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Effects of Embankments on the Habitation of the Southwestern Coastal

Region of Bangladesh

Article · March 2013

DOI: 10.3850/S179392402013001774

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November 24, 2006 10:38 RPS/AJEDM-Journal 00177

Asian Journal of Environment and Disaster Management

Vol. 5, No. 1 (2013) 65–80
c Research Publishing Services
doi:10.3850/S179392402013001774

Effects of Embankments on the Habitation of the Southwestern

Coastal Region of Bangladesh

Tahmina Rahman1 and Khondaker Hasibul Kabir2

1 PostgraduatePrograms in Disaster Management, BRAC University,
66, Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
E-mail: trahman@bracuniversity.ac.bd
2 Department of Architecture, BRAC University.

E-mail: khkabir@bracuniversity.ac.bd

Earthen embankments have been used since the ancient times for flood protection in the
Bengal plains. Mud is abundant, less expensive and it takes only manual labor to construct.
It acts as a wall to protect the land and have become part of the cultural landscape. It disin-
tegrates over time mixing with its surrounding. But a sudden collapse of it brings disasters.
The coastal embankments in the southwestern region of Bangladesh were constructed in the
nineteen sixties to lessen damages from cyclonic storm surges. Though it acts as protection,
poor maintenance of it often fails to give security.
This paper searches the parameters of security the embankments provide to the settle-
ments. The historical sequence is probed here and related with the present state.
Over time embankments have created associated environmental degradations. Sea level
rise is becoming prominent for the sedimentation on the other side. The ecology is chang-
ing into salinity intrusion water character for the changed river patterns. Holes in the
embankments to bring in saline water for shrimp cultivation degrade it more. It became
more prominent after cyclone Aila of 2009, a massive natural disaster, in terms of economic
and environmental damages. In a short-term mind-set it seems that this practice cannot be
changed. But it is being realized that embankments are on the contrary disintegrating the
habitations and changing the environment which had been artificially changed in the first
place. This paper also tries to understand the traditional practices as alternatives.

Keywords: Earthen embankment, human habitation, landscape.

1. Introduction

Considerable time has passed since cyclone Aila hit the south of Bangladesh
on May 25, 2009. One of the major damages caused by Aila was breeching of
embankments. Though this was overlooked initially, it brought other long term
subsequent damages especially in Khulna and Shatkhira districts,1 the southwest-
ern region of Bangladesh. This large stretch of land has geographical and weather
type similarities with the Sundarbans, the mangrove forestland in the proximity.

65
November 24, 2006 10:38 RPS/AJEDM-Journal 00177

66 Tahmina Rahman and Khondaker Hasibul Kabir

But since the embankment construction especially during the nineteen sixties the
temperament of the land and bio region had changed for the increased interference
of human habitations. The region enveloped became separated from the coastal
tidal effects unlike the Sundarbans.
Cyclones are a part of the ecosystem in the region. The funnel shaped coast
attracts depressions towards the land that often travels far inside. Bangladesh has
experienced 36 cyclonic storms since 1970.2 Some recent examples before cyclone
Aila are cyclone Bijli in April, 2009, cyclone Rashmi in October, 2008, and cyclone
Sidr in November, 2007. Besides these significant ones, the region experiences
many small local cyclones with rain and strong tides. Damages of embankments
from strong wind, rain and surge from cyclones are common in addition to the
regular weathering effects. These natural forces reshape the land when human
interventions fail in reconstructions of the habitations.

2. Background and the Problem

The economy of the place is dependent on fishing. Hence people stay close to
water. Agriculture is secondary for the shortage of sufficient sweet water. Unlike
many regions of the country, the land here does not produce three annual harvests
but only one harvest of rice. The brackish setting has created an opportunity for
shrimp cultivation. Increased international demand of it in the recent times has
promoted it in many folds. Shrimp farming is done in long stretching shallow

Figure 1 Layout of settlement considering the water course and embankment.

