Psychological Skills Training Manual For ESports Athletes

Bowling Green State University
ScholarWorks@BGSU
Masters of Education in Human Movement Sport
Human Movement, Sport and Leisure Studies
and Leisure Studies, Masters Projects
2017
Psychological Skills Training Manual For eSports

Athletes
Ty J. Collins
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Collins, Ty J., "Psychological Skills Training Manual For eSports Athletes" (2017). Masters of Education in Human Movement Sport and
Leisure Studies, Masters Projects. 49.
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Running head: PST Manual for eAthletes 1
Psychological Skills Training Manual
For eSports Athletes
Ty J Collins
Master’s Project
Submitted to the School of Human Movement, Sport and Leisure Studies
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Masters of Education
In
Sport Administration

Advisor:
Dr. David Tobar ____________________________________
Second Reader:
Dr. Amanda PauleKoba ____________________________________

PST manual for eAthletes 2
Table of Contents
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………….. 5
Achievement Goal Theory …………………………………………………………. 6
Introduction ………………………………………………………………….. 12
Review of Literature ………………………………………………………... 15
Youth sport and Positive Effects ………………………………….. 15
Motivational Climate and Goal Orientation ………………………. 16
Goal Orientation, Involvement and Performance ……………….. 16
Avoidance and Approach Dimension …………………………….. 17
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………... 18
Goal Setting …………………………………………………………………………. 20
Review of Literature ………………………………………………………... 20
Types of Goals …………………………………………………….... 21
Goal Setting and Performance ……………………………………. 22
Current Use of Goal Setting ……………………………………….. 22
Practical Usage for eSport …………………………………………………. 23
Strategy One Performance Profiling …………………………………….. 25
Strategy Two SMART Goals ……………………………………………... 27
Strategy Three Staircase Goal Setting ………………………………….. 30
Imagery ………………………………………………………………………………. 31
Review of Literature ……………………………………………………….... 33
Imagery Propositions ……………………………………………….. 33
Imagery and Body Responses …………………………………….. 34
Imagery and Performance ………………………………………….. 34
Imagery and External Stimuli ………………………………………. 36
Practical Usage for eSports ……………………………………………….... 36
Strategy One Basic Imagery Training ……………………………………. 38
Strategy Two Imagery for Skill Acquisition ………………………………. 40
Strategy Three Imagery Script for Competition …………………………. 42
SelfTalk …………………………………………………………………………….... 44
Review of Literature …………………………………………………………. 45
Use of SelfTalk ……………………………………………………... 45
Performance and Motivational SelfTalk ………………………….. 45
SelfTalk and Task Focus …………………………………………... 47
Negative SelfTalk and Thought Suppression ……………………. 48
Practical Usage for eSports ………………………………………………... 49
Strategy One Instructional SelfTalk ……………………………………... 50
Strategy Two Motivational SelfTalk ……………………………………... 52
Strategy Three Negative Thought Stoppage …………………………... 54
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………… 56
References …………………………………………………………………………... 58
Appendix A: Performance Profiling Worksheet ………………………………….. 65
Appendix B: SMART Goal Setting ………………………………………………... 66
Appendix C: Blank Staircase Goal Setting Worksheet …………………………. 67
Appendix D: Completed Staircase Goal Setting Worksheet …………………... 68

Abstract
eSports are a new category of competitive games, where groups of players compete
against others in competitive video games on personal computers and gaming
consoles. These games can be individuallybased or team oriented. This project
applies theoretical and empirical research in sports psychology to develop a
psychological skills training manual for eSports athletes and coaches. In particular,
tenets of Achievement Goal Theory and relevant research are reviewed and discussed.
This manual focuses on the select psychological skill strategies of goal setting, imagery
and positive selftalk with an aim to minimize potential adverse affects, cognitions, and
behaviors in eSport athletes. eSports athletes have been found to report symptoms
depression, anxiety, and difficulties with socialization. An athlete trained in imagery and
other cognitive techniques (e.g., negative thought stoppage) can reduce
performancerelated anxiety typically associated with fear of failure. Also, appropriately
short and longterm goals that are focused primarily on learning and selfreferenced
improvement (i.e., masteryapproach) have the capability of improving selfconfidence
and continued motivation. Thus, this manual, when successfully applied, will provide
athletes with a selection of skills to enhance their functioning in achievement situations,
and these more positive psychological states should be associated with an
improvement in performance.

Introduction
In sports, the physical strength and ability of the athletes is constantly on display
and is the point of much discussion among sport reporters and commentators, but often
the mental prowess of these athletes is not discussed. Athletes and coaches have a
history of comparing the mental skills of their athletes to their physical gifts, often saying
they are of equal importance to their success (DeSantis, 2016; Kredich, 2016). A
Psychological Skills Training Manual (PST) offers the foundation for training athletes in
mental skills where they previously have not been initiated and teaching them to
leverage these skills to drive their performances to new heights.
