A PROJECT REPORT ON

NON DISTRUCTIVE TESTING ON WELD SAMPLE

In Partial fulfilment of requirements for the award of

DIPLOMA IN METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by
17013-MET-016 K. JAYANTH

18013-MET-001 A.V.V.S. PHAANEENDRA

18013-MET-002 B. HUSSENAIAH

18013-MET-003 B.ASWINI PHANI KUMAR

18013-MET-008 D. SAI CHARAN YADAV

18013-MET-015 K. DHEERAJ KUMAR

18013-MET-018 K. ANAND BABU

18013-MET-019 L. KUSHWANTH

18013-MET-021 M. SATYA NARAYANA

18013-MET-023 M. KARUNAKAR REDDY

18013-MET-029 P.V.V. GANGA RAO

18013-MET-036 Sk. KARISHMA

18013-MET-037 Sk. REHMAN

18013-MET-039 S.R.S.S. MANIKANTA

18013-MET-043 Y. SOMASEKHAR

18013-MET-047 R. MANOBHIRAM

Under the guidance of Mr. B. Somanadh (B-Tech)

DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING

GOVT POLYTECHNIC VIJAYAWADA

 DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING
GOVT POLYTECHNIC VIJAYAWADA
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the following D.MET.E, VII semester students of
(2018-2022) of Govt. Polytechnic, Vijayawada have done the project
work on NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF WELD SAMPLE in partial
fulfilment for the award of Diploma in Metallurgical Engineering

17013-MET-016 K. JAYANTH

18013-MET-001 A.V.V.S. PHAANEENDRA

18013-MET-002 B. HUSSENAIAH

18013-MET-003 B.ASWINI PHANI KUMAR

18013-MET-008 D. SAI CHARAN YADAV

18013-MET-015 K. DHEERAJ KUMAR

18013-MET-018 K. ANAND BABU

18013-MET-019 L. KUSHWANTH

18013-MET-021 M. SATYA NARAYANA

18013-MET-023 M. KARUNAKAR REDDY

18013-MET-029 P.V.V. GANGA RAO

18013-MET-036 Sk. KARISHMA

18013-MET-037 Sk. REHMAN

18013-MET-039 S.R.S.S. MANIKANTA

18013-MET-043 Y. SOMASEKHAR

18013-MET-047 R. MANOBHIRAM

PROJECT GUIDE HEAD OF SECTION

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Our deepest gratitude to Mr. B. Somanadh sir for his constant

guidance and encouragement and for his unique way of
teaching the simplicity and beauty of everything that surrounds
us. We would also like to thank Mrs. M.V.L.D. SATYAVANI
madam and Head of Metallurgical Engg. Section Mrs. Ch.
Sailaja madam for their valuable suggestions and support.
We would like to thank Mr. Ramu Sir Quailty Manager,
G.S. Alloys Unit-2, for supporting and allowing us to do project
work in their industry and also for helping and guiding us in
proper way.
We would like to thank our staff members for their
support without which we would not be bring out this
successfully.
Introduction
Welding is a manufacturing process of creating a
permanent joint obtained by the fusion of the surface of the parts to be
joined together, with or without the application of pressure and a filler
material. The materials to be joined may be similar or dissimilar to each
other The heat required for the fusion of the material may be obtained by
burning of gas or by an electric arc. The latter method is more extensively
used because of greater welding speed. Welding is extensively used in
fabrication as an alternative method for casting or forging and as a
replacement for bolted and riveted joints. It is also used as a repair medium
e.g. to reunite a metal at a crack or to build up a small part that has broken
off such as a gear tooth or to repair a worn surface such as a bearing
surface.
Welding, a metal joining process can be traced back in history to
the ancient times. In the Bronze Age, nearly 2000 years ago, circular boxes
made of gold were welded in lap joint arrangement by applying pressure.
Later on, in the Iron Age, Egyptians started welding piece of iron together.
But welding as we know nowadays came into existence only in the 19th
century Sir Humphrey Davy produced an electric arc using two carbon
electrodes powered by a battery. This principle was subsequently applied to
weld metals. Resistance welding finally developed in the year 1885by Elihu
Thomson. Acetylene gas was discovered in 1836 by Edmund Davy, but it
could not be used in welding application due to lack of a proper welding
torch. When the require welding, torch was invented in 1900, oxy-acetylene
welding became one of the most popular type of welding mainly due to its
relatively lower cost. However, in the 20th century it lost its place to arc
welding in most of the industrial applications.
Welded Joints
The welding joint geometry can be classified primarily into
five types. This is based on the orientation between the material surfaces to
be joined. The various joints are
1. Lap Joint

