Environmental Development 19 (2016) 23–35

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Environmental Development
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envdev

Greenhouse gas emissions from different crop production and

management practices in South Africa
Mphethe Tongwane a,n, Thandile Mdlambuzi a, Mokhele Moeletsi a,b,
Mitsuru Tsubo a,c, Vuyo Mliswa a, Lunga Grootboom a
a
Agricultural Research Council - Institute for Soil, Climate and Water, Private Bag X79, Pretoria 0001, South Africa
b
Risk and Vulnerability Assessment Centre, University of Limpopo, Private Bag X1106, Sovenga 0727, South Africa
c
Department of Soil, Crop and Climate Sciences, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Article history: Application of synthetic (N) fertiliser (such as urea) and incorporation of crop residues
Received 16 February 2016 into soil result in nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. Similarly, application of urea and lime to
Received in revised form the soil results in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) emanating
13 June 2016
from application of synthetic fertiliser, lime and crop residues retained in the field after
Accepted 14 June 2016
harvest during field crop production in South Africa were calculated in this study. The
objective was to establish GHG profiles of the field crops in South Africa that can inform
Keywords: national mitigation plans that are currently lacking details regarding the agriculture
Synthetic N fertiliser sector. The calculations used Agriculture and Land Use National Greenhouse Gas Inventory
Crop residues
Software which is based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Guidelines for
Lime
National GHG Inventory. GHG emissions were calculated and compared among different
Field crops
Cereals crop production and management practices. It is estimated that production of field crops
Vegetables resulted in a total of 5.2 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent (CO2-eq) emissions in South
Legumes and oilseeds Africa in 2012. Application of synthetic fertiliser contributes the highest emissions with
57% of national total crop CO2-eq emissions, followed by addition of lime (30%) and crop
residues retained in the field (13%). Production of cereal crops accounts for 68% of national
total field crops’ GHG emissions followed by other field crops (14%), legumes and oilseeds
(11%) and vegetables (7%). Cultivations of maize, wheat and sugarcane result in highest
commodity emissions. Highest GHGs per area planted were from the production of to-
matoes with 1.65 t of CO2-eq ha
1. These results show that mitigation plans of emissions
from field crops in South Africa need to focus more on sustainable improvement of soil
fertility, optimum application of synthetic N fertiliser and crop residues.
& 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

Global climate is changing primarily because of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions into the atmosphere.
Anthropogenic GHG emissions since the pre-industrial era have driven large increases in the atmospheric concentrations of
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) (IPCC, 2014). In 1992, the United Nations Framework Con-
vention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was developed with the objective of stabilising global GHG concentrations in the

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tongwanem@arc.agric.za (M. Tongwane).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.06.004
2211-4645/& 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
24 M. Tongwane et al. / Environmental Development 19 (2016) 23–35

atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system (United Nations,
1992). It is therefore one of the objectives of South Africa's national policy on climate change (South Africa, 2011) that the
country makes a fair contribution to the global effort to stabilise the GHG concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that
avoids dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system within a time frame that enables sustainable eco-
nomic, social and environmental development. To achieve this objective, the UNFCCC encourages signatory countries to
support research and systematic observations on both climate change adaptation and mitigation of GHG emissions.
South Africa is a major emitter of GHGs and accounts for 65% of Africa's emissions (South Africa, 2013). The economy,
which is largely based on the combustion of fossil fuels, makes the energy sector the main emitter of GHG emissions in the
country (Blignaut et al., 2005). In 2007 it is estimated that 78% of emissions resulted from fuel combustion, 15% from
industrial processes and 7% from other sectors (Winkler and Marquand, 2009). The country is the 42nd largest emitter per
capita in the world and is among a number of developing countries that are likely to face globally imposed emissions
constraints in the near future (South Africa, 2012). The government has identified carbon pricing and carbon budget ap-
proaches as two instruments that help to establish a strategy to mitigate national GHG emissions (South Africa, 2012). The
country is currently implementing an economy-wide carbon tax regime to mitigate the anthropogenic GHG emissions
(National Treasury, 2014). The agriculture and forestry land use sectors are currently excluded during the first 5 years (2016–
2020) of the national carbon tax regime largely due to administrative difficulties in measuring and verifying emissions from
these sectors (National Treasury, 2014). Modelling for the national Long-Term Mitigation Scenarios in 2008 indicated that
mitigation in agriculture and other sectors excluding energy and industrial processes could make a significant contribution
to national mitigation in the 2010–2020 period, but more investigation is needed to understand the requirements for es-
tablishing programmes in these areas (DEA, 2011). However, to date, agricultural research and development have generally
remained focused on sustainable yields and reducing the effects of environmental variability, and agricultural policies and
interventions in South Africa still lack an integrated approach which incorporates ecological and social dimensions (Vetter,
2009).
During the last four decades, global agricultural land increased due to conversions from other land uses, a change driven
largely by increasing demands for food from a growing human population (IPCC, 2006; Wang et al., 2013). In South Africa,
cropland and grasslands are estimated to have increased by 16.7% and 1.2%, respectively, between 2000 and 2010 (DEA,
2014). Land use changes, irrigation, soil nutrient drainage, fertiliser application practices, and changes in crop and livestock
patterns all contribute to changes in soil carbon (C), nitrogen (N) dynamics and ultimately atmospheric GHG emissions
(Wang et al., 2013; Ogle et al., 2014). The land sector in South Africa is a net sink of GHG emissions (average 19 million
tonnes of CO2 in 2010) which is dominated by a biomass carbon pool from grasslands and forest lands, and small con-
tributions from soils (DEA, 2014). Cropland is a net source of 39 thousand tonnes of CO2 (DEA, 2014).
Greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural practices are not well known compared to other sectors (Rajaniemi et al.,
2011). Acceleration of the global N cycle due to human activities is probably the major cause of an increase in the atmo-
spheric N2O concentration of 0.7 ppb per year (Bouwman et al., 2002). During the past few decades, global CH4, CO2 and N2O
concentrations in the atmosphere increased at rates of 0.8%, 0.5% and 0.3% per year, respectively (Wang et al., 2013). An-
thropogenic sources of N2O emitted from managed soils are the application of synthetic N fertilisers and animal manure,
and crop residues retained in the field (Stehfest and Bouwman, 2006). However, in southern Africa crop residues are often
grazed, removed or burned after each harvest (Murungu, 2012). Most N2O is produced in soils through biological processes
of nitrification and denitrification which are enhanced by availability of N (Kasimir-Klemedtsson et al., 1997; Bouwman
et al., 2002; Serrano-Silva et al., 2011; Signor and Cerri, 2013; Valentini et al., 2014). Temperature, moisture, and soil bio-
logical, chemical and physical characteristics are of great importance for nitrification and denitrification because they in-
fluence the microbial activities (Imer et al., 2013; Signor and Cerri, 2013; Wang et al., 2013).
Agricultural soils in South Africa emitted 14.9 and 17.8 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent (CO2-eq) in 1990 and 1994,
respectively (Blignaut et al., 2005). The agriculture sector contributed 4.9% of national total GHG emissions in 2000 (DEAT,
2009). Cropland accounts for less than 1% and 21% of national total GHG emissions and agricultural emissions, respectively
(DEA, 2014). Between 2000 and 2010 the annual GHG emissions produced by the sector increased by 38% (DEA, 2014). In all
the inventories compiled in the country, emissions from crop production have not been disaggregated into commodity
sources and inputs applied to the soil. Therefore the primary aim of this study was to estimate national GHG emissions from
synthetic N fertiliser (including urea), lime and crop residues applied to soil during crop production. This is the first study in
the country to develop a profile of GHG emissions from field crops. Availability of activity data limited previous national
inventories to focus on emissions from manure management without investigating contributions by each field crop. Tools
were also not robust enough to appropriately integrate all the information.

2. Methodology

2.1. Activity data

This study estimated GHGs produced from cultivation of field crops using data on crop residues retained in the fields
after harvest, synthetic fertiliser (including urea) and lime applied during cultivation. National climate and soil data were
also used in the analysis.
 M. Tongwane et al. / Environmental Development 19 (2016) 23–35 25

Fig. 1. South Africa's climate map used in ALU to calculate GHG emissions, *LSO is the country, Lesotho. Note: climate zones are explained in Table 3.

2.1.1. Climate and soil classifications

South Africa is predominantly semi-arid with wetter conditions in summer and drier in winter (Favre et al., 2013). In
semi-arid climates, annual precipitation ranges between half of the annual precipitation threshold and the threshold itself
(Belda et al., 2014). Rainfall in the country is strongly seasonal, being winter dominated in the far west and southwest of the
country and summer dominated elsewhere (Weldon and Reason, 2014).
A climate map (Fig. 1) was developed in accordance with the IPCC (2006) classification (Table 1) using a Geographical
Information System (GIS). The map was built using data from climate station networks of the Agricultural Research Council
and South African Weather Service. A minimum of 10 years of rainfall and temperature data for each station was used for the
development of the map. In addition, rainfall estimate data for 11,500 points throughout the country was downloaded from
the African Data Dissemination Service and was combined with rainfall data from the stations. Evapotranspiration was
estimated using the Hargreaves and Samani (1985) method. The resulting climate map showed that the climate of South
Africa is predominantly warm temperate dry. Small patches of cool temperate dry climate are found over the Drakensberg
mountains bordering the Eastern Cape Province with the southern tip of Lesotho. Small zones of warm temperate moist
climate are found in the Western Cape and Mpumalanga provinces.
South Africa is characterised by soils with very low organic matter levels (Du Preez et al., 2010, 2011). A soil map of South
Africa was developed using GIS. The soil classification used was based on soil taxonomic description and textural data as
outlined by IPCC (2006). Soil information was derived from the 1:250 000 scale land type survey of South Africa. This survey
mapped over 7000 unique land types, each with a specific combination of soil, terrain form and macroclimate. Within each
land type mapping unit, a number of different soil forms, as well as other land classes such as rock, stream beds and pans,
were recorded, and their percentage within the land type was used to allocate the land type to a specific broad soil pattern.
National soil classification shows a predominance of high activity clay mineral soils with 66% of the soil types, 20% sandy
mineral soils, 8% volcanic mineral soils and 5% low activity clay mineral soils. Wetland and spodic mineral soils make a
combined total of less than 1%.

