Special Senses: Physiology / 2009-10 Dr. Ahmad .S. Alarabi

Physiology / 2009-10 Dr. Ahmad .S.
Alarabi
Special Senses
1
Physiology / 2009-10 Dr. Ahmad .S. Alarabi
Vision
Physiological anatomy of the eye
The wall of the eye is composed of 3 layers:
A- Outer fibrous layer: it protects the inner structures. It consists of:
1- Cornea: it occupies the anterior 1/6. It is transparent [allows passage of light].

2- Sclera: the posterior 5/6. It is a white fibrous tissue [opaque].
B- Middle vascular layer: it is formed of:
1- Choroid: contains blood vessels for nutrition of retina.

2- Ciliary body: it consists of:
2
a- Ciliary processes: they secretes the aqueous humor.

b- Ciliary muscle: it is connected with the lens by suspensory ligaments in
a way that can control the power of the lens.
3- Iris: a circular colored diaphragm in front of the lens. In its center, it contains a
circular opening called pupil. The iris has 2 muscles that can adjust the diameter of
pupil:
a- Circular [constrictor pupilae] muscles.

b- Radial [dilator pupilae] muscles.
C- Inner nervous layer [retina]: It is composed of the following layers:
1- Layer of pigmented epithelium: it is the outermost layer in contact with choroid.

It contains large amount of melanin pigment [prevent light reflection back to retina],
and supplies the receptors with vitamin A.
2- Cells [neurons] of the retina:
a- Photoreceptors [rods & cones]: they are the outer most cellular layer. The number of
rods is 20 times more than that of cones [6 million cones & 120 million rods / eye].
b- Bipolar cells: they are the first order neuron in the visual pathway. They conduct the
impulse from photoreceptors to
the ganglion cells.
c- Ganglion cells: they are the
second order neurons in the visual
pathway. Their axons form the
optic nerve.
♦ Special regions of the retina:

1- Macula lutea: a yellowish
pigmented spot at the posterior
pole of the eye. There is a central
depression in it called
Fovea centralis.
3
2- Fovea centralis [visual center of the eye]: it is the most sensitive part of the retina
because it differs from the rest of retina in the following:
a- Has cones only [no rods].

b- Has 1 receptor to 1 bipolar cells connection [no conversion].
c- Its sensory cells are uncovered by other cells or blood vessels.
3- Optic disc: it is present about 4 mm medial (nasal) to fovea.

It is the exit of optic nerve [blind spot].
♦ The inner cavity of the eyeball contains:
1- The lens: a transparent body lies behind the iris and attached to the ciliary body by
the suspensory ligaments.
2- Aqueous humor: a clear watery fluid fills the cavity anterior to the lens [anterior &
posterior chambers].
3- Vitreous humor: a clear gelatinous material fills the cavity behind the lens.
Nerve supply to the eye
1- Afferent [sensory]:
• Optic nerve (II): carries visual impulses from retina.

• Trigeminal nerve (V): its ophthalmic branch carries the general sensations.
2- Efferent [motor]: it is either somatic or autonomic:
a- Somatic motor [to extraoccular muscle]:
• Occulomotor (III): to all muscles except [lateral rectus & superior oblique].
• Trochlear (IV): to superior oblique.
• Abducent (VI): to lateral rectus.
b- Autonomic motor [to intraocular muscles]: they include:
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♦ Parasympathetic: it leads to:
1- Occulomotor (III): fibers arise from Edinger Westphal N (EWN). It produce:
•Contraction of constrictor pupillae → pupillo constriction (miosis).

•Contraction of ciliary muscles → ↑lens power (accommodation).
2- Facial (VII): ↑ lacrimal gland secretion
♦ Sympathetic: it leads to:
• Pupillodilatation (mydriasis).
• Protrusion of the eye (exophthalmos).
• Elevation of upper eyelid.
♦ Types of Lenses
1- Spherical (part of sphere): it may be:
• Convex [converging / +] lenses.

• Concave [diverging / –] lenses.
2- Cylindrical (part of cylinder).
♦ Focal point (Focus): point where parallel rays striking convex lens converge.
♦ Focal length: the distance between lens and its focal point.
♦ Refractive power in diopters =
♦ Diopter: power of a lens its focal length is 1 meter.

