Maxwell`s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves

• Electromagnetism was developed by Michel faraday in 1791-1867and latter James

Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879),put the law of electromagnetism in he form in which
we know today. these laws are called Maxwell's equation.
• Scalar field: A scalar field is defined as that region of space whose each point is
associated with scalar function i.e.. A continuous function which gives the value
of a physical quantity like as flux, potential, temperature, etc.
• Vector field: A vector field is specified by a continuous vector point function
having magnitude and direction both changes from point to point in given
region of field. The method of presentation of a vector field is called vector line
 INTRODUCTION
The electromagnetic theory was developed on the basis of
electromagnetism with the help of four vector differential equations.
These equations are known as Maxwell’s equations. Two of these
relations are independent of time and are called as steady state
equations. The other two relations depend upon time and are called
as time varying equations
 Introduction
• In Maxwell’s equations there are:
the electrostatic field produced by electric charge.
the induced field produced by changing magnetic field.

• Do not confuse the magnetic field 𝐻 with density magnetic 𝐵 ,

because 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻.

𝐵: the induction magnetic or density magnetic in Tesla.

𝜇: the permeability of space.
𝐻: the magnetic field in A/m.
 Gradient , Divergence and curl
• The rate of change of scalar and vector fields is denoted by a common
operator called Del, or nebla is used which is written as
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻=𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

• If ∅ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 is a differentiable scalar function, its gradient is defined as

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
grad ∅ = 𝛻 ∅ = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘 ∅֜ 𝛻 ∅ = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

• grad ∅ is a vector whose magnitude at any point is equal to the rate of

change ∅ of at a point along a normal to the surface at the point.
.‫غراد ∅ هو متجه حجمه عند أي نقطة يساوي معدل التغيير ∅ عند نقطة على طول الخط العمودي للسطح عند هذه النقطة‬
 Gauss Divergence theorem

• Relation between surface and volume integration.

• According to this theorem , the flux of a vector field 𝑭 over any closed
surface S is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of the vector field
over the volume enclosed by the surface S.

න 𝐹Ԧ . 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = න 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹Ԧ 𝑑𝑣
𝑠 𝑣
 Stokes Theorem

• Relation between surface and volume integration.

• The surface integral of the curl of a vector field taken over an surface S is equal
to the line integral of around the closed curve.

ඵ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐴Ԧ . 𝑑𝑠Ԧ = ර 𝐴Ԧ . 𝑑 𝐼Ԧ
𝑠
‫𝐴 × 𝛻 𝑠׭‬Ԧ . 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ = ‫𝐴 ׯ‬Ԧ . 𝑑 𝐼Ԧ ………………………………(2)
 Fundamental laws of electricity and magnetism
• From Gauss law of electrostatics
𝑞
‫𝐸 ׯ‬. 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ = ………………………………..(3)
𝜀𝑜
1
•i.e. electric flux a closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed by the
𝜀𝑜
surface.
• Gauss law of magneto-statics:
‫𝐵 ׯ‬. 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ = 0 ………………………………..(4)
• i.e. the rate of change of magnetic flux from a closed surface is always
equal to zero.
 Continued……………..
•Faradays law of electromagnetic induction: the rate of change of
magnetic flux in a closed circuit induces an e.m.f which opposes the
𝑑∅
cause, i.e. 𝑒= − …………………………………..(5)
𝑑𝑡

•Amperes law : ‫𝐵 ׯ‬. 𝑑 𝐼Ԧ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 …………………………………..(6)

the line integral of magnetic flux is equal to 𝜇𝑜 times the current
enclosed by the current loop.
 Equation of continuity
• Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charge i.e.
𝑑𝑞
𝑖= − ……………………………..(1)
𝑑𝑡

• If 𝑑𝑞 charge is enclosed in a volume 𝑑𝑣 and is leaving a surface area

ds then we have

𝑖 = ‫𝐽 𝑠׬‬Ԧ . 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ and 𝑞 = ‫ 𝑣׬‬ . 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ

• where J is the current density and  is the volume charge density

.therefore eq (A ) becomes
 Continued…of Equation of continuity
𝑑 𝜕𝜌
‫𝐽 𝑠׬‬Ԧ . 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = − 𝑑𝑡 ‫ 𝜌 𝑣׬‬. 𝑑𝑣, ‫𝐽 𝑠׬‬Ԧ . 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = − ‫𝑣׬‬ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 ………(2)
• Using gaus divergence theorem on L.H.S of equation (2) we get
𝜕𝜌𝑣
Therefore, equation 2 become ∵ = −𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐽 ֜ ‫𝐽 𝑠׬‬Ԧ . 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = − ‫𝑣𝑑 𝑗 𝑣𝑖𝑑 𝑣׬‬
𝜕𝑡

∴‫𝐽 𝑠׬‬Ԧ . 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = − ‫𝑣𝑑 𝑗 𝑣𝑖𝑑 𝑣׬‬

𝜕𝜌
න 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑗 𝑑𝑣 = − න . 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑡
𝑣 𝑣
𝜕𝜌
‫𝑣׬‬ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑗 + 𝑑𝑣 = 0 For an arbitrary surface
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝜌
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑗 + = 0 Is called continuity equation
𝜕𝑡
 Displacement current

• According to Maxwell not only current in the conductor is Produces

a magnetic field but changing electric field in vacuum or in dielectric
is also Produces a magnetic field. Means changing electric field is
equivalent to current produces same magnetic effect as A conventional
current in a conductor. This equivalent current is called displacement
 Maxwell’s equations

•The behavior of electric and magnetic waves can be fully described

by a set of four equations.
𝜕𝐵
• Faraday’s Law of induction 𝛻×𝐸 = − D is electric displacement in Cm-2.
𝜕𝑡
ρ is free charge density in Cm -3.
𝜕𝐷
• Ampere’s Law 𝛻×𝐻 =𝐽+ B is magnetic induction in Wbm -2
𝜕𝑡
(or tesla)
• Gauss’s Law for electricity 𝛻∙𝐷 =𝜌
E is electric intensity in Vm -1
• Gauss’s Law for magnetism 𝛻∙𝐵 =0 H is magnetic intensity Am -1
J is current density in Am -2
Maxwell's Electromagnetic equations:
(Integral form)
 Physical significance of Maxwell’s
equations :
1. Maxwell’s I st equation.
div D= ρ 𝜵∙𝑫=𝝆
a. It is time independent equation.
b. Since 𝜵 ∙ 𝑫 is scalar, therefore charge density is a
scalar quantity.
c. It relates space variation of div. of electric field
with charge density.
d. It is statement of Gauss law of electrostatics.
 Maxwell’s 1st equation
Maxwell’s 1st equation is Gauss’s law for electricity.
 Gauss’ law for electricity: the electric flux out of any closed surface is
proportional to the total charge enclosed within the surface
Divergence of a vector field is a measure of its tendency to converge on or repel
from a point.
Direction of an electric field is the direction of the force it would exert on a positive
charge placed in the field.
 If a region of space has more electrons than protons, the total charge is negative,
and the direction of the electric field is negative (inwards), and vice versa.
Maxwell’s 1st equation is Gauss’s law for electricity.
 Gauss’ law for electricity: the electric flux out of any closed surface is proportional to the total charge
enclosed within the surface
 Divergence of a vector field is a measure of its tendency to converge on or repel from a point.
 Direction of an electric field is the direction of the force it would exert on a positive charge placed
in the field.
 If a region of space has more electrons than protons, the total charge is negative, and the direction
of the electric field is negative (inwards), and vice versa.
‫ التدفق الكهربائي من أي سطح مغلق يتناسب مع إجمالي‬:‫ قانون غاوس للكهرباء‬.‫معادلة ماكسويل األولى هي قانون غاوس للكهرباء‬ •
‫الشحنة المغلقة داخل السطح‬
‫ اتجاه المجال الكهربائي هو اتجاه القوة التي يبذلها على شحنة‬.‫تباعد حقل المتجه هو مقياس لميله إلى التقارب أو التنافر من نقطة‬ •
.‫موجبة موضوعة في المجال‬
‫ ويكون اتجاه المجال‬، ‫ فإن الشحنة اإلجمالية تكون سالبة‬، ‫إذا كانت منطقة من الفضاء تحتوي على إلكترونات أكثر من البروتونات‬ •
.‫ والعكس صحيح‬، )‫الكهربائي سالبًا (إلى الداخل‬
 Physical significance of Maxwell’s
equations :
2. Maxwell’s 2nd equation:-
div B = 0 𝜵∙𝑩=𝟎
a. It is time independent equation.
b. According to this equation isolated magnetic poles do not
exist.
c. Since ∫ B.dS=0 i.e. number of lines of magnetic force
leaving and entering a given volume are equal.
d. It is statement of Gauss law in magnetism.
 Maxwell’s 2nd equation
• Maxwell’s Equations (2) is Gauss’s law for Magnetism.
 Gauss’ law for magnetism: the net magnetic flux out of any closed surface is
zero (i.e. magnetic monopoles do not exist).
 B = magnetic field; magnetic flux = BA (where A = area perpendicular to field B).
 Divergence of a vector field is a measure of its tendency to converge on or repel from a
point.
 Magnetic sources are dipole sources and magnetic field lines are loops.
we cannot isolate N or S ‘monopoles’ (unlike electric sources or point charges -
protons, electrons).
 Magnetic monopoles could exist, but have never been observed.
 Physical significance of Maxwell’s
equations :
3. Maxwell’s 3rd equation