Table 1
Climate zones classifications applicable to South Africa and required by ALU. Source: adapted from IPCC (2006).

Climate name Abbreviation Description

Cool temperate dry CTD Mean annual temperature o 10 °C and annual precipitation o evapotranspiration
Warm temperate dry WTD Mean annual growing season temperatures in this zone usually range from 10 to 20 °C and with annual
precipitation r potential evapotranspiration
Warm temperate moist WTM Mean annual growing season temperatures range from 10 to 20 °C and with annual precipitationZpotential
evapotranspiration
26 M. Tongwane et al. / Environmental Development 19 (2016) 23–35

2.1.2. Land use classification

According to land use maps described by DEA (2014), land cover in South Africa is dominated by woodlands/savanna
(30%), grasslands (20%), natural forests cover less than 0.5% of the land area (122 million ha), and agricultural activities use
approximately 7% of the land area. Perennial crops contribute about 8% towards cropland area. Land uses that were iden-
tified for field crops grown in the country were areas planted for irrigated and dryland commercial crops, semi-commercial
crops (or subsistence farming) and sugarcane. Main annual crops produced in the country include cereals, oil seeds, ve-
getables, root crops and forages.
Maize is the most important grain crop in South Africa, being both the major feed grain and the staple food of the
majority of the South African population (DAFF, 2013b). Between 2008/09 and 2012/13 agricultural seasons, total land that
was planted to maize by both commercial and non-commercial farmers averaged 3 million ha (DAFF, 2013b). Wheat is the
second largest annual crop that is grown in the country (DEA, 2014). In 2000 there were more than 1.1 million cereals and
vegetables farming operations (one or more separate farms, holdings or portions of land, whether contiguous or not, which
are operated as a single unit, irrespective of the number of districts into which they may fall) in South Africa with one farmer
managing one or more operations (Statistics South Africa, 2002).

2.1.3. Crop management practices

A survey was conducted to collect crop management information at farm level in South Africa. Crop management in-
formation for 2012 was collected from 300 respondents located throughout the country. Each farmer operated one or more
farms and therefore the information provided was generic in some instances. Farmers and farming groups were visited and
asked to provide details of their farm management practices, for which they used their records, experience and recollec-
tions. The information that was collected included area planted, tillage methods, irrigation type where applicable, in-
formation on lime and N input rates and frequency of application for each crop. Fractions of crop residues retained in the
field after harvest were also collected. This study assumed that there are no major annual changes in crop production
management practices in South Africa and that 2012 information was an average representative of other years.

2.1.3.1. Use of synthetic fertiliser. Various types of synthetic fertiliser are used during crop production in South Africa (Ta-
ble 2). Data on management of this input was also obtained from the survey and the information gaps were filled using data
from FAO (2005). Total amount of generic synthetic N fertiliser (430,000 t) used in South Africa was obtained from the
Fertiliser Association of Southern Africa (FASA). It was assumed that this amount of synthetic N fertiliser would be dis-
aggregated into utilisation by different crops according to the information obtained from the survey. National statistics do
not provide details of types of synthetic fertiliser used for each crop and the survey data focused mainly on N applied to each
crop without specifying the fertiliser type.

2.1.3.2. Crop residue management. Average yields for various crops were calculated from Abstracts of Agriculture (DAFF,
2013a, 2015). Yields were either obtained or calculated using historical statistics of productions and area planted in the
country. Residue to yield ratios were obtained from IPCC (2006), Unal and Alibas (2007), Scarlat et al. (2010, 2011) and Jain
et al. (2006, 2014). Based on yields, crop residue management and crop factors (Tables 3 and 4), quantities of crop residues
that were retained in the fields after harvest were then calculated by Agriculture and Land Use National Greenhouse Gas
Inventory Software (ALU) using the information that was obtained during the survey. Area under production in 2012 was
obtained from Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF, 2013b) and Statistics South Africa (2007).

2.1.3.3. Liming. Lime is commonly applied to agricultural lands where nitrogenous fertilisers are continuously used and
where precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration (Ogle et al., 2014). Data on national consumption of lime in the country was
not available and had to be estimated from management practices obtained from the survey. Data for this study was es-
timated from area planted, average liming rate and frequency of application (Table 4). Since lime is not applied every year,
its input rates are evenly distributed on an annual basis (Rajaniemi et al., 2011; Camargo et al., 2013). Annual equivalent
amount of lime applied was estimated to be a product of area harvested and lime application rate divided by frequency of
application. Agricultural lime consists primarily of crushed limestone (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) in varying pro-
portions (Ogle et al., 2014). Fractions of dolomite (63%) and limestone (37%) were determined based on Otter et al. (2010).
The total amount of lime (3.5 million tonnes) that was calculated and used in this study exceeded the 1.1 million tonnes for
2010 reported by DEA (2014). But the lime estimated in this study can make a good and comparable increment of the

Table 2
Amounts of synthetic fertiliser used in South Africa in 2012. Source: FAO Statistics (2016).