Performance has been improved through the use of psychological skills such as
goalsetting (Bortoli, Bertollo, Comani, & Robazza, 2011; Cervello, Rosa, Calvo,
Jiminez, & Inglesias, 2007; Kingston, & Hardy, 1997) and imagery (Smith, Holmes,
Whitemore, Collins, & Devonport, 2001). However, rather than focus on just one
psychological skill, a PST manual should integrate a combination of skills to form a
more comprehensive manual for learning a set of mental skills. These manuals have
been demonstrated to have a greater effect on athletes than only learning one of these
skills (Burton, & Keller, 2010; Van Guenthner, Hammermeister, Blakeslee, & Goff, 2007;
Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006). It is important to note that these skills, and as
an extension this manual, is not a miracle formula or quick fix. As with any other skill,
they require practice, and as Frey, Laguna, and Ravizza (2003) put it, "just as physical
skills require time, patience and practice, mental skills require demands as well" (p.112).
While these skills are typically taught to those in the traditional sporting world, those are
not the only people who may benefit from them. New athletes are emerging from the
entertainment industry, and this competitive setting is called eSports.
The entertainment industry is traditionally populated by music, television, movies
and theater. However, over the past two decades or so a new genre has taken root in
this industry and that is video games. The video game industry is the driving force
behind eSports, the newest form of competitive gaming. Competitive gaming is nothing
new. For example, Gencon (Lake Geneva Gaming Convention) existed from 1968,
where games such as Dungeons and Dragons were played competitively for decades
among hundreds and thousands of gamers (Laws, 2007). Eventually, these contests
evolved into LAN (Local Area Network) tournaments where players would bring their
‘rigs' (personal computers or consoles) to a central location to play against such
likeminded individuals in games such as ‘Starcraft' on PC, and ‘Super Smash Brothers'
on the Nintendo 64 (Bellos, 2007; Smith, 2016). However, eSports has made the
transition from events held quarterly or yearly in these LAN formats, to full seasons of
competition to mimic other professional sports. The current power three of online
competitive gameplay are League of Legends (LoL), Defence of the Ancients (DotA),
and CounterStrike: Global Offensive (CS:GO). They are leveraging the changes in
technology to allow teams from AsiaPacific regions (Australia, New Zealand) to battle it
out with European and North American teams every week online. They then cap off
these seasons in the major live events, such as the Call of Duty Experience, and the
League of Legends world championships. These events have been known to pack
entire stadiums and theaters, including Madison Square Gardens and the Chicago
Theatre. (Hopper, & Asiedu, 2017; Porter, 2015).
This new format has allowed the players an opportunity for income by making
use of the evolving technology provided by companies such as Youtube and Twitch.
Both companies provide a way for competitors to live stream their gameplay during their
weekly competitive matches and their practice hours. These live streams are archived
and available anytime to fans, which provide tips and tricks of the viewer's favorite ‘pro'
plays. This video footage adds a dimension of audience involvement not seen in any
other sport, and it forms the backbone of many professional player's incomes. The
streaming services have different ways of generating revenue. For example, Youtube
monetizes their videos by allowing advertisements to play before and during the videos.
A percentage of this revenue is shared with the streamer who provided the content.
Twitch provides a different model by allowing viewers to ‘subscribe' to their favorite
streamer at a cost prescribed by the streamer. This model allows the viewer to support
their favorite personality, receive instant notifications when they begin streaming, and
often provides access to unique chat options with the streamer. The rise of these
streaming networks' user base has revealed the marketing potential of an industry that
once garnered little attention. Brands such as CocaCola, Red Bull, and even Turtle
Wax have taken notice of these events and begun sponsoring events as well as
individual teams that compete in these events (Casselman, 2015; Gaudiosi, 2016). As
corporate sponsorships increase, the prize money becomes larger, which typically
draws higher skilled competitors and more viewers for these competitions.
Newzoo, a company specializing in market research for eSports and the broader
game industry, reports that eSports are now more highly viewed by 2035yearolds
than baseball and hockey. The growth in viewers has shifted from two million viewers in
2010 to an incredible 35 million in 2015 (Gaudiosi, 2015). Revenues are increasing to
match, with Newzoo reporting global revenues of $493 million in 2016, and awarding
$61 million in prize money in 2015. Consequently, the prize money awarded at major
competitions has increased, with million dollar prize pools available at many events for
multiple games. While corporate sponsorship is often the primary source for the prize
pool, crowdfunding may be a source in some instances as in the case of Halo (Lingle,
2015). As more money has entered the scene, competitive gaming organizations have
formed that field teams to compete at every competition. These organizations recruit
athletes to sign and play for their teams to enhance their performance at these major
competitions. These competitors have been labeled eAthletes, and they are the stars of
the eSport world.
Typical eAthletes are between the ages of 23 and 27, a median of around 24
years of age, with few being able to compete at this age as reaction times slow, and
eyesight fades (DiChristopher, 2014; EEDAR, 2015). This environment has created
massive payouts for athletes who before this shift, were more accustomed to gaming in
a bedroom alone instead of in a stadium with thousands of live viewers, and millions
more online. This has created a unique environment for these athletes who are looking
to make more than the average Olympic athlete (Duran, 2016; The Guardian, 2012).
Players competing at the professional level in some of these games stand to make
millions. In fact, many of these gamers already have made over two million in prize
money alone, not counting corporate sponsorships and wages from their gaming
organization. Their young age and high incomes can cause problems for these
athletes, however, as many studies have found correlations between these gamers and
introversion, as well as neuroticism, in the framework of the Big Five personality model
(Bean, 2015; Braun, 2016; Montag, 2011).