November 24, 2006 10:38 RPS/AJEDM-Journal 00177

Effects of Embankments on the Habitation 67

ponds locally called gher with low mud walls separating these from one another.
Easy approach to maintain the environment of the ponds is making holes in the
embankments to let saline water in. This transforms the sweet water ecology into
a saline one. In a larger context shrimp farms are part of the habitation and in the
domain of the inhabitants. Agricultural lands are transformed into shrimp farms
in many places for the increased and quick economic return. But this change is
again forced that once more degrades the environment.
The water courses shape the ecological layout of the settlements. These are gen-
erally on natural levee and embankments provide protection. Mud is abundant for
the incessant sedimentations. It is inexpensive as gathered from the surroundings
and no carrying cost is required too. Embankments are constructed by manual
labor. People stand in line and shoveled earth is passed from hand to hand in
baskets or chunks to pile in continuous row. Compactness gradually occurs with
self weight. Grass and afforestation help in retaining it.
Thus embankments made of natural materials act as walls in the ecological
setting that separate the habitations from surroundings. Change in the water
course brings change to these. New ones are erected according to need and old
ones disintegrate due to natural forces when left uncared. New hazards like
saline intrusion, tidal effects and flooding make noticeable damages. As a result
settlements that are otherwise set on protected ground become vulnerable.
The objective of the paper is to search how the coastal embankments change
the habitations and thus shape the settlement pattern and landscape, and the
parameters of security it provides.
The methodology is to probe its historical sequences in the landscape, and
relate it with two small settlements in the saline tidal floodplain of Khulna and
Shatkhira to understand the ecological settings and changes. The information from
the settlements was gathered through regular visits, transect walks, observations
and discussions with the inhabitants over an extended period of time, immediately

Figure 2 Habitation on the slope of damaged embankment.

November 24, 2006 10:38 RPS/AJEDM-Journal 00177

68 Tahmina Rahman and Khondaker Hasibul Kabir

Figure 3 Habitation in high tide after embankment damage.

after and throughout in the years after the disaster Aila.

3. Historical Background

The Ganges-Brahmaputra delta landmass referred to as Bengal or “Banga” is

associated with the word Vanga. According to Ali, a school of thought states Vanga
has been derived from the Tibetan word Bans meaning wet and moist3 . He states
another explanation quoting the sixteenth century Mughal historian Abul Fadl that
the original name of Bengal was Bang. Its former rulers raised mounds of ten yards
in height and twenty in breadth throughout the province which was called al and
from this the name Bengal has been derived.4
It may be concurred that earthen mounds were an element of cultural
landscape in Bengal plain for its fluvial character. If affiliation is drawn from
the statements, perhaps it was practiced for water management for agriculture,
navigation and flood control. During the colonial time it was observed that annual
repair of certain embankments would guard the inundation for certain districts
and places and if the embankments, reservoirs and water courses were enlarged or
put in proper state of repair, a sufficient proportion of crops may be preserved from
drought or inundation to prevent famine that the country has so often suffered5.
Bengal had 1298 miles of embankment by 19006. But these were widely scattered
and not continuous, and perhaps could not provide reasonable flood protection to
even 5 percent of the land7 .
Taylor portrayed the rural landscape of nineteenth century as “. . . the interior of
the plain is studded with villages, built upon artificial mounds of earth raised above the
height of the inundation. These little islands vary in extent, some of them only affording
room for the huts of two or three families of ryotts with their cattle, while others are of
a considerable size, and are covered with villages and gardens”.8 This illustrates the
November 24, 2006 10:38 RPS/AJEDM-Journal 00177