Synthetic fertiliser Mass (tonnes) Synthetic fertiliser Mass (tonnes)

Urea 756,827 Potassium chloride 247,667

Ammonium sulphate 61,829 Potassium nitrate 41,978
Calcium ammonium nitrate 34,194 Potassium sulphate 57,870
Diammonium phosphate 35,277 Super phosphate 30,852
Monoammonium phosphate 69,720
 M. Tongwane et al. / Environmental Development 19 (2016) 23–35 27

Table 3
Crop residue management (%) in South Africa. Source: Information based on the feedback from farmers.

Crop Residue retained Residue burned Residue grazed Residue collected

Cereals
Barley 18 20 26 36
Maize 48 2 48 2
Sorghum 12 0 88 0
Wheat 48 1 34 17

Legumes and oilseeds

Dry bean 42 0 52 6
Groundnut 100 0 0 0
Soybean 36 8 36 20
Sunflower 47 0 38 15

Vegetables
Cabbage 86 0 12 2
Other vegetables 89 0 9 2
Potatoes 100 0 0 0
Tomato 80 1 18 1

Other field crops

Cotton 100 0 0 0
Fodder 13 0 51 36
Other 33 0 33 34
Sugarcane 37 16 5 42
Tobacco 100 0 0 0

reported historical data. Consumption of lime for agricultural purposes increased from about 0.04 million tonnes in 1950–
0.8 million tonnes per year in the late 1960 s (Douglas, 1969). This shows large rates of increase in usage of lime in the past,
and amounts of lime applied to soils in the country could have steadily increased due to expansion of crop production area
in the country over time.

2.2. Greenhouse gas calculations

ALU software (Version 4.5.2) developed by the Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory at Colorado State University, USA
was used to calculate the GHG emissions in South Africa in this study. Climate, soil and land use information was exported
into text files which were then imported into ALU, and management practices for each land use classification and crop
commodity were also entered. ALU was developed based on Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines, 2000 IPCC Good Practice Gui-
dance, 2003 IPCC Good Practice Guidance, and 2006 IPCC Guidelines so that it conformed to official international standards
(Colomb et al., 2013). ALU guides the user through the process of activity data compilation, emission factor assignment and
emission calculations through the interface, while storing, processing, and analysing data, in addition to producing reports
(Milne et al., 2012; Ogle et al., 2013). ALU classifies croplands according to climate regions and major soil types. The software
was obtained from http://www.nrel.colostate.edu/projects/ALUsoftware/.
The ALU software used IPCC (2006) Tier 1 to calculate N2O emissions from synthetic fertiliser (including urea) and crop
residues applied during crop production. CO2 emissions from urea were calculated using Eqn. 1 since the version of ALU that
was used in this study did not have functionality to calculate CO2 from urea. The IPCC (2006) default emission factor of 0.2 t
of C (tonne of urea)
1 for urea was used. Conversion from C emissions to CO2 was done by multiplication of the right-hand
side of Eqn. 1 by 44/12.
CO2 − CEmission = M ∙EF (1)

where CO2–C is the annual C emissions from urea application (tonnes C per year); M is the annual amount of urea applied
(tonnes per year); and EF is the emission factor.

2.3. Emission factors

Default emission factors used for synthetic N fertiliser were 0.01 kg N2O-N/kg N for direct N2O emission, 0.01 kg N2O-N/
kg (NH3-Nþ NOx-N volatilised) for indirect N2O emission and 0.0075 kg N2O-N/kg N for indirect leached/runoff emissions
(IPCC, 2006). Fraction of synthetic N fertiliser volatised was 0.1 and fraction of synthetic N fertiliser leached/runoff was 0.3.
Default emission factors for crop residues, dry matter fractions (DMF), carbon fractions (0.5 t C/tonne dry matter) and
nitrogen-to-carbon (N-C) ratio (0.015 to N/tonne C) were obtained from IPCC (2006), Jain et al. (2014) and Kock et al. (2011).
Values of crop residue to crop ratio were obtained from IPCC (2006), Scarlat et al. (2010), Jain et al. (2014) and Jiang et al.
(2012). N2O-N emissions were multiplied by 44/28 to convert them to N2O. N2O emissions were converted to their CO2-eq
28 M. Tongwane et al. / Environmental Development 19 (2016) 23–35

Table 4
Harvested area, total amount of nitrogen and lime application rates in South Africa and crop factors.