♦ Nodal point: it is the point in lens in which the light rays passing without refraction.
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Protective mechanisms of the eye
1- Closure of the eye lids: it may occur due to the following reflexes:
• Touching the cornea [corneal reflex] → trigeminal (afferent) → facial (efferent).

• When an object suddenly approach to the eye → optic (afferent) → facial (efferent).
2- Tears.
3- Strong bony orbit.
Mechanism of vision
The process of vision is achieved through many stages:
1- Transmission and refraction of light to come to a focus on the retina through

[cornea – aqueous humor – pupil – lens – vitreous].
2- Stimulation of visual receptors.
3- Transmission of visual impulses to the cortex [through the visual pathway].
4- Perception of these impulses by the cortex to determine:
a- Distance [depth perception].

b- Colour [colour vision].
c- The 3 dimensions [stereoscopic vision].
Cornea
It is the main refractive medium of the eye with a refractive power of about 44 diopters
[2/3 the refractive power of the eye]. This power is fixed [can’t be changed].
Its transparency is because of:
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• The absence of blood vessels & myelinated nerves.

• Active pumping of H2O from the cornea (keep it slightly dehydrated).
• Endothelium Na+ pump [pumps Na+ followed by water to the Aqueous].
♦ The cornea gets its oxygen & glucose from:
1- Tears: the main source of O2 derived from air.

2- Aqueous humor: the main source of glucose, but also supplies cornea with O2.
3-Diffusion of glucose & O2 from sclera & conjunctival vessels.
Aqueous humor
Definition: a transparent fluid filling the anterior & posterior chambers of the eye.
It is composed of:
• H2O
• Na+, Cl-, and HCO3-, higher than plasma.
• K+, glucose, and urea, less than plasma.
• Small amount of protein.
Formation: it is secreted by the epithelium covering the ciliary processes at a rate of

3cm / min, by an active process as follow:
a- Na+ is transported actively by Na+ – K+ pump.

b- Cl- & HCO3- follow Na+ passively.
c- H2O follow Na+ by osmosis.
d- Glucose is transported by diffusion.
After its formation, the aqueous humor is drained at corneoscleral (irido-corneal) angle.
Functions:
1- Supplies the avascular cornea and lens with nutrients & O2 and removes waste
products.
2- Keeps the intraocular pressure (I.O.P)[normal range is 15 – 20 mmHg].
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Glaucoma
Definition: a disease in which there is excessive increase in I.O.P, either due to ↑ in

production of aqueous humor, or ↓ its drainage [due to obstruction of Cor.Scl angle].
Effects:
1- Sever pain.
2- Disturbances of focusing mechanism especially for near vision.
3- Pressure on retinal vessels → pressure atrophy of optic disc (nerve) → blindness.
Treatment: it is treated either by:

1- Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors.
2- Parasympathomimetics [pupilloconstrictors].
3- Surgical opening of Cor.Scl angle (trabeculectomy).
Iris and Pupil
The iris pigment restricts the passage of light to the pupil. So, the iris controls the
amount of light entering the eye by regulating the pupil size:
• Exposure to light → parasympathetic stimulation → contraction of constrictor pupillae

→ pupillary constriction (miosis) → ↓ the amount of light entering the eye.
• Exposure to dark → sympathetic stimulation → contraction of dilator pupillae →
pupillary dilatation (mydriasis).
The other functions of the iris:
1- Prevents spherical aberration.