2. Butt Joint

3. Corner Joint
4. Edge Joint
5. T-Joint

The main considerations involved in the selection of a particular welded

joint are given below:
1. The shape of the welded component required,

2. The thickness of the plates to be welded, and

3. The direction of the forces to which the finished object will be subjected
to in the actual working conditions.

Butt joint:
A butt weld is one of the simplest and versatile types of weld
joint designs. The joint is formed simply by placing two pieces of metal end-
to-end and then welding along the join. Importantly, in a butt joint, the
surfaces of the workpieces being joined are on the same plane and weld
metal remains within the planes of the surfaces. Thus, workpieces are nearly
parallel and do not overlap, unlike lap joints, for example.
 Depending upon the thickness of the metal pieces, different types
of grooves can be prepared. Groove preparation is also called weld edge
preparation and is necessary for thicker metals. Examples of types of
grooves, depending upon their shape are V groove, J groove, and U groove.
Groove design changes depending upon full penetration or partial
penetration weld requirements. Groove welding can be carried out using
different types of welding - whether manual, mechanized or automated
processes. Thin sheets are usually welded without any weld edge
preparation, such joints are referred as square butt joint.

Butt joints can be welded using arc welding, resistance welding and
high energy beam welding and it can even be part of a brazing operation At
the start, weld pieces can be held together with a tack weld, which is a
temporary joint that ensures components stay in a proper alignment while
the butt welding is performed. Pre-heating might be required for joining
parts at the butt joint area. Butt welding is commonly employed in various
industry sectors varying from piping systems, automotive, energy, power,
etc.

Types of Butt Weld Joints

As mentioned earlier, various types of butt welding joints are
named for their particular shape. The different types of joints include single
V, double V, single and double bevel, single and double U, single and double
J joints, square butt joints and even combinations of these. The simplest of
these, with regards to alignment, is the square butt weld. In all cases, the
welds are performed with the pieces end-to-end with the thickness of the
parent metal. To control distortion of the welded assembly, it is important
to control weld penetration by using a double penetration joint design.

Advantages:
Butt welds provide several advantages, including:
1.High strength with complete fusion
2.Easy to machine
3.Distortion control
4.Easy to inspect
Disadvantages:
There are some disadvantages such as:
1.Welding geometry can limit applications
2.Fixturing or backing may be required
3.Sensitive to faying surface conditions
Conclusion:
Butt welding is the commonly used joint design for a variety of
applications in industry sectors due to its simplicity. This basic technique has
a number of different weld formations suitable for varying weld thickness.
Applications
The applications of Butt joint include Pipes Valves, Flanges, and Fittings

Butt joint pipe fittings

 Welding technology is widely used in various
industries because it is such cheaper than other joining technologies.
Welded joint shave much wider applications; it is still one of the basic
methods of joining materials in the automotive [1] and machine industries
[2].In the engineering industry, spot welded joints are of great use because
machine covers are often large and made of thin sheets [3]. In the
production of shields from thin sheets, the use of resistance welding is much
cheaper than, for example, the use of fusion welding [4]. It is a similar
situation in the automotive industry, where the use of welded joints is more
economic, and often used for complex shape components