Crop Harvested1 Synthetic N fertiliser Lime applied2 Lime applied Crop yield3 Residue: yield Dry matter
area (ha) Applied2 (kg/ha) (tonnes/ha) after2 (Yrs) (tonnes/ha) ratio fraction

Cereals
Maize 4,565,814 52.8 2.0 4.0 4.2 1.5b,d 0.87g
Sorghum 146,768 30.0 2.3 2.0 2.8 1.4c 0.89g
Wheat 1,59,443 30.0 1.9 3.0 3.7 1.3c,e 0.89g
Barley 102,660 50.0 3.0 4.0 3.5 1.2c 0.89g

Legumes and oilseeds

Dry bean 63,773 24.9 2.4 4.0 1.2 2.1c 0.91g
Groundnut 77,386 180.0 2.0 5.0 1.3 2.0b 0.8b
Soybean 200,516 19.0 2.7 3.0 1.4 2.1c 0.91g
Sunflower 460,122 15.0 1.7 3.0 1.2 2.5d 0.91h

Vegetables
Cabbage 14,900 170.0a 2.3 3.0 40.5 2.5e 0.08i
Potato 96,214 170.0a 2.4 3.0 30.3 0.4c,e 0.22g
Tomato 18,082 170.0a 3.0 3.0 37.9 0.3e 0.8j
Other vegetables 69,416 170.0a 1.8 3.0 2.5 2.0 f 0.18f

Other field crops

Cotton 27,278 43.6 2.0 2.0 3.3 3.0b 0.8b
Fodder 675,400 32.1 2.6 4.5 3.4 1.6c,d,e 0.8c
Other 163,276 28.5 1.6 2.0 1.8 1.5 f 0.8f
Sugarcane 305,380 76.0 3.3 3.0 61.1 0.4b 0.88b
Tobacco 29,522 38.0a 2.0 3.0 2.6 1.05e 0.8h

Sources of information:
1
Areas calculated by ALU based on land classification by climate, soil and crop grown.
2
Information collected from the farmers except where stated on the contrary.
3
Calculated based on the information from DAFF, (2013a, 2013b).
a
FAO (2005).
b
Jain et al. (2014).
c
IPCC (2000).
d
Scarlat et al. (2010, 2011).
e
Unal and Alibas (2007).
f
Assumed average.
g
IPCC (2006).
h
Ogle et al. (2014).
i
Mie et al. (2014) and Kahlon et al. (2012).
j
Andriolo et al. (1998).

by multiplying them with a global warming potential of 298 (Forster et al., 2007; Scheutz et al., 2009). It was assumed in this
study that carbon emission factors were 0.13 t C/tonne for dolomite and 0.12 t C/tonne for limestone according to IPCC
(2006).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Greenhouse gas emissions by crop management practices

Production of field crops in South Africa emitted a national total of 5.2 million tonnes of CO2-eq emissions in 2012
(Table 5). These comprise total emissions from manures applied during production of field crops in the country. N2O from
synthetic fertiliser and crop residues is the main GHG produced from application of manure during cultivation of field crops
in the country with 60% of the emissions whilst the remaining 40% is from CO2. Synthetic N fertiliser is the main source of
N2O with 78% whilst crop residues contribute 22%. Similarly, 74% of CO2 is from lime application and 26% is from urea. A
total of 81% of the synthetic fertiliser emissions is N2O whilst CO2 from urea accounts for 19% of the emissions from this
agricultural input.

3.1.1. Synthetic fertiliser

Application of synthetic fertiliser to the soil is the main source of GHG emissions from production of field crops in South
Africa with a national total of 3.0 million tonnes of CO2-eq. These emissions make a share of 57% of the national total GHG
emissions from field crops (Fig. 2-1). A total of 72% of emissions from application of synthetic fertiliser is from production of
cereal crops (Figs. 2-2). 75% of the emissions from synthetic N fertiliser are direct, 16% are indirect emissions from leaching/
runoff of N from the fertiliser and 9% are indirect emissions from atmospheric N deposition. High emissions from synthetic
 M. Tongwane et al. / Environmental Development 19 (2016) 23–35 29

Table 5
Greenhouse gas emissions from different crop management practices in South Africa in 2012.