In the big five model, an introvert is often considered shy and typically avoids the
company of others (Costa, & McCrae, 1985). In group settings, introverts may also
perceive lower levels of energy (Costa, & McCrae, 1985). Thus, the introvert may have
a difficult time because all of these video games have one thing in common; they are
teambased. In order to be competitive, teams must practice and communicate with
many of them cohabitating and spending long hours (8+ daily) playing and perfecting
their roles and playstyle. Neuroticism is associated with high levels of anxiety and
depression. As the sport evolves and these players are thrust onto center stage with
viewers around the world, these issues will only get worse for the introverted and
neurotic athlete, especially when they lack the training/education in preparing for these
events that more stereotypical athletes receive in their experiences. With this in mind,
eSport athletes, coaches, and managers are beginning to seek ways to combat the
adverse effects on the athletes. Based on sports psychology theory and research, a
Psychological Skills Training manual would be helpful in this effort. These programs
have been shown to provide beneficial increases to performance and lowered anxiety in
athletes in stereotypical sports (Van Guenthner et al. 2010; Thelwell et al. 2006). This
PST manual will identify and discuss some skills for a consultant to teach to eAthletes,
to help prepare them for the emerging world of eSports.
A typical PST program will have a number of stages that the athlete may or may
not be made aware of these stages. Typically, these steps include education,
acquisition, and practice, in that order (Van Guenthner et al., 2010). In the education
stage, the sports psychology consultant aims to inform athletes about the goals and
potential outcomes of a proper PST program. In this stage, the consultant may provide
anecdotal evidence of major professional athletes using the skills and discuss how the
skill(s) may be applied to them. In the acquisition stage, the consultant will help the
individual learn the skills. Both the coach and athlete are often trained by the consultant
in the skills they are to learn. In the practice stage, the individual begins to implement
the learned skills. Ideally, implementation will be initiated in practices before applying
them in a competitive scenario.
As with learning any set of new skills, it is important to dedicate adequate time,
as well as a conscious effort towards practicing the skills and making adjustments when
necessary. With this in mind, some research has suggested that periodization can be
used to introduce new skills in stages, to allow adequate time to learn each skill and put
it into practice. Periodization is a framework that divides the mental training program
into phases. Periodization is aimed to combat some of the same negatives associated
with physical training programs such as burnout, especially mental fatigue (Van
Guenthner et al., 2010). These periods are typically predetermined by the consultant
upon initial meetings with the coaches and athletes, and these periods often correspond
with preseason training (education phases), inseason application (peak phases), and
postseason refining and feedback work (assessment phases) (Van Guenthner et al.,
2010). Periodization has also been suggested to produce better longterm adherence
to a program as well as aid in hitting ‘peaks' during specific competitive phases.
Periodization is left up to the discretion of the consultant, athletes and coaches and
further discussion of this concept is outside the scope of the knowledge presented in
this manual. Nevertheless, the types of goals that eAthletes set during practice and
competition are important considerations for the successful implementation of a PST
program.
Mental skills training for athletes is not a task that is accomplished quickly, or with
little planning and forethought. Mental skills like those presented in this manual are the
result of theory, and research over the past three decades. At the core of the manual
exists the prevailing theory for achievement goals, which has influenced the selection of
the skills and strategies presented in this manual. For a developed understanding of
the information provided in the manual, a functional understanding of Achievement Goal
Theory is also necessary.

Achievement Goal Theory
Introduction
The practical applications contained in this PST manual are based on the
theoretical underpinnings of Achievement Goal Theory (AGT). This theory suggests
that human behavior is driven, in part, by our motives to show competence on
achievement tasks. In Nicholls paper (1984) the assumption is made that, "in
achievement situations, each individual's purpose is to demonstrate high ability and
avoid demonstrating low ability" (p. 332). Goal selection is often a subconscious series
of thoughts that impacts how we as humans make choices towards tasks. Thus, a
person will, typically, select tasks that are most likely to showcase his or her ability, as
such they make subjective judgments upon their chance of success, and when an
attractive goal is not present, they default to selecting a task that otherwise avoids
highlighting incompetence.
How an athlete approaches and evaluates a task is influenced by that athlete's
goal orientations, which may be considered task or egooriented. Taskoriented
individuals base their success upon the mastering of skills related directly to the task.
Egooriented athletes focus upon their displays of skill compared to those around them,
such as winning a competition or outperforming particular opponents. Orientations are
a disposition that directs our actions based upon our natural tendencies. However,
these goal orientations are considered orthogonal constructs, meaning that an athlete
may be high or low in either orientation at the same time. For example, an athlete can
be egooriented, which would cause him to gravitate towards the use of egobased
goals, but still be able to set and achieve taskbased goals. How an athlete reacts in a
situation is known as their involvement and can differ from their typical orientation.
Nicholls (1984) states, "When individuals are taskinvolved, they see more effort as
leading to more mastery and higher ability… when individuals are ego involved, their
chances of demonstrating ability depend on the ability of others" (p. 332333).