partial 𝐵 𝜕𝐵
Curl E = − 𝛻×𝐸 = −
partial 𝑡 𝜕𝑡

a. It is time dependent equation.

b. It relates space variation of E with time variation of B
c. It implies that time variation of magnetic field generates
electric field.
d. It is statement of Faraday’s law of e.m. induction and
-ve sign justifies Lenz’s law.
 Maxwell’s 3rd equation
Maxwell’s Equations (3) is Faraday’s Law of Induction.
Faraday’s Law of Induction the line integral of the electric field around a
closed loop (i.e. the curl of E) is equal to the negative of rate of change of the
magnetic flux through the area enclosed by the loop.
• E = electric field; B = magnetic field
• Curl of a vector field is a vector with magnitude equal to the maximum ‘circulation’ at
each point and oriented perpendicularly to this plane of circulation for each point.
• Hence changing magnetic fields affect the curl (‘circulation’) of the electric field – basis of
electric generators (moving magnet induces current in a conducting loop)
 Physical significance of Maxwell’s
th
equations :
4. Maxwell’s 4 equation:
partial 𝐷 𝜕𝐷
Curl H =𝐽𝑐 + 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽𝑐 +
partial 𝑡 𝜕𝑡

a. It is time dependent equation.

b. It shows that magnetic field can be generated by current

density vector and time variation of D jointly or separately.

c. It relates magnetic field vector with electric displacement

vector and current density vector.

 Maxwell’s 4th equation
Maxwell’s Equations (4) is Ampere’s Law
• Ampere’s Law: - the line integral of the magnetic field around a closed loop (i.e. the curl of B) is
proportional to the electric current flowing through the loop AND to the rate of change of the
electric field.  added by Maxwell
• B = magnetic field; J = current density (current per unit area); E = electric field.
• The curl of a magnetic field is basically a measure of its strength First term on RHS: in the presence of
an electric current (J), there is always a magnetic field around it; B is dependent on J (e.g.,
electromagnets).
• Second term on RHS: a changing electric field generates a magnetic field.
• Therefore, generation of a magnetic field does not require electric current, only a changing electric
field. An oscillating electric field produces a variable magnetic field (as dE/dt changes).
 Derivation of Maxwell's Equation
Maxwell's First Equation (𝛻 ∙ 𝐷 = 𝜌 or div D = 𝜌):
• When a dielectric is placed in a uniform electric field , its molecule get
polarized. Thus ,a dielectric in an electric field contains two type of
charges- free charge and bound charge . if 𝜌 and 𝜌p be the free and bound
charge densities respectively, at appoint in a small volume element dv,
then for such a medium, Gauss’s law may be expressed as
1
• ‫𝑠 𝑑𝐸 𝑠׬‬Ԧ = ‫׬‬ 𝜌 + 𝜌𝑝 𝑑𝑣 ……………………….(1)
𝜀° 𝑣

• Where 𝜀° is permittivity of free space.