Crop Synthetic fertiliser Crop residues Lime Total GHGs

CO2-eq (tonnes) % CO2-eq (tonnes) % CO2-eq (tonnes) % CO2-eq (tonnes) %

Cereals 2,155,691 72.6 504,106 72.0 880,799 57.2 3 540,596 68.0

Barley 39,171 1.3 2433 0.3 33,740 2.2 75,344 1.4
Maize 1,840,377 62.0 423,891 60.6 661,375 42.9 2,925,643 56.2
Sorghum 33,600 1.1 2150 0.3 33,725 2.2 69,475 1.3
Wheat 242,544 8.2 75,632 10.8 151,959 9.9 470,135 9.0
Legumes and Oilseeds 200,137 6.7 31,965 4.6 352,695 22.9 584,797 11.2
Dry bean 12,098 0.4 2157 0.3 12,091 0.8 26,346 0.5
Groundnut 106,297 3.6 5653 0.8 8 862 0.6 120,812 2.3
Soybean 29,073 1.0 6686 1.0 226,769 14.7 262,528 5.0
Sunflower 52,668 1.8 17,469 2.5 104,973 6.8 175,110 3.4
Vegetables 257,659 8.7 40,147 5.7 44,629 2.9 342,435 6.6
Cabbage 19,330 0.7 6376 0.9 691 0.0 26,397 0.5
Other vegetables 90,053 3.0 7617 1.1 18,749 1.2 116,419 2.2
Potatoes 124,818 4.2 18,448 2.6 22,102 1.4 165,368 3.2
Tomatoes 23,458 0.8 7706 1.1 3 087 0.2 34,251 0.7
Other field crops 355,832 12.0 123,786 17.7 262,867 17.1 742,485 14.3
Cotton 9084 0.3 7519 1.1 3 419 0.2 20,022 0.4
Fodder 125,541 4.2 12,564 1.8 55,271 3.6 193,376 3.7
Other field crops 35,535 1.2 16,119 2.3 8 162 0.5 59,816 1.1
Sugarcane 177,110 6.0 85,363 12.1 194,428 12.6 456,901 8.1
Tobacco 8561 0.3 2221 0.3 1 587 0.1 12,369 0.2
Total 2,969,319 100 700,004 100 1,540,990 100 5,210,313 100

fertiliser are obtained as a result of high application rates that are aimed to improve soil fertility and crop productivity.
Emissions from application of synthetic fertiliser to the soil during the agricultural season are far larger than the 0.3 million
tonnes for 1988 obtained by Scholes and Van der Merwe (1996). The difference between these values may be due to data
collection methods before and after 1997. Synthetic fertiliser estimates before 1997 did not include sales made by non-
members of FASA (FASA, 2015).
Greenhouse gas emissions from production of field crops in South Africa suggest that strategies to decrease synthetic
fertiliser application rates need to be developed for the country to reduce GHG emissions from crop production. This ob-
servation is also recognised by South Africa (2012) which recommends that to respond effectively to climate change,
agricultural practices in South Africa will have to reduce the use of N fertilisers and promote organic farming. In addition,
regular soil testing can improve manure management in the fields, especially synthetic N fertilisation, and therefore correct
application of manure can then be achieved. Precision agriculture, which is currently practised by some commercial farmers
in the country, needs to be promoted to other farmers because it improves manure rates. However, acquisition of farming
implements for this management may be a challenge to many farmers in South Africa and probably many other farmers in
developing countries due to their high capital costs. While big farmers frequently take soil samples for fertility testing,
subsistence and smallholder farmers require various forms of assistance to perform this important step of crop production.
Among others, poor farmers need to be equipped with skills to take the samples and testing facilities have to be more
accessible to them.

3.1.2. Lime
Addition of lime during crop production is the second largest source of GHG emissions from field crops. Application of
this agricultural input accounts for 30% of the national total GHG emissions from field crops. Cereal crops are the dominant
sources of emissions from lime with 57% (Figs. 2-3). Approximately two-thirds of the emissions from lime are from dolo-
mite. GHG emissions from lime obtained in this study are generally twice the amounts obtained by DEA (2014). The dif-
ference is due to the methods used to estimate lime consumption in the country. These large uncertainty levels of emissions
from this agricultural input can be avoided by strengthening of national data collection mechanisms. In order to have
consistent emissions from this agricultural input, it is important that data from the producers and the balance of imports
and exports is obtained and archived at an appropriate institution in the country.

3.1.3. Crop residues retained in the field

Retaining of crop residues in the field after harvest accounts for 13% of total national emissions from field crops. Cereal
crops with 72% (Figs. 2-4) remain the main producers of emissions from this management mainly because of large areas
planted to these crops. Retention of crop residues after harvest can have multiple mitigation and climate change adaptation
opportunities if this management can be practised. Retaining of crop residues after harvest, rather than grazing and burning
them, can increase soil N content which will reduce the general application of synthetic N fertiliser to the soil. An added
benefit of this management practice is the improvement of mulch for soil moisture conservation, especially in response to
30 M. Tongwane et al. / Environmental Development 19 (2016) 23–35

Fig. 2. Greenhouse gas emissions by crop management in South Africa.

the anticipated reduced rainfall in the country. It has been found that better integration of organic resources such as animal
waste and crop residues into crop nutrition programmes can assist to improve soil fertility while also helping to mitigate
indirect emissions from fertiliser production (Flynn and Smith, 2010). However, retaining crop residues in the field is
generally a challenge in southern Africa where crop stalks are used for animal grazing during dry seasons (winter and
spring), burned for space heating during cold seasons and for cooking especially in the rural areas.

3.2. Greenhouse gas emissions by crop commodity

Contributions to total national GHG emissions from field crops vary significantly between different crops. Production of
cereal crops (68%) is the highest source of GHG emissions from field crops while management of vegetables (7%) results in
the smallest contribution to the total emissions (Fig. 3). GHG emissions from production of field crops account for ap-
proximately 17% of average annual agriculture and forestry land use emissions based on the results of DEA (2013) for the
emissions between 2000 and 2010. Emissions from production of field crops may increase with population growth in the
country and inward migration of people from southern Africa and the entire continent because the rate of national food
production may have to be increased to keep up with increasing demand. Emissions may also be influenced by the levels of
food stocks exported annually from South Africa to, in particular, southern Africa countries which frequently experience
poor crop production. South Africa normally has the capacity to meet the maize import needs of neighbouring countries that
experience shortages (DAFF, 2013b).