This means that in the case of an athlete who is egooriented they will typically
measure their relative success against the skills of their competition. When an athlete is
taskoriented, they typically assess their success upon improvements on their past
performances and their perceived mastery of the skill. A taskoriented individual will
gravitate towards making improvements to themselves, while egooriented individuals
will focus on the result of the competition with their peers along with other social
comparisons. It has been suggested that being taskinvolved brings higher levels of
enjoyment, and positive experience for athletes (Bortoli, Bertollo, Camani, & Robazza,
2011) which, given the increased likelihood of depression and anxiety within gamers,
should be encouraged to help combat these effects within this community.
An athlete's involvement is often influenced by the environment an athlete
competes and practices in, and this is referred to as the motivational climate. It is the
role of the coach, as well as the athlete, to work to promote a taskinvolved environment
for the athletes, when appropriate. In other words, having some ego involvement is not
necessarily bad when coupled with taskbased goals. For example, ego goals would be
appropriate when trying to make a team tryout or when competing for a national
championship. Though these two constructs may appear to be mutually exclusive to
each other, it is not the case. Many individuals form a fluid balance between the two
involvements, regardless of their dispositional orientation, attempting to not only assess
their abilities against themselves (controlling the controllables) but also striving to exhibit
a higher degree of skill than their opponents. It has been suggested that there is a
greater degree of positive effect in athletes who are more taskinvolved than those who
are more egoinvolved, but the athletes had some level of involvement of each type of
goal (Bortoli, Bertollo, Camani, & Robazza, 2011; Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2005).
A taskinvolved motivational climate can be hard to promote in a professional
sports arena because it takes the focus away from winning, which is where
stakeholders will typically expect the focus to be. In a new sport, winning and making a
name for an organization is paramount for stakeholders to make good on investments
which make it especially hard to promote a task based environment. Team owners are
seeking corporate sponsorships to expand their training facilities or to acquire the funds
for team based housing. Without winning records, it is hard to attract the necessary
attention from corporate sponsors. Therefore, it is important for coaches to understand
how ego and task orientations, involvement, and motivational climates may foster a
more taskinvolved environment as a way to promote skill improvement.
The following chapters of this PST handbook aim to teach a series of
psychological skills for application to eSports. This manual is not intended to
encompass all possible activities or to teach all the skills in a consultant's repertoire, but
it does provide the groundwork for teams to improve the mental skills of their eAthletes.

Review of Literature
There is a plethora of research examining Achievement Goal Theory in sports,
stemming most notably from the work of Nicholls (1984) on the relationship of goal
orientations and involvement on motivation and performance. Since this seminal work,
there has been further research testing the implication of this theoretical framework,
with researchers exploring potential links between goal orientation, goal involvement,
and performance in task versus ego situations (Cervello et al. 2007; Spray, Wang,
Biddle, & Chatzisarantis, 2006). Some of these works also examine the relationship
between goal involvement and motivational climate and positive effects in youth sports
as a way to increase continued participation in the sport (Bortoli, Bertollo, Comani, &
Robazza, 2010; Cervello et al. 2007; Jaakkola, Ntoumanis, & Liukkomen, 2016).
Youth sport and positive effects. The works of Bortoli et al. (2010) and
Jaakkola et al. (2016) reported that high levels of performance in youth athletes were
associated with positive effects. Evidence presented in the work of Nicholls (1984)
directed researchers attention to theorizing that a task that is moderate, or hard, to
achieve would elicit high levels of effort and performance from taskinvolved athletes.
This was supported by Bortoli et al. (2010) who found that athletes with greater task
orientation and, specifically higher task involvement, had a higher chance of
experiencing pleasant psycho biosocial states which were associated with high actual
and perceived performance. Jaakkola also theorized that the path to enjoyment in
youth sport would be through task orientation and task involvement. The findings
supported this hypothesis but did not suggest that an ego orientation and involvement
resulted in poor, or lesser enjoyment. They theorized the conclusions regarding ego
orientation and involvement was a result of their subject pool, who at the time of the
study were used to competing in high risk, high reward scenarios with large amounts of
pressure which were inconsistent with other research on the matter.
Motivational Climate and Goal Orientation. M
otivational climate refers to the
achievement environment created around the player by a number of social factors. In
work by Cervello et al. (2007) researchers found that parents and friends could
influence a motivational climate, but the primary source of influence (90%) was the
coach. Motivational climates are described by Cervello et al. (2007) and Bortoli et al.
(2010) as being either taskinvolved or ego involved. In taskinvolved motivational
climates, athletes reported feeling best when they were putting in the maximal effort, or
helping their teammates (Cervello et al., 2007). Egoinvolved motivational climates put
the focus upon performance, and carry the perception that the coach has favorites
(Cervello et al. 2007), they also report instances of being encouraged to outplay their
opponents (Bortoli et al., 2010).
Goal orientation, involvement, and performance. N
icholls (1984) made a
number of assumptions towards the level of performance in his work comparing task
and egoinvolvements in differing states of perceived ability. They can be summarized
as taskinvolved individuals typically reaching higher levels of performance than
egoinvolved students when perceptions of ability are small. Egoinvolved individuals
achieved equal, or greater, performance compared to taskinvolved individuals when the
perception of ability was higher. These assumptions were tested in further correlational
and experimental studies with similar results.
