INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

Basic computer organization

1. CPU organization
2. Memory subsystem organization and interfacing
3. Output subsystem organization and interfacing
4. A simple computer levels of programming languages
5. Assembly language instructions
6. A simple instruction set architecture.

The basic computer organization has three main components:

1. CPU
2. Memory subsystem
3. Output subsystem

1. Each program is a sequence of instructions.

The basic computer system each instruction is subdivided into four phases:
1. Fetch an Instruction from memory.
2. Decode the Instruction.
3. Read the effective address from the memory if the instruction has an indirect
address.
4. Execute the Instruction.
A. The above process continues indefinitely unless a HALT instruction is
encountered.

Central processing unit is the electronic circuitry with in a computer that carries
out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic,
logical, control and output operations specified by the instructions. In the
computer all the major connected with the help of the system bus. Data bus is use
to shuffle data between the various components in a computer system. When the
software wants to access some particular output device it places the
corresponding address on the address bus.
System bus
The control bus is an eclectic collection of signals that control how the processor
communicates with the rest of the system. The read and write control lines
control the direction of data on the data bus.
The register section, as its name implies, includes a set of registers and a bus. The
register in a processor’s instruction set architecture are found in the section of
the CPU. The system address and data buses interact with this section of CPU.
The register section also contains other registers that are not directly accessible
by the programmer. The fetch portion of the instruction cycle, the processor first
outputs the address of the instruction onto the address bus. The processor has a
register called the program counter. At the end of the instruction fetch, the CPU
reads the instruction code from the system data bus. It stores this value in an
internal register, usually called the “instruction register”. The ALU performs most
arithmetic and logic operations such as adding and ingvalues. CPU controls the
computer; the control unit controls the CPU. The control unit receives some data
values from the register unit, which it used to generate the control signals. The
control unit also generates the signals for the system control bus such as READ,
WRITE and IUPUT OUTPUT

Memory
1. Memory is the group of circuits used to store data.
2. Memory components have some number of memory locations each word of
which stores a binary value of some fixed length.
3. The size of the memory chip is denoted as the number of locations times the
number of bits in each location.

4. For example, a memory chip of size 512×8 has 512 memory locations, each of
which has eight bit. A memory chip with 2n locations requires n address inputs

Memory subsystem organization and interfacing

Memory subsystem organization

RAM and ROM are generally, storage is classified into 2 categories:
Volatile Memory: This loses its data, when power is switched off.
Non-Volatile Memory: This is a permanent storage and does not lose any data
when power is switched off.
ROM Memory
Masked ROM: The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-
programmed set of data. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which
are inexpensive.
PROM: PROM is read only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The
user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program.
Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable

EPROM: EPROM stand for Erasable programmable read only memory. In EPROM,
ultraviolet light is used to erase the content. We have to remove the EPROM chip
from the computer for erasing and reprogramming of the data. Older
technologies.

EEPROM: EEPROM stand for Electrically Erasable programmable read only

memory. In EEPROM, the data is erased using an electrical signal. There are no
requirements of removing the chip from the computer for erasing and
reprogramming of the data.