Effects of Embankments on the Habitation 69

riverine floodplain landscape. Novak relates Bangladesh with water as “it has water
from rivers, the sea, rain, wells, tidal waves, floods, dew and humidity, and the melting
snow of the Himalaya Mountains; water that is tidal and fresh, sweet and brackish; water
that is blue, green, muddy brown, gray – water, the stuff of Bangladesh”.9 The deltaic
coast distinct in tidal flooding from the rivers and the sea shapes the character of
the embankments and habitations there.
Considering population and land quantity in parts of Bengal and other parts of
India it is found that small villages in Bangladesh region “seemed to have continued
till the early years of the century”, settlement pattern was linear, these were not
isolated entities but connected with each other through water routes10 . Houses in
eastern and southern Bengal were built on the ground and not on stilts as perhaps
the need for protection against wild animals was not a concern.11 Clearing the
mangrove forest was critical for reclaiming settlements as these cannot be burnt
and these renew automatically, so it became necessary to clear and embank lands to
guard against salinity12 . Sunderbans was not under the jurisdiction of “The Bengal
Embankment Act 1873”.13 But it was found that the zaminders had applied (to the
government) for embankments to protect the newly cleared lands.14
The history of the human settlements in the Sundarbans region is identical with
that of the lower Bengal.15 A chronology of settlements can be found when it is
traced through the different rulers’ time, ethnic background of these early settlers
can be found too.16 But a distinct pattern of the settlements and the habitation
influenced from water and embankments are hard to trace from literatures.
Coastal embankments were constructed in early as 17th century by the
patronage of the zaminders.17 These were in small dwarf sizes called bherry bund
to protect the land leased to farmers to pay back a part of income from paddy
production, but fishing lease was excluded from land and given to the highest
bidder.18 Paddy and fish in rotation were main economic activities; “during rainy
season tide water was introduced in the area by cutting the bherry. Fish laden water was
retained in the creeks and trenches traversing the paddy field. During rainy season fish
spread all over the area finding extensive grazing ground on the flooded paddy field. The
fish were prevented from escaping from the bherry areas by fixing grating made of split
bamboo fence across the wooden sluice gate”.18 Fish was collected from August at the
end of monsoon till December in dry winter by draining off rain water; the land
was left fallow till the next monsoon.18 Gaps in the bherry were closed with the
arrival of monsoon to retain rain water, occasionally river water from upstream
was allowed.18
Westland’s writing19 informs the study locations fell in Jessore district in the
colonial time. He narrates the northern part of the district as generally highland
and free from inundation; the central tract low lying, filled with marshes and
connected with rivers and canals; and the southern part as the Sundarbans with
portions of lands reclaimed for rice cultivation. It was found from the conducted
study and from his descriptions that the study area of Shatkhira fell in the marshy
wetland and that of Khulna in the reclaimed portion. While there were large
November 24, 2006 10:38 RPS/AJEDM-Journal 00177

70 Tahmina Rahman and Khondaker Hasibul Kabir

and prosperous villages in the north, villages in actual sense did not exist and
population was very sparse in the marshy part.20 The reclaimed lands most often
had no habitations, rice grew depending on inundation, and farmers came from
the north in boats during the sowing and harvesting time and lived in rice fields
in temporary shelters or under open sky.20 It was found that in 1872, the total
land brought under cultivation was 2,815 square kilometers, and two-thirds of it
had been reclaimed during 1830–1872.21 The total settled area was 5,219 square
kilometers in 1904.21
It may be argued that settlements here are comparatively new considering
other parts of Bengal. Embankments provided protection against inundation,
crop failures from calamities controlled shrinking of the settlements.22 Floods
and cyclones significantly damaged the embankments, cutting of these for fixing
fishing cages added to the damages.23 Harrison states that embankment to rivers
that rise gradually and inundate the banks to a gentle process have been found to
do more harm than benefit.24 But those of the rivers within tidal influence keep the
saline water out to make the cultivation successful.24
Coastal Embankment Project in systematic and large scale approach started
from the 1960s by the then East Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority,
that later became Bangladesh Water Development Board. The Master Plan was
extended over a gross area of 5.8 million hectares.25 This was aimed mostly to
protect the existing settled agricultural land from deep flooding or from tidal
flooding with saline water, to make it viable for the improved variety of crop to
grow in the monsoon season.26 It was estimated that about one million hectares
of land near the coast were subject to coastal flooding with saline water before
the embankments were constructed.26 But by 1982, only seven of the thirty five
major flood protection and irrigation projects in the Master Plan were wholly or
mainly completed, and for different reasons it was difficult to quantify the benefits
these had provided.25 The Master Plan and its components were too narrow in
concept and focus, it was primarily a civil engineering plan and not an agricultural
development plan as such.27
The embankments were designed to prevent saline water intrusion in high
tide and to minimize the impact of cyclonic surge of one in ten years return
period.28 But this had been unable to provide sufficient protection against severe
cyclones. Maintenance in patch, mend and upgrade approach leaves portions of
embankments vulnerable to collapse and wash away in strong tides and cyclones.