3.2.1. Cereal crops

Cultivation of cereal crops is the main source of GHG emissions in South Africa with 68% of the total emissions from field
crops. Totals of 61%, 14% and 25% of emissions from production of cereal crops are from synthetic fertiliser, crop residues and
lime, respectively. Production of cereal crops accounts for 73% of national total GHG emissions from application of synthetic
fertiliser, 72% of emissions from crop residues and 57% of CO2 from lime. Maize (82%) and wheat (14%) are the main sources
of total cereal crop GHG emissions (Fig. 4-a.1). Application of synthetic fertiliser during maize production results in 85% of
emissions from cereal crops (Fig. 4-b.1). A total of 84% of emissions from crop residues left in the field after harvest are from
cultivation of maize (Fig. 4-d.1) and production of this commodity accounts for three quarters of emissions from the addition
of lime to the soil (Fig. 4-c.1). Production of wheat contributes totals of 11%, 15% and 17% of cereals’ emissions from synthetic
 M. Tongwane et al. / Environmental Development 19 (2016) 23–35 31

Fig. 3. Total GHG emissions by crop groups in South Africa.

fertiliser, crop residues and lime, respectively (Fig. 4-b.1, d.1, c.1). Productions of sorghum and barley account for less than 5%
of total emissions from application of manure during cultivation of cereal crops.
Production of cereal crops results in the highest emissions due to the large total area they are cultivated on. Greenhouse
gas emissions from production of maize include contributions from cultivating maize grain and maize silage. From the total
area planted for maize grain in 2012, it can be estimated that silage was produced on approximately 1.9 million hectares
(40% of total harvested area for maize). This fraction is based on the area originally planted to maize silage as a supplement
animal feed and maize crops that fail during the season which are then converted to silage. This practice is among several
sources of uncertainties in the statistics related to maize production in the country. As a result, the general uncertainties in
the available datasets on cropland are currently too high for use in many applications (See et al., 2015).

3.2.2. Other field crops

Production of other field crops is the second largest source of GHG emissions from field crops with 14% of the national
total. Totals of 48%, 17% and 35% of emissions from other field crops are from synthetic fertiliser, crop residues and lime,
respectively. For other field crops, cultivation of sugarcane is the main source of emissions with 63% of total emissions from
this group (Fig. 4-a.2). Management of this crop commodity results in the third highest emissions of all crops after maize
and wheat. For other field crops, production of sugarcane accounts for half of the emissions from application of synthetic
fertiliser (Fig. 4-b.2), over two-thirds of the emissions from crop residue management (Fig. 4-d.2) and nearly three-quarters
of GHGs from addition of lime (Fig. 4-c.2). Fodder production is another significant source of emissions from other field
crops with approximately a quarter of the emissions in this group. Fodder production is responsible for over a third of field
crop emissions from synthetic fertiliser.
Periodic crop rotations with fodder crops can have both environmental and socio-economic benefits. It has been shown
by Murungu (2012) that grazing vetch has a potential to fix approximately 111.5 kg N/ha, which may translate to a general
savings worth US$220 in some parts of South Africa. In addition, the combined effect of grazing vetch residues on soil N
improvement and weed suppression may result in the highest benefit to cost ratio of 1.9 when maize was planted without
fertilisation (Murungu, 2012).

3.2.3. Legumes and oilseeds

Production of legumes and oilseeds contributed 11% of total national GHG emissions from field crops in South Africa.
Unlike with other crop groups, application of lime is the main source of emissions with 60% of the emissions from legumes
and oilseeds. Synthetic fertiliser and crop residues account for 34% and 5% of the emissions from this group, respectively.
Production of soybeans, sunflower and groundnuts accounts for the largest sources of emissions from legumes and oilseeds
with 47%, 30% and 19%, respectively (Fig 4-a.3). Application of synthetic fertiliser during the management of groundnuts is
the largest source of emissions for this agricultural input in this group (Fig. 4-b.3). Similarly, soybean is the major source of
emissions from lime application (Fig. 4-c.3). Production of sunflower results in the largest emissions from crop residues for
this group (Fig. 4-d.3).

3.2.4. Vegetables
Cultivation of vegetables produces 7% of total national GHG emissions from production of field crops. Three-quarters of
emissions from this group are from application of synthetic fertilisers whilst 12% and 13% are contributions from crop
residues and lime, respectively. For vegetables, national total emissions from production of potatoes (48%) are highest
followed by other vegetables (34%) and tomatoes (10%) (Fig. 4-a.4). Potatoes account for between 46% and 49% of the
emissions from every crop management practice (Fig. 4-b.4, c.4, d.4). Rates of emissions from vegetable production are
largely influenced by synthetic fertiliser that is frequently applied to compensate for leaching of N as a result of regular
irrigation, and crop residues that are left in the fields after harvest.
32 M. Tongwane et al. / Environmental Development 19 (2016) 23–35

Fig. 4. Crop commodity GHG emissions by management practices in South Africa.