2- Prevents Chromatic aberration.
3- Constriction of the pupil increases the depth of focus.
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Pupillary light reflex

Definition: the exposure of one eye to the light leads to reflex constriction of both
pupils [i.e. the pupil of stimulated eye (direct light reflex), and the pupil of unstimulated
eye (indirect or consensual light reflex)].
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Pathway [reflex arc]:

1- Stimulus: light applied to one eye.
2- Receptor: visual receptors in the retina (Rods & Cones).
3- Afferent: bipolar cells → ganglion cells which run their axons as optic nerve → optic
chiasma [where the nasal fibers cross to the opposite side] → optic tract → pretectal
nucleus [through a collateral that leaves the optic tract before reaching the lateral
geniculate body (i.e. no relay in LGB)].
4- Center: pretectal nucleus in the upper part of midbrain. From this area, fibers run
around the aqueduct of sylvius to reach the efferent neurons on both sides.
5- Efferent: Edinger westphal nuclei give preganglionic fibers which relay in ciliary
ganglion, from which the postganglionic fibers arise to reach the constrictor pupillae
muscle via short ciliary nerves.
6- Response: constriction of both pupils.
Its importance is to insure that the reflex arc is intact.
Lens
Definition: an elastic transparent biconcave disc formed of gelatinous substance

enclosed in elastic transparent capsule.
Because it is elastic, its shape [and power] can be affected by making it more flat
(↓power) by its pulling by suspensory ligaments when the ciliary body relaxes.
The opposite occurs when the ciliary body contracts → relaxation of suspensory
ligaments → lens becomes more spherical [↑ power].
Function:
It is one of the main refractive media of the eye [1/3 refractive power of the eye].
It is less than that of cornea, but it can be changed according to the need of the eye.
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Near response
[Near reflex / Accommodation reflex]
It is the changes that occur in both eyes equally & simultaneously on looking to a near
object. It implies 3 changes:
[Accommodation – Constriction of pupil – Convergence of both eyes].
1- Accommodation: increase in convexity [refractive power] of the lens on looking to

near object.
The refractive power of lens [power of accommodation] differs with age.
It is higher in children and decrease with age due to ↓ lens elasticity.
In adults, the power of accommodation is 10 diopters with:
• 22 diopters during rest [on seeing a far object].

• 32 diopters with maximum accommodation [on seeing near object].
It is: • 14 D in children (10 years).

• 5 D at 40 years.
Near point vision: it is the nearest point to the eye at which the object can be seen
clearly with maximum accommodation. It becomes far with age due to ↓ lens elasticity:
• 10 cm at 10 years.
• 20 cm at 20 yeears.
• 50 cm at 50 years.
Note: during near response, the pupils constrict to increase the depth of focus.
2- Convergence of both eyes: it is due to contraction of medial recti muscles. This will
make the image of the near object falls on the fovea of each eye and prevent diplopia
[double vision].
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Pathway of Near response
Stimulus: blurred image of the near object on the retina.

Receptors: rods & cones.
Afferent: bipolar cells → ganglion cells that passes their axons though optic nerve →
optic chiasma → optic tract → lateral geniculate body (in thalamus) which sends its
axons in optic radiation → visual cortex.
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Center: visual cortex in occipital lobe [area 17, 18, 19].

Efferent: fibers from visual cortex pass to superior corpus quadrigeminum →
oculomotor nerve nucleus [both parasympathetic part (E.W.N) and somatic part].
Response:
a- Stimulation of parasympathetic part of oculomotor nucleus leads to:
• Accommodation.
• Constriction of the pupil.
b- Stimulation of somatic part leads to convergence of both eyes.
♦ Argyll Robertson pupil: pupil which does not react (constrict) to light, but react to
accommodation due to lesion in pretectal region usually by neurosyphilis.
♦ Cataract: loss of lens transparency due to denaturation of its protein. It is treated by

surgical removal of the lens which is replaced by artificial one.
Note: eyes with no lens is called aphakic eye.
Vitreous humor
Definition: transparent avascular jelly – like material present between the lens & retina.
It has the following functions:
1- Maintain the normal shape of the eye.