MIG WELDING: Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) also called MIG
(metal inert gas) if the shielding gas is inert, for example argon, or MAG
(metal active gas) if the gas has a content of an active gas such as CO2. In
Europe the process is usually called MIG/MAG or just MIG welding. The
process is used in a wide range of plate thicknesses even though it has been
most dominant in thin sheet welding. This is because of its easiness in
starting and stopping and thereby its relatively high productivity. Compared
to stick electrode (MMA) welding there is no need for the frequent
electrode changes and slag removal.
The principle of MIG welding is that a metallic wire is fed through the welding
gun and melted in an arc. The wire serves the dual purpose of acting as the
current-carrying electrode and as the weld metal filler wire. Electrical energy for
the arc is supplied by a welding power source. The arc and the pool of molten
material are protected by a shielding gas, which is either inert or active. In this
context, an inert gas is one that does not react with the molten material.
Examples of gases in this category are argon and helium. Active gases, on the
other hand, participate in the processes in the arc and the molten material. Argon
containing a small proportion of carbon dioxide or oxygen is an example of an
active gas. In order to achieve optimum welding performance, it is important that
the welding parameters are set correctly. Examples of such parameters in MIG
welding are voltage, wire feed speed and the shielding gas flow.
principle of MIG welding:
The arc is struck between the workpiece and a wire that is
continually fed forward to replace the metal that is melted away. The wire is
supplied on a reel or drum, and is fed to the welding gun by drive rollers,
which push the wire through a flexible conduit in the hose package to the
gun. Electrical energy for the arc is supplied by a welding power source. The
welding current is passed to the electrode through a contact tip in the
welding gun. This contact tip is normally connected to the positive pole of
the power source, and the workpiece to the negative pole. Striking the arc
completes the circuit. The small diameter wire, typically around 1 mm, is fed
by the wire feeder with a speed of several meters per minute. Arc length is
then self-adjusted depending on the voltage setting of the constant
potential power source.
A shielding gas that protects the electrode, the arc and the weld pool
from the effects of the surrounding air, flows through the shielding gas
nozzle that surrounds the contact tip. This shielding gas may be either inert,
which means that it is inactive and does not participate in the processes
occurring in the weld pool, or active.
As the filler wire is fed through automatically while the welding gun
is moved over the workpiece manually, MIG welding is usually referred to as
being a semi-automatic method. However, the method lends itself easily to
automation by mechanizing the movements of the welding gun or arranging
for the workpiece to move.
Advantages, limitations and applications
Among the benefits of MIG welding, the most important are
probably the high productivity and the relatively low heat input to the
workpiece, combined with the fact that the method is so easy to automate.
Productivity is considerably higher than with manual metal arc welding, as
there is no need to interrupt welding to replace filler rods, and little or no
slag chipping is required.
MIG welding is a particularly flexible method and covers a wide
range of applications:
· Plate thicknesses from 0.5 mm and upwards. The low heat input is valuable
when welding thin sheet, in helping to avoid deformation and distortion of
the sheet. When welding in thicker metal, the filler passes can be applied
with high productivity.
· All commonly encountered structural materials, such as mild, low-alloy and
stainless steel, aluminum and its alloys, and several other non-ferrous
metals.
· Surface coated metals, e.g. Zn-coated steel.
· In all welding positi ons.

These advantages have enabled the MIG method to find many applications,
both in large-scale industry and in smaller, jobbing workshops. Examples of
industries in which the method is common include the automotive,
shipbuilding, construction and offshore industries.