4. Setting

The rhythm of rivers and tide is quite evident in the formation of the coastal
settlements. Soil is comparatively fragile and landscape is ephemeral in quality.
Local differences in elevation of the saline tidal floodplain are less than one meter,
it is crossed by innumerable tidal rivers and creeks, sediments are mainly of non-
November 24, 2006 10:38 RPS/AJEDM-Journal 00177

Effects of Embankments on the Habitation 71

Figure 4 Saline tidal floodplain of Bangladesh.

calcareous clays, and the riverbanks are silty and slightly calcareous29,30. This
is one of the largest estuarine regions, and mangrove plants help to retain the
sedimentation brought by the rivers and tide. This is how the land is expanding
and Bangladesh as one of the biggest delta is still forming. Clearing the mangrove
plants for human habitation and for different land use is common practice.
Generally the settlements are separated from the main mangrove forest by rivers
or canals.
The habitations suggest at present though in a softer degree that it was part
of the forest land. Species like dolphins, porpoises, red crabs and snails of the
Sundarbans are common features in the brakish wet parts. The landscape is dotted
with many species of forest plants. These have not been consciously planted by the
inhabitants but were naturally placed by seeds carried from forest through water
courses. Embankments are barriers to these growths. The habitats of crocodile’s
egg laying areas are disturbed by the shrimp collectors and their population has
drastically declined31 .
Discussions with locals and study of homesteads of earlier times suggest that
homestead plinths were made high to keep protected from water. Plinths of houses
were raised around one man height (around five to six feet) on top of these. But
after the coastal embankment project the practice was given up and heights of the
both plinths began to come down as the effects of tidal flooding inside the human
November 24, 2006 10:38 RPS/AJEDM-Journal 00177

72 Tahmina Rahman and Khondaker Hasibul Kabir

Figure 5 Formation of new settlement (plan), mud walls and embankments in habitation (section).

habitation reduced.
When landmass emerges from the surrounding water, men guard it on stilt
houses to reclaim it. Series of small mud walls interlocking with one another
are made around it to gather more land from sedimentation and for protection
against water. Cultivation is done in the lower parts enclosed by the walls. Human
habitation starts to form, the stilt houses get replaced by houses on mud plinths
and families start residing. Culturally people here are used to living close to the
ground.
Gradually these walls get formalized in linear shapes. When legalized with
time these are used for road transportation. These act as secondary or tertiary walls
to guard the settlements. . It is found that historically this practice had also existed.
The zaminaders made new bunds on their estates and gradually got these included
in the estimates of embankments.32
But older habitations inside the embankments devoid of new sedimentation
get compressed and gradually become lower in elevation. Elevation at the other
side of the embankment gets higher with regular sedimentation. As a result water
level rise and often spill inside especially affected in lunar cycles. This became
more prominent after Aila, when portions of embankments got damaged and
the breeches got larger in regular water flow from the enlarged water courses.
Moreover persistent rains in the monsoon create water logging. The mean annual
rainfall in the Sundarbans is from about 2000 mm in the east to 1600 mm in west,
eighty to eighty five percent of this occurs from May to September33. The swelled
rivers of the downstream and the additional water flow from the upstream caused
November 24, 2006 10:38 RPS/AJEDM-Journal 00177

Effects of Embankments on the Habitation 73

Figure 6 A settlement with homesteads, cultivation land and secondary/ tertiary protections acting
as roads in the study area at Khulna34 (source: CDMP).

by the monsoon often worsens this flooding.

Then the inhabitants fear to open the sluice gates incase the embankments
collapse in water pressure. The locals inform that water courses were deeper but
less in width in the past. These have become shallow and wide. Sediment has
increased causing frequent spill over. During inundation for long, slum like linear
settlements with makeshift houses form on the embankment as this remains the
only dry stretch of land in the habitation.35
From Rennel’s map of 1779 and Westland’s writing after about a hundred years
(1871), it is found that historically there were more active water courses in the
region. Many were connected with one another and used for navigation depending
on the seasonal fluvial character.36 These have changed direction and flow over
time. Some have been embanked and these died eventually.36 The changes are
distinct when compared with a present day map. It may be assumed that the

Figure 7 Linear settlement on embankment after the disaster Aila.