Bortoli et al. (2010) reported findings that held true to Nicholls (1984) work with
one caveat. In situations where an individual felt high pressure to perform that low
perceived ability in the presence of greater task involvement produced a significantly
poor performance as indicated by the psycho biosocial state. Spray et al. (2006) held
that a task involvement facilitated higher levels of performance, and speculated it was
as a result of the focus on individual skill components, but did note that this could have
also been attributed to the novelty of the task which was noted as a weakness in the
study. The researchers pointed out that the task, a onemeter golf putt, was novel in
that the subjects had not previously had excessive experience in putting.
Avoidance and Approach Dimensions. As an extension to Nicholls (1984)
work, where it is stated that individuals strive to achieve a particular goal so as to avoid
displaying failure, a 2X2 framework has emerged. This framework indicates that not all
goals are linked to approaching achievement, but some are to avoid failure (Elliot et al.
1997; Elliot et al. 2001). In a 2X2 framework, task and ego goals are crossed with a
competencybased approach and avoidance goals. For taskapproach goals, an
individual will actively seek to display task mastery, and for taskavoidance, an individual
will actively try to avoid showing a lack of task mastery. Egoapproach athletes strive to
demonstrate competence by outperforming their competitors, while egoavoidance
athletes seek to not show incompetence relative to their opponents (Elliot &
Harackiewicz, 1996; Jaakkola et al. 2016). Jaakkola and colleagues (2016) noted that
in their experimental study, regardless of low or high perceived ability, athletes with
taskapproach goals consistently reported higher levels of enjoyment. This finding was
also among a group of high performing 17yearolds on the cusp of national
representation, which could be considered similar to eSports athletes just beginning to
see global recognition. Conversely, however, the researcher note that an egoapproach
in an egooriented climate did not have the negative impact theorized or held by other
research. Jaakkola et al. (2016) suspect this may be due to the nature of this particular
group of athletes, as they note they had been competing at a high level for ten to twelve
years by the time of this study.
Conclusion.
Current literature agrees on a number of theories and assumptions, most easily
summarized by goals that make use of task and egoapproach involvements, especially
in taskfavorable climates, would appear to elicit higher levels of enjoyment, and
performance in athletes of varying levels of perceived and actual competence. The
literature does not establish that the use of all egoinvolved goals necessitates reduced
performance. Egoinvolved goals and climates react differently to each particular
athlete dependent on a number of factors such as perceived and actual ability (Jaakkola
et al., 2016; Spray et al., 2006), and specific motivational climate (Bortoli et al. 2010;
Cervello et al. 2007; Jaakkola et al., 2016). It was suggested that the nurturing of a
taskmotivated climate by coaches could supplant or minimize an individual's particular
orientation (Cervello et al., 2007).
In the works of Elliot and colleagues (1997, 2001) the 2X2 framework holds that
use of task approach and avoidance goals are beneficial to the accomplishment of
targets. They also note that egoapproach goals are, under the correct circumstances,
and with the correct athlete, able to elicit similar effects on performance. The dark
horse of the fourway relationship, however, being egoavoidance. Egoavoidance has
shown to create lower levels of performance and to increase performance anxiety.
Achievement Goal Theory provides a framework that is built upon throughout this
manual. It presents an understanding of how to approach the goals of athletes and
types of environments that coaches can provide. Knowledge of AGT is beneficial for
the skills presented in this manual specifically as it teaches coaches and athletes how to
approach goal setting, with a focus on approaching mastery or achievements. It is also
beneficial for imagery skills to promote a taskfocus to continue building and nurturing a
taskbased environment. Selftalk skills can be used to maintain a taskfocus in times of
performance anxiety, or lengths of time during poor performance. AGT is the skeleton
on which the meat of the manual builds from, providing a rigid framework to guide the
direction of athletes and coaches.

Goal Setting
Goal setting has been covered by countless authors, coaches and sports
consultants over the previous decades, and rightly so, as it has been shown to influence
the performance of athletes, and been linked to positive changes in the psychological
states of athletes (Gould, 2015). Some Olympic legends have been quoted talking
about their usage of goal setting and how they aim for the best. For example, multiple
Olympic Champion Usain Bolt said "you've got to set goals in life... I try to set the
highest standard that I can for myself," (ITV News, 2013). Shannon Miller (gymnast)
alluded to the progressive steps with goal setting when she said, “... you have to set
those shortterm goals. Think about what you can do each and every day to make that
longrange goal happen.” (Keller, 2016). Setting goals is a way for athletes to plan their
journey, establish goals that they can strive for, and accurately map out their
improvements.
Review of Literature.
Goal setting has been a topic of psychological literature since the late 20th
century, with researchers Edwin Locke and Gary Latham. Since then there have been a
number of findings, and revisions of the effectiveness of goal setting. Locke and
Latham have made a number of observations about new directions in goal setting
theory, and how the initial theory they proposed has evolved (2002; 2006). Some
researchers have examined the relationship between goal setting styles and their
effects on performance (Fairall, & Rodgers, 1997; Hardcastle, Tye, Glassey, & Hagger,
2014; Weinberg, Burke, & Jackson, 1997). Other studies have compared the
effectiveness of goal setting to a number of other psychological skills such as imagery
and selftalk (Wright, O'Halloran, & Stukas, 2015). Other research has examined the
effects of goal setting in youth and highlevel athletes, taking a qualitative approach to
explore trends in athlete’s behaviors (Hardcastle et al., 2014; Maitland & Gervis, 2009)
Types of Goals. In goal setting literature, a goal is a broad term that can mean
many things, so goals are divided into three typical types or styles. Kingston et al.