The MIG method can be said to be both easy and difficult to learn and
use. If pretensions extend no further than to weld together two pieces of
sheet metal without any special demands in terms of the quality of the
finished weld, then the method can be said to be easy to use. On the other
hand, if there are special requirements, such as through welding, complete
fusion, few pores, etc., then the MIG process requires considerable skill and
experience on the part of the welder A limitation of the MIG method
compared to MMA is that the welding equipment is more complex and
therefore more expensive and less portable. It also has a more limited
application outdoors, as the shielding gas must be protected from draughts.
The design of the welding gun, too, means that accessibility may be poorer
in certain welding situations.
Welding parameters:
The MIG welding process is dependent on a number of welding
parameters:
1. Wire size.
2· Voltage.
3· Wire feed speed and current.
4· Welding speed.
5· Inductance or dynamic properties.
6· Wire stick-out.
7· Choice of shielding gas and gas flow rate.
8· Torch and joint position.
9· Torch weaving patterns.
10· Pulsed wire feed.
Most of these parameters must be matched to each other for optimum
welding performance. The working point must be within the working range
or tolerance box for the particular welding situation. The time needed for
the adjustment at a typical welding situation is normally short for an
experienced welder but the optimization of a weld for an automated
production line may need some effort.
1.Wire size:
The size of wire is chosen according to welding current, but in
opposition to stick electrodes each wire has a large and overlapping range of
current. As a rule, the material transfer is smoother with a thinner wire.
When welding with soft aluminum wire, the risk of feeding problems can be
reduced with a thicker wire.
2. Welding voltage:
Increased voltage increases the arc length and gives a wider weld
bead. Undercut is a sign of too high a voltage. If short arc welding is used, a
higher voltage reduces the short circuit frequency, which will give larger
drops and more spatter. Too low a voltage, on the other hand, will increase
the risk for stubbing and bad start performance. On thin plates short arc
welding gives the possibility of high welding speed without burn-through.
Normally the voltage here is adjusted to a low setting but only where the
short circuit frequency is still high and the arc stability good. Fillet welds that
are exposed for fatigue loads need to have a low-profile weld bead with
smooth edges. That is optimized by the correct choice of welding voltage.
The same is valid for multilayer welds where too high a bead profile may
result in lack of fusion for the subsequent weldments.
3. Wire feed speed and current
Current is set indirectly by the wire feed speed and diameter. Current is the
main parameter for welding and has to be chosen to plate thickness and
welding speed with respect to the weld quality.
4. Welding speed:
From a productive point of view, it is of interest to use maximum
welding speed. A general tendency is that a higher speed produces a
narrower weld and at an excessively high speed the tolerance for all
parameter variations will decrease. By using special techniques, it has been
shown to be possible to open up the tolerance box further and allow higher
welding speed and deposition rate.
5. Inductance:
It is often possible to adjust the inductance of the power source to
fit the wire size to give the right welding properties. The most sensitive is
short arc welding.
A low value gives a distinct and concentrated arc but the spatter will
increase. A higher value gives a somewhat wider bead and a softer sound.
Too high an inductance gives bad stability with a tendency for stubbing.
Inductance may more or less be replaced by a greater drooping
characteristic of the power source. In inverter power sources the dynamic
properties of the power source are normally managed by digital or
electronic control circuits.
6. Wire stick-out length:
Easiest to measure is the contact tip distance from the joint
surface A rule of thumb says that a normal distance is 10±15 diameter of the
wire. Too small stick-out increases the risk of burn-back, where the arc will
weld the electrode together with the contact tip. Too long a distance to the
workpiece will increase the risk for stubbing, especially at the start. The
contact tip-to-work distance also has an influence on the current and
penetration profile. If the stick-out (wire extension) is increased, the current
and heat input decreases while the amount of deposited metal remains. This
reduces the penetration and gives excessive weld metal, and if it was
unintentional, a risk for lack of fusion appears. A good rule is therefore to
keep the wire stick-out constant during the welding operation. If used in a
controlled way the wire extension can be used to increase deposition rate.
The risk for burn-through at high welding data is also reduced.
7. Choice of shielding gas:
Mixtures of argon with 5±20% carbon dioxide (CO2)
are most popular in the welding of mild and low alloyed steels. For spray
and pulsed arc welding, a low content of CO2 can be an advantage. Pure
CO2 is an alternative for short arc welding that gives good penetration and
set against lack of fusion but increases the amount of spatter. For stainless
steels argon is also used but with only small additions of CO2 or oxygen
(O2). For welding of aluminum, copper and copper alloys normally pure
argon or argon helium mixtures are used.
Helium increases the heat input, which will
compensate for the large heat conduction in thick-walled aluminum or
copper.
8.Gas flow rate:
The gas flow must be adapted to the arc. At low current 10 liters
per minute can be sufficient while at higher welding data up to 20 liters can
be required. Welding in aluminum needs more gas than steel does.
9.Torch and joint position:
Angles of the torch relative to the joint are also an important
welding parameter. If directed away from the finished part of the weld
(forehand technique), it will make the penetration profile shallower and the
width of the seam wider. Forehand technique can also be used to attain
higher welding speed. On the other hand, if the torch is directed towards
the finished part of the weld (backhand technique), the penetration will be
deeper and the seam width narrower. Angles of the torch in a section across
the welding direction have influence on the risk for lack of fusion.
10.Torch weaving patterns:
A weaving motion is sometimes used to bridge gaps or widen a
last pass in a multilayer weld. Weave techniques are also often used in a
vertical position to improve control of the weld pool. The motion can be
made from side-to-side, sometimes in combination with a back-and-forth
motion and eventually also with a pause at each side.
11.Pulsed wire feed:
Pulsed wire feed speed at low frequency allows metal partly to
solidify between the pulses. During the high current pulse time penetration
and gap bridging is secured but mean welding data can be low enough to
allow positional welding. Similar advantages as for torch weaving can be
achieved. The pattern generated in weld bead is the same as for pulsed TIG
welding.