2- Gives support for the retina and lens.
3- Acts as shock absorber.
4- Supplies the retina with nutrients diffusing to it from ciliary body.
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Visual acuity
Definition: it is the degree to which the eye can detect the details of objects.
Measurement of visual acuity:

٠Clinically, it is tested by snellen’s letter chart which is composed of seven rows of the
letter C of decreasing sizes.
The rows are marked from above downward by numbers 60, 36, 24, 18, 12, 9, 6.
Respectively. This means that the normal person can detect the separation between the
2 points in the circle C at [60, 36, 24, 18, 12, 9, 6 meters] respectively for the rows from
above downward.
٠The chart is placed at 6 meters from the person to be tested. If the person sees only
the first row his visual acuity is 6/60 [i.e. he can see at 6 meters what the normal person
can see at 60 meters].if he can sees the second row (6/36), third row (6/24), and so on.
Note: if the patient can not see first row on 6 meters (can not see 6/60), then he moves
nearer to the chart till he sees the first row. Suppose he sees the first row at 1 meter
that means his visual acuity is 1/60. If he can not see 1/60, his visual acuity is tested in
the following order:
1- Counting fingers.
2- Perception of hand movement.
3- Perception of light (P.L). if there was no P.L, the eye is blind.
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Errors of refraction
Myopia Hyperopia Astigmatism Prespyobia

(hypermetropia)
problem Parallel rays Parallel rays The refraction Near point of
converge to a converge to a power of the vision becomes
focus in front of focus behind the eye is not the far that make
retina retina same in all reading difficult
planes
causes 1- Long eyeball. 1- Short eyeball. Curvature of Decrease lens

2- High refractive 2- Low refractive the cornea is elasticity with
power. power. not uniform. age.
corrected Biconcave Biconvex Cylindrical Biconvex lenses

by (Diverging) (converging) lenses for reading
spherical lens. spherical lens.
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Photoreceptors [Rods & Cones]
Rods Cones
Number > 120 millions in each eye < 6 millions in each eye
Site More in periphery of retina, More in the center, less in

less in the center, not present the periphery, fovea
in the fovea. contains only cones.
Nervous Less innervated More innervated

connections
Function 1- Less accurate vision 1- More accurate vision.
2- More sensitive to light 2- Less sensitive to light
[responsible for Dim [responsible for day vision].
(night) vision]. 3- Can differentiate colors
3- Can’t differentiate colors [have 3 pigments].
[only have one pigment].
Note: the exposure to light → Hyperpolarization of the receptors → depolarization of

Bipolar cells.
Dark adaptation
It is the mechanism that adapts the eye to the lower level of illumination when a person
moves to a darker environment.
This adaptation is achieved through:
1- Increase in retinal sensitivity to light by increasing the photosensitive pigment in the

photoreceptors (the most important). It is of 2 components:
a- Cone adaptation: rapid [maximum within 5 min] but small.

b- Rod adaptation: slow [maximum within 20 min] but much greater.
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2- Dilatation of pupil → increasing the light entering the eye.

3- Neural adaptation: facilitation of impulse transmission by neurons of retina.
Light adaptation
It is the mechanism that adapts the eye to the high level of illumination when a person
moves to a lighter environment. It is achieved through:
1- Decrease the retinal sensitivity to light by decreasing the photopigment in the

photoreceptors [much faster than dark adaptation (maximum within 5 min)].
2- Constriction of the pupil to decrease the light entering the eye.
3- Neural adaptation: inhibition of impulse transmission by neurons of retina.
Visual pathway
It is composed of 3 order neurons that start from photoreceptors:
1- First order neuron: bipolar cells.

2- Second order neuron: ganglion cells. Axons pass through:
a- Optic nerve: carry fibers from one eye.

b- Optic chiasam: nasal fibers cross to the opposite side while temporal fibers
don’t cross.
c- Optic tract: carries temporal fibers from the same side and nasal fibers from the
opposite side.
3- Third order neuron: cells in the lateral geniculate body (LGB) of thalamus that passes
its axons to form optic radiation [geniculocalcarine tract] which pass through the
posterior limb of internal capsule to reach the primary visual area [area 17] from which
the impulse travel to the visual association area [area 18, 19].
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Visual cortex
1- Primary visual area [area 17]: it lies on the medial surface of the occipital lobe.
It represents the homonymous halves of both retinae [i.e. right area 17 receives
impulses from 2 right halves of both retinae (right temporal & left nasal)].
This area is responsible for primary visual sensation [shape, details, colour].
2- Visual association area [area 18, 19]: it understands the meaning of visual sensation.
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Lesion of visual pathway