(1997) refer to these three goal styles as outcome, performance, and process goals.
Outcome goals are goals based on the results of performance. They are not
selfreferenced but instead depend on the performance of others (i.e., social
comparisons). Performance goals are also based on the outcomes of performance but
are selfreferenced, for example, improving your score in a game of tenpin bowling.
Process goals are based on the execution of specific skills or processes during play.
For example, a process goal can be about a specific turn's approach and exit in a racing
game. Kingston et al. (1997) make note that in typical goal setting intervention,
individuals are taught to make use of performance goals, which they argue are not
always the best to pursue solely. Locke et al. (2006) share this belief, stating that the
use of performance only goals can often lead to a sort of tunnel vision where the goal is
the only focus, while the skills that can help to reach the target are not given as much
consideration. Both researchers suggest that process, or learning, goals should be
used in equal measure with performance goals. By using the two together, it can help
the individual to learn the specific skills required to achieve the level of performance
they are striving for.
Goal Setting and Performance. G
oal setting literature makes a number of
observations when performance is concerned. The majority of research agrees that
there is evidence to support the theory that goal setting results in increased
performance in athletes (Hardcastle et al., 2014; Kingston et al., 1997; Locke & Latham,
2002; Lock et al., 2006; Weinberg et al., 1997). The effect of goal setting on
performance may vary depending on environmental factors and the conditions under
which goals were set (Fairall et al., 1997; Hardcastle et al., 2015; Weinberg et al.,
1997).
Studies by Fairall et al. (1997), Hardcastle et al. (2015), and Weinberg et al.
(1997) shared similar results regarding the conditions under which goals were set.
Targets set autonomously, from the player, were associated with higher effort, and
improved performance (Weinberg et al., 1997). Similar findings were reported by
Hardcastle et al. (2015) who also found that the inclusion of outside social influences,
like coaches, in goal setting could be beneficial. He held that including coaches in the
goal setting process allowed them to provide reinforcement to the athlete and to offer
plans to reach them. An athlete who is more involved in goal setting gave more effort
during training and competition, and this was associated with improved performance
(Fairall et al., 1997).
Current Use of Goal Setting. A
lthough goal setting interventions are effective
toward increased use on the shortterm, results from qualitative studies have found that
athletes were not likely to use the skill for extended periods (Hardcastle et al., 2015). A
possible reason for this finding may be the lack of followup and reinforcement after the
initial goal setting intervention. Coaches reported that over the shortterm athletes and
coaches were excited by the prospect of crafting goals and utilizing them. However,
many of these goals were forgotten as time progressed (Hardcastle et al., 2015).
Another coach reported that he believed the success his athletes had with the program
were related to his reinforcement of the goal setting program and adjustment of goals at
followup.
A study by Maitland et al. (2010) included qualitative data regarding the use of
goal setting in youth football. The research reported that the majority of players
interviewed used goals, but did not involve their coaches in these goals (Maitland et al.,
2010). Many responded that the only individuals that had a say in their goal setting, and
their goal setting process was themselves. This provides evidence in support of
Hardcastle and colleagues (2015) in that outside influence could serve to improve goal
setting effectiveness.
Practical Usage for eSports
The reviewed literature provides a framework to formulate a group of successful
goals for a typical athlete, and this same framework will be used to set goals for the
eSport athletes this program seeks to educate. From the research, it is clear that the
goals being set need to be clear and distinct while remaining moderatetohighly
challenging to achieve (Locke & Latham, 2002; Lock et al., 2006). The research has
shown that reinforcement and revision of goals are important but underutilized
(Hardcastle et al., 2015; Maitland et al., 2010) Therefore it is important to involve
coaches in goal setting to help reinforce and revisit goals at regular intervals. The
literature also points towards the usefulness of process goals in concert with
performance goals (Kingston et al., 1997; Locke & Latham, 2002; Lock et al., 2006).
Goal setting theory can benefit from Achievement Goal Theory by making use of
the 2X2 framework of approachavoidance. By setting goals that are taskinvolved and
approachoriented the focus will be towards seeking to display competency through
mastery of specific skills, which is beneficial for setting and accomplishing process
goals. The manual also incorporates the use of ego involvement for the setting of
performancebased goals, encouraging egoapproach over egoavoidance. The use of
AGT allows for consultants and coaches to approach goal setting in a selfreferenced
manner, which can reduce the anxiety of potential failure that athletes can encounter.
This PST manual uses the findings of previous goal setting research coupled
with the fundamentals of AGT to craft taskinvolved process, and ego involved
performance goals via three key strategies. These strategies include the concept of
SMART goals, setting process goals to accomplish longterm performance and outcome
goals, and defining skill based process goals to strive for through regular refinement.

Strategy One Performance Profiling.