 Continued…. Derivation of Maxwell's First
• Now the bound charge density
Equation
𝜌𝑝 = −𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑃𝜌𝑝 = −𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑃
Where 𝑃 is electric polarization. therefore
1
• ‫𝑠 𝑑𝐸 𝑠׬‬Ԧ = ‫׬‬ 𝜌 − 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑃 𝑑𝑣
𝜀° 𝑣

•Using Gauss divergence theorem on left hand side of the above equation, we get
1 1 1
න 𝐸𝑑 𝑠Ԧ = න 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐸𝑑𝑣 = න 𝜌 − 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑃 𝑑𝑣 = න 𝜌𝑑𝑣 − න 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑃𝑑𝑣
𝜀° 𝜀° 𝜀°
𝑠 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
Or ‫𝜀 𝑣׬‬° 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐸 𝑑 𝑣Ԧ + ‫𝑣𝑑𝜌 𝑣׬ = 𝑣𝑑 𝑃 𝑣𝑖𝑑 𝑣׬‬

න 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝜀° 𝐸 𝑑 𝑣Ԧ + න 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑃 𝑑𝑣 = න 𝜌𝑑𝑣

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
 Continued…. Derivation of Maxwell's First Equation

න 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝜀° 𝐸 𝑑 𝑣Ԧ + න 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑃 𝑑𝑣 = න 𝜌𝑑𝑣

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣

න 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝜀° 𝐸 + 𝑃 𝑑𝑣 = න 𝜌𝑑𝑣
𝑣 𝑣
But 𝜀° 𝐸 + 𝑃 = 𝐷 Is the electric displacement vector
‫ 𝑣𝑑𝜌 𝑣׬ = 𝑣𝑑 𝐷𝑣𝑖𝑑 𝑣׬‬or ‫ 𝐷𝑣𝑖𝑑( 𝑣׬‬− 𝜌)𝑑𝑣 = 0
Therefore for, an arbitrary function we have,𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐷 − 𝜌 = 0 or 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐷 = 𝜌

𝛻∙𝐷 =𝜌
 Derivation of Maxwell's Second Equation
The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is always zero.

∅𝐵 = ‫𝑠 𝑑 𝐵 𝑠ׯ‬Ԧ = 0 ………………………….(1)

Using Gauss theorem

‫𝑠𝑑 𝐵 𝑠ׯ‬Ԧ = ‫𝑣𝑑𝐵 𝑣𝑖𝑑 𝑉׬‬

න 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐵𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝑉
 Continued…. Derivation of Maxwell's second
Equation
𝛻 ∙ 𝐵 = 0 The above expression shows that monopole or an isolated pole can
not exist to serve as a source. this law is also known as Gauss law in magneto-
statics. where V is the volume enclosed by surface S.
Hence ,for an arbitrary surface div B = 0 or 𝛻 ∙ 𝐵 = 0
 Derivation of Maxwell's third Equation (faraday law of electromagnetic
induction)
• According to faraday law of electromagnetic induction, induced e.m.f around a
closed circuit is equal to the negative time rate of change of magnetic flux i.e.
𝜕∅𝐵
𝑒= − ……………………………………….(1)
𝜕𝑡

if B is the magnetic field induction, then the magnetic flux linked with the area ds

∅𝐵 = ‫ 𝐵 𝑠׬‬. 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ ………………………………….(2)

• On combining the equation (1) and (2) we get

𝑒 = ‫ 𝐵 𝑠׬‬. 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ ………………………………….(3)
 Continued…. Derivation of Maxwell's third Equation
• according to definition the induced e.m.f is related to the corresponding field
as
𝑒 = ‫ 𝐸 𝐼׬‬. 𝑑 𝐼Ԧ ………………………………….(4)
• Therefore from (3) and (4) will give
𝜕∅𝐵 𝜕
න 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐼Ԧ = − = − න 𝐵 . 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝐼 𝑠
• Or
𝜕𝐵
න 𝐸 . 𝑑 𝐼Ԧ = − න . 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ
𝜕𝑡
𝐼 𝑠
Continued…. Derivation of Maxwell's third Equation
• Now using stoks theorem on left, hand side we get