Lesion Result
Optic Nerve Blindness in the corresponding eye
Optic Chiasma Bitemporal hemianopia

Optic tract Homonymous Hemianopia + loss of light &
accommodation reflex when elicited through the blind
area.
LGB or Optic Homonymous Hemianopia + loss of accommodation
radiation reflex, but the light reflex is preserved (intact).
area 17 As in LGB & O.R but with macular speaching
area 18 & 19 Visual aphasia.
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Hearing
The human can hear sounds with frequencies from 20 – 20,000 Hz.
The frequency of human sound is [1000 – 3000 Hz].
♦ Structure of the ear: the ear is divided into 3 parts:

A- External ear: [ear pinna (auricle) / external auditory canal / tympanic membrane].
B- Middle ear: it contains:
1- Auditory ossicles: [malleus / incus / stapes]. They conduct the sound waves from
the drum to the oval window.
2- Two skeletal muscles:
a- Tensor tympani: connected to the handle of malleus and pulls it inward to

keep the tympanic membrane continuously tensed.
b- Stapidius: connected to the stapes.
3- Eustachian tube: it connects the middle ear with nasopharynx to equalize the air
pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane → free movement of the drum &
ossicles. The tube normally is closed, but it opens during swallowing & yawning.
C- Inner ear (labyrinth): it is formed of bony and membranous labyrinth. The

membranous labyrinth is divided into:
1- Auditory labyrinth (cochlea).

2- Non auditory labyrinth: [semicircular canals / utricle / saccule].
♦ Cochlea: it is a coiled long tube. This tube is divided inside by 2 membranes

[vestibular membrane & basilar membrane] forming 3 canals [scalae]:
a- Scala vestibuli: it is filled with perilymph which is derived from CSF [similar to ECF].
b- Scala tympani: filled with perilymph [as scala vestibuli].
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Both scala vestibuli & scala tympani communicate together at helicotrema [apex of
cochlea].
c- Scala media: it is filled with endolymph [similar in composition to ICF].
The receptor organ of hearing [the organ of Corti] lies on the basilar membrane and
projects into the scala media.
Organ of Corti
It is the receptor organ of hearing. It is composed of receptor hair cells [auditory
receptors]. The hairs protruding from each hair cell is composed of multiple small
stereocilia and one large kinocilium. The hair cells are stimulated when the stereocilia
bend toward the kinocilium.
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Mechanism of hearing:
It includes four steps in the following order:
1- Transmission of sound waves to inner ear.

2- Stimulation of auditory receptors.
3- Transmission of impulses through the auditory pathway to the auditory cortex.
4- Perception of these impulses by the cortex to discriminate:
[Frequency of sound / intensity of sound / locality of sound].
Transmission of sound to inner ear
There are 3 possible routs by which the sound waves can be transmitted to the fluid in
the inner ear to stimulate the organ of Corti, which include:
1- Ossicular route: the sound waves are transmitted through external ear → tympanic
membrane → auditory ossicles → foot plate of stapes → oval window → perilymph in
scala vestibuli. It is the usual rout. This rout amplifies the force of sounds about 22
times.
2- Bone route: the sound waves are transmitted through skull bones to fluids in the
inner ear. It plays a role only in extremely loud sounds.
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3- Air route: sound waves are transmitted through air in middle ear [not ossicles] to
reach the round window [and hence the inner ear fluid]. It becomes only important
when the tympanic membrane and the ossicles are damaged.
Stimulation of auditory receptors
٠Sound waves are transmitted to foot plate of stapes → oval window → perilymph of
scala vestibuli → vestibular (Reissner’s) membrane → endolymph of scala media.
٠Vibration of endolymph → upward & downward movement of basilar membrane →
friction between hair cells of organ of Corti and the overlying tectorial membrane →
bending of hairs.
Upward movement of basilar membrane → bending of stereocilia toward the kinocilium
→ depolarization of hair cells (due to K+ influx) → receptor potential → action potential.
While downward movement of basilar membrane → bending of hairs to the opposite
side → inhibition of the receptors.
Note: the bulging of round window

is important for vibrations applied
to the oval window to cause
movement of basilar membrane.
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The auditory pathway
It is composed of 5 order neurons:
1- First order neuron: [bipolar cells of spiral ganglia].