November 24, 2006 10:38 RPS/AJEDM-Journal 00177

74 Tahmina Rahman and Khondaker Hasibul Kabir

Figure 8 Portion of Rennel’s map37 of 1779 (top) and a present day map38 (bottom).

changed ecology, fluvial character and land use pattern of the upstream and
downstream have influenced the livelihood of the inhabitants here and shaped
the habitation pattern. Discussions with the inhabitants inform that the settlement
pattern is changing from that of rice cultivation livelihood type to shrimp cultiva-
tion one.
November 24, 2006 10:38 RPS/AJEDM-Journal 00177

Effects of Embankments on the Habitation 75

5. Findings and Recommendations

Ecological layout of the settlements in the environment is linear. This may be

influenced by the natural levees of the linear rivers and creeks and as people
are intertwined with water. Homesteads in these places are not elaborate as
agriculture is not the main concern at present. Arrangement of houses is different
of those who do not own cultivable land. Harvesting courtyard and granary are
missing there. The agriculture dependent houses have circular shaped granaries
of bamboo stilts at the inner courtyard and the homesteads are enveloped with
high mud walls. The tidal water inland has made significant damages to these
boundary walls and the plinths of houses and homesteads after Aila. However the
number of non agricultural type of houses is more in the habitations. The linear
pattern of habitation may also be influenced by the embankments, the human
interventions as continuous rows in the landscape. Makeshift settlement pattern
on embankments after cyclones and flooding may be influenced by this tendency
in habitation pattern of regular time as well.
The scarcity of potable water has become acute after Aila. Inhabitants have
to travel far and spend significant amount of money and time to gather potable
water. Different alternatives like rain water harvesting, water desalination plant
etc are sought to meet the need. The breeching of embankments and the inland
flow of coastal water may have affected the water table to increase the salinity. If
the water crisis prevails for long, this may in the long run influence to disintegrate
the settlements.
Domestic plants in the homesteads and settlements have been severely
damaged in the long standing saline water. Many of these were of sweet
water character and had been tended with rainwater stored in the homestead
ponds. Vegetable production for domestic consumption has been hampered. The
inhabitants in this condition have to spend money for such necessities. In this
case they welcome the monsoon rain to wash away the salt from the soil. Shrimp
farming has reduced homestead space for vegetable gardening. This is also
significant in the changes in homestead layout and settlement pattern.
Brammer notes that technical studies are necessary to determine if shrimp
farming and crop cultivation can be compatible in this region.39 He suggests that
since shrimp ponds need large financial outputs provided by outside businessman,
socio economic surveys are needed to determine the social and economical
benefits, and costs of such enterprise like employment, land tenure, effect of land
rents etc.39
The inhabitants understand by now that the current coastal embankments
will not be able to protect them from disasters like Aila. The embankments were
not constructed in that way. Any type of investment must consider this fact.
Nevertheless these embankments provide a false sense of security and people
build their houses without taking safety measures.
The way to protect the habitation is not building earthen embankments
November 24, 2006 10:38 RPS/AJEDM-Journal 00177

76 Tahmina Rahman and Khondaker Hasibul Kabir

Figure 9 A comparatively new settlement (top left), an old settlement (top right) and a concept
diagram of a habitat development (bottom).

indiscriminately everywhere but to raise the optimum space for habitation and
protect the edge from erosion by appropriate planting. The habitations can develop
in the higher mounds of natural levees with places for community shelters like
schools, hospitals at the center and homesteads surrounding it. This can be
shielded with layers of mangrove shrubs and trees to anchor the soil and guard
the strong wind. Plants near the homesteads can be of the sweet water character.
Ponds inside the habitations can serve for domestic chores and fish cultivation.
Access to habitation can be through water or dry route depending on the character
of the region.
Appropriate planting was a traditional practice and is still practiced in
the newer islands where the habitation is comparatively new and government
November 24, 2006 10:38 RPS/AJEDM-Journal 00177

Effects of Embankments on the Habitation 77

Figure 10 Housing at a settlement of the study area, Adarshagram, Shatkhira: a reconstruction project
with community participation after disaster Aila in 201141 (courtesy Department of Architecture, BRAC
University).

interventions are less. Another traditional practice was letting water from the river
to the habitation through channels. The inlets of the channels were embanked
but smaller channels called poyans were opened round their end to control water
flow easily40 . Embanking was done in November when the river water had gone
down; when the tide was low the channels were opened to let water drain off from
inside40 .
Population is increasing and gradually land is becoming scarce for habitation.
In this region traditionally people live in one storied houses. But people from
the same background, affected by disasters, migrate to the slums of cities where
they prefer to live in two storied houses for space constrains. Considering this
practice, building two storied houses can reduce the footprint of houses. This
transformation of cultural habit in the coastal region, a different environment may
need some time to adapt.
Shrimp cultivation in big scale is totally economy driven outcome. It depends
on government foreign policy and global economic status. It has long-term adverse
effect on local environment, economy, agriculture and the landscape. Long term
government policy aiming this region with alternative livelihood options and
revival of ecologically informed agricultural practices can help. It was found from
the study that many locals prefer the sweet water fish farming that can go together
with rice cultivation. But they are compelled to do otherwise for the changed ecol-
ogy. Embankments hamper the growth of mangrove forests to a degree. Shrimp
fries for cultivation are collected from the brakish creeks of the forest downstream.
The natural habitation of the shrimp fries are reduced by embankments that may
affect the shrimp industry eventually.