NDT (NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESING)

NDT stands for non-destructive testing. It refers to any array of inspection

methods that allow inspectors to evaluate and collect data about a material.

NDT may also call as NDE (non- destructive examination)

NDI (non -destructive inspection)

NDT METHODS:
Visual method

Liquid penetrant

Magnetic test

Ultra-sonic test

Eddy current test

Visual inspection:
Introduction:
Visual testing (VT) is also known as visual testing examination,
nondestructive inspection, or nondestructive evaluation or examination.
Visual testing is the most common nondestructive testing method. Visual
testing is a popular NDT method, because it is so easy to perform, it is a low-
cost method, and it requires minimal equipment. VT involves observing a
component with the naked eye to evaluate the presence of surface
discontinuities. VT can be assisted with optical instruments such as
magnifying glasses, borescopes, mirrors, and other computer equipment for
remote viewing. If a component can be viewed, visual testing is the first
method of testing in an NDT examination. Visual testing can be performed
on components that show visible corrosion or degradation such as welds,
storage tanks, piping, boilers, and pressure vessels.

Visual testing applications:

 Examining the surface condition of a component

 Examining alignment of mating surfaces
 Checking presence of leaks

Visual testing equipment :

 Magnifying glasses
 Fillet weld gauge
 Microscopes
 Computer equipment (remote viewing)
  Illuminated magnifier
 Inspection glass
 Borescope
 Mirror
 The eyes

Visual testing Advantages:

 Simple method to perform
 Examination can be performed quickly
 Low-cost method
 Minimal training
 Minimal equipment
Visual testing Disadvantages:
 Inspector training necessary
 Good eyesight required or eyesight corrected to 20/4
 Can miss internal defects
 Report must be recorded by inspector
 Open to human error

Visual testing industries:

 Steel Industry
 Automotive
 Oil and Gas
 Power Generation
 Aerospace
In order to perform visual examinations, technicians must train in
Level I and II visual testing courses. These are foundation level courses, so
there is no prior training or experience required by the student. Becoming
qualified in visual testing is a great starting point for NDT technicians.

Magnetic particle test:

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) (also known as magnetic particle
inspection – MPI) is a non-destructive test (NDT) method, used to
detect surface or subsurface (near to surface) discontinuities. This NDT
method can be used on metals which can be easily magnetized
 (ferromagnetic). Metals can be classified as ferromagnetic, paramagnetic, or
diamagnetic.

 Ferromagnetic metals: 
Ferromagnetic metals are those, which are strongly attracted to a magnet
and can be easily magnetized.
Examples ferromagnetic metals are iron, nickel, and cobalt.

 Paramagnetic metals:
  Paramagnetic metals are those which are very weakly attracted by
magnetic forces of attraction and cannot be magnetized such as austenitic
stainless steel.