2- Second order neuron: [dorsal and ventral cochlear nuclei in upper medulla].
3- Third order neuron: [superior olivary nucleus (in medulla) mainly of the opposite side].
The fibers of these cells pass through the lateral lemniscus to reach the fourth order
neuron.
4- Fourth order neuron: cells from inferior colliculus in the midbrain.
[some fibers cross from inf.Col to the other.
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5- Fifth order neuron: cells from medial geniculate body in the thalamus. The fibers of
these cells ascend through the auditory radiation to end in the auditory cortex.
Auditory cortex
It is divided into:
A- Primary auditory cortex [area 41, 42]: it is for perception of pitch, loudness, and quality
of sound. The unilateral lesion of this area leads only to impaired hearing [because both
ears are bilaterally represented].
B- Auditory association area [area 22]: it receives impulses from primary motor area and
analyzes and understands the meaning of sound. Its unilateral lesion → auditory aphasia
[if dominant hemisphere].
Perception of sound
The cerebral cortex should discriminate the frequency (pitch), the amplitude (intensity),
and locality of sound.
1- Discrimination of sound frequency: it depends on the nature of basilar fibers in the

basilar membrane.
The basilar membrane consists of
20,000 basilar fibers:
a- At the base of cochlea, the fibers

are short & thick and respond better
to low frequencies.
b- At the apex, the fibers are long

and thin, and respond better to low
frequencies.
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2- Discrimination of amplitude (loudness): it depends on:
•Rate of nerve impulses [high intense sound → ↑ rate of nerve impulse].

•Number of hair cells stimulated [↑ amplitude stimulate more hair cells
(& more nerve fibers)].
3- Discrimination of locality of sound: the sound is louder on the ear close to the source
of sound.
Deafness
Definition: partial or complete loss of hearing [hearing acuity].
There are 2 types of deafness [conductive / perceptive].
Conductive deafness Perceptive (nerve) deafness

Problem •Disturbance in conduction of •Disturbance in perception of
sound vibrations to basilar sound wave and its transmission
membrane. to cortex.
Causes 1- External ear disease Damage of:

[e.g.wax, foreign body, • Organ of Corti
infection (otitis externa)]. • Cochlear nerve
2- Middle ear diseases: e.g: • Auditory cortex.
• Damage of bony
ossicles (otosclerosis).
• Otitis media.
• Obstruction of Eustachian
tube.
Characters of 1- Bone conduction better than 1- Bone & ossicular conduction
diseased ear ossicles conduction. are equally affected.
2- All frequencies are uniformly 2- One frequency may be more
affected. affected.
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Taste sensation
The taste receptors are present in the taste buds on the tongue, hard palate, soft palate,
epiglottis & pharynx.
Taste receptors are chemoreceptors that respond to substances in solution or dissolved

in saliva [if the mouth is dry and the substance is not in solution, it can’t be tasted].
Types of taste sensations (modalities):
1- Sweet taste: it is tested in the tip of the tongue mainly.

It is caused by a group of organic substances [e.g. sugars, alcohol, aldehydes & ketones].
2- Bitter taste: it is tasted mainly at the back (base) of the tongue.

It is caused by organic substances [e.g. strychnine and urea].
3- Sour taste: it is mainly tasted along the edges of the tongue. It is caused by acids [e.g.
citrus fruits (contain citric acid), and sour milk (contain lactic acid)]. The sour taste is
proportionate with the H+ concentration.
4- Salt taste: it is tasted at the dorsum of the

tongue. It is caused by inorganic salts [e.g. NaCl].
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Smell sensation (olfaction)
The olfactory receptors (chemoreceptors) are present in the olfactory mucosa in the
superior part (roof) of each nostril.
The stimulating substances should be:
1- Volatile: to come in contact with olfactory mucosa.