6. Conclusion

Embankments as vernacular form in the cultural landscape have always been a

characteristic of this region, though it has not been consciously conserved as the
November 24, 2006 10:38 RPS/AJEDM-Journal 00177

78 Tahmina Rahman and Khondaker Hasibul Kabir

term conservation means. Perhaps it does not need that kind of attention as it has
become a cultural practice. The deltaic landmass has been producing a timeless
landscape since the early habitations. Embankments have become a part of this.
Habitat for people is not a physical thing only. It is more than that. Apart from
basic needs habitat provides people the opportunities to nurture their knowledge,
confidence, aesthetic sensitivities, relationships among themselves, with other
living beings and with administrative system, social status, everything. Habitat
hosts plants and beings other than humans too for a balanced ecosystem. Habitat,
considering the other beings needs to suggest this meaning in a broader sense.
Embankments in the habitations were adopted during different reigns through
the different rulers of the land. In the embankments by the zaminders, the land
possessed the character of agricultural land and also of wetland with the nature of
the water and the seasons. Thus two types of harvest from the land were possible,
crop as the dry one and fish as the wet one. How life and property was secured
during the deadly cyclones in those times may pose a question in this regard. But
perhaps the habitations had a better symbiosis way of living.
On the other hand, the embankments of the recent history suggest a tendency
to restrain the water courses and thus nature. It hints at a denial from nature, a
conflicting behavior that does not match with the habits of the habitants here. But
nevertheless, it suggests the rootedness of man on his territory. In contrast the boat
with its different forms and functions like fishing, navigating, cargo carrying and
forest material collecting suggest the wandering quality of him that also carries a
part of his identity of this region.

References

1. UN, Cyclone Aila Joint UN Multi-Sector Assessment & Response Framework, (UN,
2010) p. 6, online available at: http://www.lcgbangladesh.org/derweb/cyclone2009/
Aila UN AssessmentFramework FINAL.pdf, accessed on 01.08.2011
2. Ibid, p. 4.
3. Akbar Ali Khan, Discovery of Bangladesh Explorations into Dynamics of a Hidden Nation,
(The University Press Limited, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2009, 3rd impression) p. 2, ISBN 984
70220 0028 2, in Asha Das, Bangla Shahiteye Bouddha Dharma o Samskriti, Calcutta Book
House p. 1 1969.
4. Ibid, p. 2, in R. C. Majumder, History of Bengal, Vol. 1, (University of Dacca, 1943), p. 19.
5. Henry Leland Harrison, The Bengal Embankment
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Haven, USA, 1957) p. 24.
7. Ibid, p. 67.
November 24, 2006 10:38 RPS/AJEDM-Journal 00177

