives 11,e p ~sic.a stgmjtcance of gradient of scalar field. o I te level
.. - ·- ,, ...],!_ - .. _ -
 DIVERGENCEC)F A.VECTOR_ F!ELD
The operator can be im olve i in the multiplicution with n vector. The scalar or dot product of
- itl .......... A (,· v • A is called as divergence. 11u• ,JJ,,erg_ enco
operator Wl 1 a \'eelur . ' ' - I
vectorfield at Qny
I 1'1 -1 • •
point is defined as the amount offlux per unit volume 1/lt•t1rgi11g from l,111t 1u1 nt. 10 uivergence llf a
«: I

scalar.
Let A be a vector function differentiable at each point (.,·, y, z) Ill n region o space. - ow t e
. · f N h
divergence of A is given by
~ •A = i --- + j - + k
ax y
--J •
~
(i A.\' + j A.)' + k A z)

aA. aA" a;L

=-·\ +---· +-
y
l .
• ~ <14 aA). aA.
divA=V•A=-·-t +-·-+-'"
ax oy . fjz
This is the expression of divergence in cartesian coordinates.
Derivation of the expression
Consider a small rectangular parallelepiped in vector field as shown in fig. (2). Let dx. dy and dz be
the lengths of the sides of parallelepiped parallel to the coordinntc )(. Y and Z axes respectively. Let a
vector A represent the velocity of a fluid centre C with components A.,·. A>' and A: along the three axes
~tively. LetoAx lax represent the rate of change of A.,· along the X-axis. Similarly BAY I oy and oA z I oz
will be the rate of change of Ay and A:: along }- and Z-nxes respectively.

Er----.----~
: Ay.t. AP Ax+1~dx '_1~ r,
'
:
'/~
)C - ..
M
--.+,--,.
2 o«
1 cAx N : Az,:'C Ax J r

Ax-2 ax ax :
)-------------
, ,.. G
, ..
H ax s
Fig. (2)
 The value of A.r at the centre ~ of face PQRS
= value of A_t at the centre C + increase in magnitude from M
= value of Ax at the centre+ rate of change x distance
aA:c lit . I aA
=A.r +--X-=A +--,tdx
ox . 2 .t 2 ax
Similarly the magnitude at the centre N of face EFGH
-A I oA :r .s.
- .r ----u ..."t
2 ax
The negative sign is taken because N is towards Jeft of C.
\Ve know that the value of the fluid flowing per unit time through a face is equal to the product of the
area of the face and normal component of the vector upon it. This is known as flux through the face. Hence

Aux entering the face EFGH =( Ax - ~ o:: dx )dydz,

where dy dz is the area of face EFGH ,

and Flux leaving the face PQRS =(Ax+..!. aAx dx)dy dz

2 ax _
The excess of flux leaving the parallelopiped over that entering in x-direction is given by

1 aA x
= A +--dx ) 1 aA.r
dy dz= ( A ---dx ) dy dz
( x 2 ax .r 2 ox
= aA r dx dy dz
ox
Similarly, the net flux leaving the parallelopiped in Y- and Z-directions are
aA aA_ -
_Y dx dy dz and _.. dx dy dz
ay oz
:. Total flux leaving or diverging from paraJlelopiped
aA aA)' aA ~ d: d d
=-x-,frdydz+-dtdydz+-~ r Y z
ax 0' m
=-- aAlt aA.,.
-+--+- aA.: )dx d y ~
dr ; : t
( at...... "
ay ;:i_
oc

Here
.
dx ch-
~
dz is the volume of the elementary paraJlelopiped. Hence the amount of flux diverging per

=( :: +~ + :, J
hi is defined as divergence of A. Thus
·a4a4a4
dh1A=-2..+-+--".
.... ;:,,,..
': ' ""~f ""\
CZ. '
l l ysh nl s :, 111fr·.,, ,e ·of Iiv l g nc ~
tt« pltJ'.dcnl sig·n fu:lllr tf dn>1}rg n ,· o· 11, 11,r fl Id 's lhtit at a poi t ii ·
1·

fT,u t e r unit w hnn · ilfr r,gin~ }nm, tl1at i otnt. f,or wimph., If • r 1 . · Ill t!J v t ct J' ,of 1 fluid
· Uq11id ,,. gas) \i. •t - . q rl, n div v ~h s tlu mt, ofjl H of llt Jluitl al tl1ntpo nt p f _,111 volume. I
Iiv ,~ l)l;,·hi, ut that p int, th n ithcr th fluid L und r ti· , ansi n wi h i d n ·ny fa1fl'ng
l. ro orti nut ly) or the point its His as urc f Ilui l iimilarl , . neg: riv· v Ju . f h · iv iv m
I
tt,at
hh r \htz 11nid is unde rg in , ontrn .tion densit is risin at that p int) r th p int rves a ink. lf.
h -l\ sv r, 1h v 0. th nth fluid nterinz and 1 .uvin th el m nt i th arne, i.e. th r i · no change tn
tl d 1 sity of the fluid or fluid is incompre .ible . The v tor ati fying rhi c ndition i ruled
sol noidul.
'I he div rge nc of current density J gives the amount of charge flowing out per unit volume per
second fr m a small element of closed surface around that point. V • J = 0, shows that the medium i of
ft . harg s. Similarly, V •Bin magnetism, shows that magnetic flux is a closed.