2- Water soluble: at least slightly to penetrate the watery mucous covering.
3- Lipid soluble: to penetrate the cell membrane of the olfactory receptors.
Pathway of smell sensation
1- First order neuron [olfactory cells (bipolar cells)]:

The axons of these neurons (unmyelinated) pierce the ciribriform plate of ethmoid bone
to enter the olfactory blub.
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2- Second order neuron [mitral & tufted cells in olfactory bulub]: the axons of these cells
pass posteriorly from the olfactory bulb to the olfactory tract which divides into 3
pathways (stria):
• Medial olfactory stria: ends in the opposite olfactory bulb.

• Intermediate olfactory stria: connected with hypothalamus, limbic system, and brain
stem [concerned with olfactory reflexes].
• Lateral olfactory stria: ends in the temporal lobe of cortex [primary olfactory area]
Note: smell is the only sensation which does not pass through the thalamus, and has a
pathway composed only of 2 neurons.
29

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Physiology / 2009-10 Dr. Ahmad .S.

Physiological anatomy of the eye

The wall of the eye is composed of 3 layers:

A- Outer fibrous layer: it protects the inner structures. It consists of:

1- Cornea: it occupies the anterior 1/6. It is transparent [allows passage of light].

B- Middle vascular layer: it is formed of:

1- Choroid: contains blood vessels for nutrition of retina.

a- Ciliary processes: they secretes the aqueous humor.

a- Circular [constrictor pupilae] muscles.

C- Inner nervous layer [retina]: It is composed of the following layers:

1- Layer of pigmented epithelium: it is the outermost layer in contact with choroid.

2- Cells [neurons] of the retina:

♦ Special regions of the retina:

a- Has cones only [no rods].

3- Optic disc: it is present about 4 mm medial (nasal) to fovea.

♦ The inner cavity of the eyeball contains:

Nerve supply to the eye

• Optic nerve (II): carries visual impulses from retina.

a- Somatic motor [to extraoccular muscle]:

b- Autonomic motor [to intraocular muscles]: they include:

♦ Parasympathetic: it leads to:

1- Occulomotor (III): fibers arise from Edinger Westphal N (EWN). It produce:

•Contraction of constrictor pupillae → pupillo constriction (miosis).

2- Facial (VII): ↑ lacrimal gland secretion

♦ Sympathetic: it leads to:

• Convex [converging / +] lenses.

2- Cylindrical (part of cylinder).

♦ Refractive power in diopters =

♦ Diopter: power of a lens its focal length is 1 meter.

Protective mechanisms of the eye

• Touching the cornea [corneal reflex] → trigeminal (afferent) → facial (efferent).

The process of vision is achieved through many stages:

1- Transmission and refraction of light to come to a focus on the retina through

a- Distance [depth perception].

• The absence of blood vessels & myelinated nerves.

♦ The cornea gets its oxygen & glucose from:

1- Tears: the main source of O2 derived from air.

Formation: it is secreted by the epithelium covering the ciliary processes at a rate of

a- Na+ is transported actively by Na+ – K+ pump.

Definition: a disease in which there is excessive increase in I.O.P, either due to ↑ in

Treatment: it is treated either by:

Iris and Pupil

• Exposure to light → parasympathetic stimulation → contraction of constrictor pupillae

The other functions of the iris:

1- Prevents spherical aberration.

Pupillary light reflex

Pathway [reflex arc]:

Its importance is to insure that the reflex arc is intact.

Definition: an elastic transparent biconcave disc formed of gelatinous substance

1- Accommodation: increase in convexity [refractive power] of the lens on looking to

• 22 diopters during rest [on seeing a far object].

It is: • 14 D in children (10 years).

Pathway of Near response

Stimulus: blurred image of the near object on the retina.

Center: visual cortex in occipital lobe [area 17, 18, 19].

b- Stimulation of somatic part leads to convergence of both eyes.

♦ Cataract: loss of lens transparency due to denaturation of its protein. It is treated by

1- Maintain the normal shape of the eye.

Measurement of visual acuity:

Myopia Hyperopia Astigmatism Prespyobia

causes 1- Long eyeball. 1- Short eyeball. Curvature of Decrease lens

corrected Biconcave Biconvex Cylindrical Biconvex lenses