Effects of Embankments on the Habitation 79

8. James Taylor, Sketch of the Topography and Statistics of Dacca, (publisher G. H. Huttman,
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11. Ibid, p. 54.
12. Ibid, p. 55.
13. Henry Leland Harrison, The Bengal Embankment Manual, (printed at the Bengal
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library.utoronto.ca/pdf/1/11/bengalembankment00harruoft/bengalembankment00
harruoft.pdf
14. Ibid, p. 14.
15. IUCN- Bangladesh, The Bangladesh Sundarbans: a Photoreal Sojourn, (IUCN Bangladesh
Country Office, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2001) p. 104, ISBN 984-31-1088-9
16. Ibid, p. 103–113.
17. Banglapedia, Embankment, available at: http://www.banglapedia.org/httpdocs/
HT/E 0049.HTM, accessed on 10.08.2011
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19. James Westland, A Report on the District of Jessore; its Antiquities, its History and its
Commerce, (printed at the Bengal Secretariat Office, Calcutta, 1871) p. 2–4, retrieved by
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20. Ibid, p. 228–229.
21. IUCN- Bangladesh, The Bangladesh Sundarbans: a Photoreal Sojourn, (IUCN Bangladesh
Country Office, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2001) p. 112, ISBN 984-31-1088-9
22. James Westland, A Report on the District of Jessore; its Antiquities, its History and its
Commerce, (printed at the Bengal Secretariat Office, Calcutta, 1871) p. 151, retrieved by
Google Books.
23. Ibid, p. 155.
24. Henry Leland Harrison, The Bengal Embankment Manual,
(printed at the Bengal Secretariat Press, Calcutta, 1875) p. 29, digitized for Microsoft
Corporation by the Internet Archive in 2007, University of Toronto, available at:
http://scans.library.utoronto.ca/pdf/1/11/bengalembankment00harruoft/bengalem
bankment00harruoft.pdf
25. Hugh Brammer, Land Use and Land Use Planning in Bangladesh, (The University Press
Limited, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2002) p. 66, ISBN 984 05 1565 9
26. Ibid, p. 60.
27. Ibid, p. 67.
28. The World Bank, Project Performance Assessment Report Bangladesh Coastal Embankment
Rehabilitation Project (Credit 2783-BD), Sector, Thematic and Evaluation Group,
Operations Evaluations Department, Document of the World Bank, Report No:
31565, 2005) p. 1, available at: http://lnweb90.worldbank.org/oed/oeddoclib.nsf/
a7a8a58cc87a6e2885256f1900755ae2/d857403c4d25a50885257070007cc629/$FILE/
ppar 31565.pdf, p 1, accessed on 18.08.2011
29. Ainun Nishat, S.M. Imamul Huq, Shuvashish P. Barua, A. H. M. Ali Reza, A. S.
Moniruzzaman Khan (eds.), Bio-ecological Zones of Bangladesh, (IUCN Bangladesh
Country Office, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2002) p. 45, ISBN 984-31-1090-0
 November 24, 2006 10:38 RPS/AJEDM-Journal 00177

80 Tahmina Rahman and Khondaker Hasibul Kabir

30. Hugh Brammer, Land Use and Land Use Planning in Bangladesh, (The University Press
Limited, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2002) p. 9, ISBN 984 05 1565 9
31. IUCN-Bangladesh, The Bangladesh Sundarbans: a Photoreal Sojourn, (IUCN Bangladesh
Country Office, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2001) p. 67, ISBN 984-31-1088-9
32. Henry Leland Harrison, The Bengal Embankment Manual,
(printed at the Bengal Secretariat Press, Calcutta, 1875) p. 5, digitized for Microsoft
Corporation by the Internet Archive in 2007, University of Toronto, available at:
http://scans.library.utoronto.ca/pdf/1/11/bengalembankment00harruoft/bengalem
bank ment00harruoft.pdf
33. Courtesy of The Comprehensive Disaster Management Program (phase II), Disaster
Management and Relief Division, Ministry of Food and Disaster Management, Dhaka,
Bangladesh (nd).
34. IUCN-Bangladesh, The Bangladesh Sundarbans: a Photoreal Sojourn, (IUCN Bangladesh
Country Office, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2001) p. 5, ISBN 984-31-1088-9
35. ECB and CSRL, One Year on – plight of Cyclone Aila Communities Continues, (Emergency
Capacity Building Project Bangladesh Consortium, Campaign for Sustainable
Rural Livelihood, 2010) p. 2, available at: http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/
files/resources/D9D32ED3900FFF954925772D002B189C-Full Report.pdf, accessed on
20.08.2011
36. James Westland, A Report of the District of Jessore; its Antiquities, its History and its
Commerce, (printed at the Bengal Secretariat Office, 1871) p. 5–14, retrieved by Google
Books.
37. Portion of Rennel’s map showing the study area, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:
Rennel%27s Map.jpg, accessed on 08.09.2012
38. Portion of present day map showing the study area, http://www.banglapedia.
org/Maps/MR 0207A.GIF, accessed on 08.09.2012
39. Hugh Brammer, Land Use and Land Use Planning in Bangladesh, (The University Press
Limited, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2002) p. 113, ISBN 984 05 1565 9
40. James Westland, A Report on the District of Jessore: its Antiquities, its History and its
Commerce, (printed at the Bengal Secretariat Office, Calcutta, 1871) p. 230, retrieved by
Google Books.
41. Courtesy of the Department of Architecture, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh,
(2011).

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