The process of performance profiling was first proposed in the early 20th century
by Butler and Hardy (1992). Performance profiling is a useful tool to involve the athlete
in the process of goalsetting. Performance profiling provides a method to visually
represent the attributes that the athlete associated with positive performances.
Performance profiling is a multistep process wherein the athlete will list a number of
attributes, and then score their importance for highperformance. The athlete will also
score their ability levels in relation to these attributes. The discrepancy between the
ideal score and the athletes score highlights areas of focus for them.
To complete a performance profiling sheet as seen in Appendix A, allow an
athlete as much time as they need to fill out the ‘construct' column. When briefing the
athlete on how to complete this, ask them to think of all the attributes that a successful
athlete would have and to write those down. The second column labelled ‘I' in this
example is shorthand for ‘importance.' In this column ask the athlete to score the
importance that attribute has for performance. These scores will be on a scale of
onetoten, one being of no importance, and ten being of highimportance. At this point,
the athlete now has an idea of what attributes they believe the ideal athlete possesses.
The next column, labeled ‘ISA,' represents the ideal score for the athlete out of
ten. In this scale, ten would represent ‘no way to do it better,' while one would represent
‘no way to be worse.' The column after this, labeled SSA, is the athlete's' actual score in
this skill. The following column represents the difference in scores, followed by the
column labeled D, the discrepancy.
Once the entire worksheet is completed there is a visual representation of the
athlete's strengths and weaknesses as defined by themselves. The higher a score in
discrepancy, the more work is required. This worksheet brings the athlete
selfawareness, allowing them to target specific areas to improve upon. These
improvements can be targeted through the use of goal setting, or any of the other
strategies put forth in this manual.
To measure improvement over intervention periods, it is also possible to
readminister the test. By keeping records of previous iterations of the trial, it becomes
possible to map out the athlete's improvements. As the athlete's focus changes, these
performance profiles will reflect these changes of focus. It is recommended to
administer these tests at semiregular intervals, to provide the athlete visual feedback
on progress.

Strategy Two SMART Goals
SMART is an acronym that aids in the setting of goals, and turns a simple goal,
such as “get better at Call of Duty,” into a welldefined, timebased, measurable
outcome. SMART goal setting will form the underlying framework for all goals set using
this manual. It is possible to use SMART goals to set shortterm process goals,
intermediate range performance goals, and even on longrange outcome and
performance goals due to its flexibility. The acronym itself has a varied set of definitions
across different authors and literature (Rubin, 2002), but the definition used for this
handbook comes from both Rubin (2002) and Doran (1981).
‘S' refers to setting s pecific goals. Goals should target a particular skill, action, or
area for improvement. For example, in a gaming setting, the goal can be specific to
improving headshot accuracy in a firstperson shooter, lap time for a racing game, or
your particular character's damage or healing statistic per minute in games such as
League of Legends or Overwatch.
‘M’ refers to goals being M
easurable . Goals should be readily measurable by
some form of unit or indicator. In the examples above, the goal may be to achieve 75%
headshot accuracy, a oneminute per lap decrease in racing games, and a 10%
increase in per minute stats for League of Legends or Overwatch.
‘A' refers to goals being a
chievable and ‘R' being for r ealistic . These two factors
integrate with each other. The goals an individual sets should be both achievable and
realistic. Simply put, do not set a goal that is too far in advance of where you currently
are and do not set a goal that is simply unrealistic in the realm of the achievement. For
example, a goal of 100% headshot accuracy in a firstperson shooter, while technically
possible, is not achievable or realistic for a majority of the players. Setting a goal to
reduce a 90second lap by 45seconds is another example of a goal that may be
technically achievable but may not be realistic. It is very important that goals are
achievable and realistic as it allows the individual a feeling of success in accomplishing
goals, even if the overall result was not a win.
‘T' refers to goals being timely . Goals should have a time frame associated with
them. Otherwise, they can often be dismissed with sayings such as, ‘Oh well, I'll get
there tomorrow,' or ‘Maybe next time.' A goal with a time frame provides motivation to
succeed and allows an individual to place markers along the overall timeline towards an
end goal. For example, a goal for an overall headshot accuracy increase being 30% in
three months provides the options for monthly checkins where an individual would
expect to see 10% increases each month.
Taking the initial example given, "Get better at Call of Duty," we can apply the
SMART principle to transform it into "Get better at Call of Duty by increasing my
headshot accuracy percentage by 15points within the following three months." The goal
changes its meaning by providing the athlete with a clear indication of what they want to
achieve, and a timeline to achieve the goal. It removes the anger out of losses by
providing a point of reference on a personal level, and will ultimately make the athlete a
better player.
As mentioned above, SMART goals are not simply for shortterm process goals.
They actively work for the setting of intermediate and longrange performance goals too.
With the inclusion of timesensitive measures, many athletes will set goals that are long
term. An example of such a goal in eSports would be ‘To compete at the world
championships for League of Legends.' This is obviously a longrange performance
goal, but within SMART goal framework, the athlete can design a plan to achieve this
goal. This is where the next key strategy of this manual comes into play, staircase
goalsetting, setting shortterm process goals, to reach longterm performance or
outcome goals.