3.3. Greenhouse gas emission intensities from production of field crops

Greenhouse gas emissions per area planted vary according to crop commodity and manure input (Table 6). Production of
vegetables results in the highest overall GHG emission rate of 1.52 t CO2-eq ha
1, followed by legumes and oilseeds (0.83 t
CO2-eq ha
1), other field crops (0.60 t CO2-eq ha
1) and cereals which have the lowest rate (0.51 t CO2-eq ha
1). With the
exception of the N-fixing legumes and oilseeds, all the crops have highest emission rates from the application of synthetic
fertiliser to the soil during planting. Soybean has the highest emission rates per crop management with 1.13 t CO2-eq ha
1
from addition of lime. Groundnuts and all vegetables have their respective highest intensities of 1.12 t CO2-eq ha
1 and
1.05 t CO2-eq ha
1 from application of synthetic fertiliser to the soil during production.
Pulse crops, sunflower and fodder have the smallest intensities due to low application rates of N to the soil during the
growing season. Although production of cereal crops, especially maize, results in large amounts of GHG emissions, their
emissions per hectare are relatively smaller than rates for other crops. This shows that emissions from production of cereals
is generally influenced more by area planted rather than rates of manure input applications. Emissions per hectare of maize
are comparable to the results of Liu et al. (2006), Ma et al. (2012), Stephenson et al. (2004) in Ahlgren et al. (2009).

4. Conclusions

This study used ALU software to calculate firstly GHG emissions from field crops in South Africa. Application of manure
inputs during production of field crops resulted in a total of 5.2 million tonnes of CO2-eq emissions in the country in 2012.
 M. Tongwane et al. / Environmental Development 19 (2016) 23–35 33

Table 6
Crop management CO2-eq emissions per hectare for main crops in South Africa.

Synthetic fertiliser Crop residues Lime Total

1
Tonnes CO2-eq ha

Cereals 0.25 0.05 0.21 0.51

Barley 0.31 0.02 0.33 0.66
Maize 0.33 0.09 0.14 0.57
Sorghum 0.19 0.01 0.23 0.43
Wheat 0.19 0.07 0.14 0.40
Legumes and Oilseeds 0.37 0.04 0.42 0.83
Dry bean 0.15 0.03 0.19 0.38
Groundnut 1.12 0.07 0.11 1.30
Soybean 0.12 0.03 1.13 1.28
Sunflower 0.09 0.04 0.23 0.36
Vegetables 1.05 0.29 0.18 1.52
Cabbage 1.05 0.43 0.05 1.53
Other vegetables 1.05 0.11 0.27 1.43
Potatoes 1.05 0.19 0.23 1.48
Tomatoes 1.05 0.43 0.17 1.65
Other field crops 0.26 0.15 0.23 0.60
Cotton 0.27 0.28 0.13 0.67
Fodder 0.15 0.02 0.08 0.25
Other 0.18 0.10 0.27 0.33
Sugarcane 0.47 0.28 0.64 1.39
Tobacco 0.24 0.08 0.05 0.36

Application of synthetic fertiliser to the soil results in the highest GHG emissions with 57% of the total national emissions
from production of field crops in the country. This is followed by the addition of lime with 30% and crop residues retained in
the field after harvest with 13%. Cereal crops are responsible for 68% of the national total emissions with maize contributing
to 56% of the national total. Production of maize, wheat and sugarcane results in highest commodity GHG emissions in the
country. Tonnes of CO2-eq ha
1 are highest for vegetables and lowest for cereals and tobacco.
This study improves knowledge about GHG emissions from crop production that is necessary to guide national miti-
gation plans in the agriculture sector. It has reduced uncertainties regarding contributions of each field crop commodity to
the emissions of the sector. ALU is a good tool to compile agricultural GHG inventories and to archive the information.
However, it requires extensive activity data which may be expensive to collect and synthesise depending on the national
circumstances. Regular updating of the field crop emission profiles is needed and affordable mechanisms to collect in-
formation from the farmers must be developed. This can be achieved by establishing sustainable institutional arrangements
with specific mandates. Collaboration between relevant institutions needs to be improved, especially with regard to data
sharing. Development of national emission factors can improve field crop emission estimates. Gradual but robust research is
needed to develop emission factors that adequately cover national conditions.

Acknowledgements

Material presented in this paper is part of the project “Improvement of the greenhouse gas emissions inventory for the
agricultural sector” (contract number SCPF003) which was funded by UK DFID and managed by Cardno Emerging Markets.
The project was supervised by the Department of Environmental Affairs, South Africa. Dr Johan Malherbe, Dr Garry Paterson
and Ms Teboho Masupha of the Agricultural Research Council assisted with the development of climate and soil maps.
Special thanks to the farmers and farmer groups who provided their farm management data. Editorial inputs from Dr
Thomas Fyfield are greatly appreciated.

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