 Diamagnetic metals: 
Diamagnetic metals are those which are slightly repelled by a magnet
and cannot be magnetized.
Examples of diamagnetic metals are bismuth, gold, and antimony.

Principle of Magnetic Particle Test

This method uses the phenomenon of a magnet by virtue of which
path of magnetic lines of force gets disrupted when a surface breaking is
occurred in the path. Any magnet has two poles i.e. north pole at one end and
south pole at the other. Magnetic lines of force (also known as magnetic flux)
travel from north pole to the south pole

Testing procedure:
 To carry out Magnetic Particle Testing we need to temporarily
magnetize the test object. Magnetization should be temporary in nature. To
magnetize the test piece, common instruments which are used are;

 Electromagnetic yoke
 Permanent Magnet
 Prod
 Coil

Magnetic particle testing machine

Electromagnetic Yokes are also called as AC yokes, it’s very portable and
commonly used in Industries. Yokes are connected with AC power source
(Battery pack version is also available). Many yokes come with adjusting
legs, to facilitate wide range of area profiles. These yokes produce
longitudinal magnetization. Hence, for complete inspection, re-positioning
of yokes in at least two 900 opposing direction is required.
Permanent magnets (Horse shoe types) are also used to temporarily
magnetize the work piece. But due to their strong fields, particles gets
attracted to the legs more readily instead of the test surface. Hence, many a
time it becomes difficult to inspect the test object. Prod and coil method is
also used for temporarily magnetizing the test object. Prods require good
contact with test object otherwise it can damage the test object, due to
electrical arcing. Coil method produce longitudinal magnetization.

The above figure shows that defect in welded metal

Ultra-sonic test
As a non-destructive testing method,
ultrasonic testing is ideal for detecting flaws and defects without
damaging the object or material being tested. Periodic ultrasonic
inspections can also be used to check for corrosion or for growth of
known flaws, and thus potentially prevent to a failure of a part.

It is used in a wide range of industries including aerospace,

automotive, construction, medical, metallurgy, and manufacturing.

In most common UT applications, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves

with center frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz, and occasionally up
to 50 MHz, are transmitted into materials to detect internal flaws or to
characterize materials.

UT testing conducting on materials

Ultrasonic testing is used in a wide range of industries due to its
suitability for many different materials. UT is ideally used for inspection
of dense, crystalline structures such as metals. Ceramics, plastics,
composites and concrete can also be successfully inspected but with
reduced resolution, since the attenuation in these materials is higher.

Procedure
In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected
to a diagnostic machine is passed over the object being inspected.
The transducer is typically separated from the test object by a
couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing.
However, when ultrasonic testing is conducted with an
Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) the use of couplant is
not required.

Ultra sonic testing machine

Principle of Ultrasonic Testing
As shown in below figure (left): A probe sends a sound
wave into a test material. There are two indications, one from the
initial pulse of the probe, and the second due to the back-wall echo.

As shown in below figure (right): A defect creates a

third indication and simultaneously reduces the amplitude of the back-
wall indication. The depth of the defect is determined by the ratio D/Ep

No defect metal defected metal

There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform.

They are

1. Reflection and
2. Attenuation.

Reflection method
In reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer
performs both the sending and the receiving of the pulsed waves as the
“sound” is reflected back to the device. Reflected ultrasound comes from
an interface, such as the back wall of the object or from an imperfection
within the object.

The diagnostic machine displays these results in the form of a signal with
an amplitude representing the intensity of the reflection and the distance,
representing the arrival time of the reflection.
Attenuation method
In attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter
sends ultrasound through one surface, and a separate receiver detects the
amount that has reached it on another surface after traveling through the
medium.
Imperfections or other conditions in the space between the transmitter and
receiver reduce the amount of sound transmitted, thus revealing their
presence. Using the couplant increases the efficiency of the process by
reducing the losses in the ultrasonic wave energy due to separation
between the surfaces

Ut testing method