න 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐼Ԧ = − න 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐸 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ
𝐼 𝑠
• Thus we have
𝜕𝐵
න 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐸 𝑑𝑠Ԧ = − න . 𝑑𝑠Ԧ
𝜕𝑡
𝑠 𝑠
𝜕𝐵
න 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐸 𝑑𝑠Ԧ + න . 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ = 0
𝜕𝑡
𝑠 𝑠
For an arbitrary b function Curl E
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐵
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐸 + = 0 , 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐸 = − ,𝛻×𝐸 = −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Maxwell's fourth equation (modified amperes
law)
•According to ampere law

ර 𝐵 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ = 𝜇° 𝐼
𝑠
Using the formula ‫𝐽 𝑠ׯ‬Ԧ 𝑑𝑠Ԧ = 𝐼

ර 𝐵 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ = 𝜇° ර 𝐽Ԧ 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ
𝑠 𝑠
•Using stokes theorem on left hand side of the above expression, we get
Continued…. Derivation of Maxwell's fourth Equation
ර 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐵 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ = 𝜇° ර 𝐽Ԧ 𝑑𝑠Ԧ
𝑠 𝑠
1
ර 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐵 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ = ර 𝐽Ԧ 𝑑𝑠Ԧ
𝜇°
𝑠 𝑠
𝐵 𝐵
‫𝑙𝑟𝑢𝑐 𝑠ׯ‬ 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ = ‫𝐽 𝑠ׯ‬Ԧ 𝑑𝑠Ԧ now from dielectric properties
𝜇° 𝜇°

ර 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐻 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ = ර 𝐽Ԧ 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ
𝑠 𝑠
or ‫𝑠 𝑑 𝐻𝑙𝑟𝑢𝑐 𝑠ׯ‬Ԧ − ‫𝐽 𝑠ׯ‬Ԧ 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ = 0 ֜ ‫ 𝐻𝑙𝑟𝑢𝑐( 𝑠ׯ‬− 𝐽)𝑑
Ԧ 𝑠Ԧ = 0, For an arbitrary surface
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐻 = 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐽Ԧ
Continued…. Derivation of Maxwell's fourth Equation
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐻 = 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐽Ԧ
• Taking div on both side we get ,
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐻 = 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐽Ԧ

• but div 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐻 = 0 (from vectors calculus)

• Since 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐽Ԧ = 0 from continuity equation we have

𝜕𝜌
• Hence,𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑗 + = 0,  = constant (static)
𝜕𝑡
Continued…. Derivation of Maxwell's fourth
Equation
• amperes law applicable for static charges, therefore Maxwell's
suggested that ampere law must be modified by adding a quantity
having dimension as that of current, produced due to polarization
of charges. this physical quantity is called displacement current
(Jd).thus modified ampere law becomes
• 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐻 = 𝐽Ԧ + 𝐽Ԧ𝑑
 Continued…. Derivation of Maxwell's fourth
Equation
• 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐻 = 𝐽Ԧ + 𝐽Ԧ𝑑 , Taking divergence on both side we get,

• 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐻 = 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝐽Ԧ + 𝐽Ԧ𝑑 ), ∵ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐻 = 0

• ∴ 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝐽Ԧ + 𝐽Ԧ𝑑 ) = 0 , 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐽 = − 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐽𝑑

𝜕𝜌
• ∵ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐽 = − , 𝜌 = 𝑑𝑖𝑣 D
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑑𝑖𝑣 D
• ∴ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐽 = −
𝜕𝑡

𝜕 𝜕D
• Since 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐽Ԧ𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑣 Ԧ
D, or 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐽𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑣
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝜕D
Ԧ
• 𝐽𝑑 =
𝜕𝑡
 Continued…. Derivation of Maxwell's fourth
Equation
𝜕D
Ԧ
• ∴ 𝐽𝑑 =
𝜕𝑡
• There fore modified Ampere law becomes
𝜕D
Ԧ
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐻 = 𝐽 + ,
𝜕𝑡