Strategy Three Staircase Goal Setting
Staircase goal setting, as briefly mentioned in the SMART goals section, is the
setting of shortterm process goals to achieve longterm performance and outcome
goals. This strategy is based on the findings of Locke et al. (2002, 2006) and Kingston
et al. (1997) who both reported that process goals are effective in reducing the
complexity of a task which can lead to increased performance. Kingston et al. (1997)
noted explicitly that "Process oriented goals are often, by their very nature, the strategy
for reducing the complexity of a given task, and hence may have double the value” (p.
289).
Staircase goal setting is a simplistic concept, but it allows complex longrange
performance or outcome goals to be divided into smaller shortterm process and
performance goals. Attached as Appendix C is a blank example staircase goal setting
sheet. This section of the manual will detail how to fill one of these sheets using
SMART process goals and will use the example of a professional Call of Duty player.
When completing a goalsetting staircase, an individual should begin at the top of the
staircase and place on that step their long range outcome goal. When setting this end
goal, remember to utilize the principles of SMART goal setting. In our example, this
long range outcome goal will be to compete in the winner's bracket at the Call of Duty
(COD) world championship in three months’ time.
Each step below this end goal should be a necessary step to accomplish this
goal. To qualify for the winner's bracket in a round robin style tournament, such as the
COD world championships, a team must place in the top two of their pool of play. Thus,
the next step down from competing in the winner's bracket would be to place top two in
their pool of play. These goals are both outcome goals, as they rely on an outcome that
is not directly within the control of the athlete. The use of only outcome goals has been
attributed to anxiety and fear of failure in athletes. Thus as we go lower on the staircase
of goals, it is suggested to place more importance on setting process goals. For the
next set of goals, the athlete should identify specific skills to lead to higher levels of
team performance.
In this example, we now move down another step of the staircase and continue
to build a plan to accomplish the goals. As a player filling the ‘slayer' role in COD, the
main objective is to control enemy pressure by killing enemies quickly. Improving the
killtodeath ratio of the player will lead to higher performance. The next step would
therefore be to ‘improve the average killtodeath ratio by .6 over three months.' Another
step down on the goal staircase will be a process to support improving the killtodeath
ratio, which in the case of COD, is headshot accuracy. Headshot accuracy reduces the
average timetokill which in turn should increase the average number of kills per player
life. Thus, the next step down on the goal staircase would be ‘improve headshot
accuracy percentage by 15 points in two months.'
An athlete would continue down the goal staircase, following this general concept
until the athlete was content with the level of organization of their goal. The finished
product (Appendix D) provides the athlete with a clear process toward the goals they
want to achieve. Staircase goal setting may be used by any athlete who has been
trained in SMART goal setting, at practically any age due to its simplicity.

Imagery
In every sport, and at any event, there are any number of circumstances that can
be less than ideal. Track athletes can have moisture on the track, archers, and
shooters an unfavorable wind, and rugby players can compete in nearly any weather
condition. These circumstances are often out of the athletes' control, and the stress of
them can be compounded by anything more sport specific, such as being a pinch hitter
in the 9th inning with the bases loaded. So how can athletes maintain composure and
confidence in these impossible to predict situations? Some professional athletes might
say they control the ‘controllables’ and let the rest simply happen; others prepare for
them with mental training, specifically imagery. Day in and day out, these athletes will
envision what they practice, and create the events in their mind's eye, preparing them
for any outcome.
Imagery is a powerful tool in any athlete’s repertoire and has been used
effectively by the most successful Olympian in history, Michael Phelps. Perhaps the
greatest example of the power of mental imagery was in Phelps' final of the 200m
Butterfly at the 2008 summer Olympic Games. It became known, via an interview
postrace, that he had lost vision in the race due to his goggles filling with water. The
interviewer asked Phelps how it felt to swim blind. Phelps response was "like I
imagined it would." In the following weeks through interviews and statements by both
Bob Bowman, his coach, and Phelps, it was revealed that he had imaged this event
numerous times before in his head. This is what he and Bowman referred to as his
‘videotape' (Damani, 2013). Phelps had been in the routine of ‘watching his videotape,'
imagining his race, down to the tiniest details since he was thirteen. Any possible
deviations from the ideal plan had been thought out; there was no possible race he had
not mentally prepared a solution for.
This level of mental preparation takes a strict regime of regular imagery sessions
based on the theories of a number of researchers. For the past 30 years, imagery has
been the topic of a number of research articles looking to discover the most effective
way to prepare for competition and training.
Review of Literature
Imagery Propositions. I n Lang's 1978 work there are three propositions
described in relation to imagery usage. Each of these propositions refers to a different
‘bite' of information that is processed by the brain. These three propositions are
stimulus, response, and meaning (Lang, 1978). Stimulus propositions are related to the
stimuli surrounding an individual such as crowd noises, temperature on the field, etc.
Response propositions are the feelings and actions an individual takes in a situation, for
example, the follow through of the bat in a baseball swing. Response propositions are
directly related to the actions performed by an individual in a given situation. The third
type is meaning propositions, which relate to the inherent meaning of a situation. This
can be an awareness of the score, for example, tied at the bottom of the ninth inning in
baseball inherently means the next hitter could win the game. Meaning propositions are
the information not immediately obvious from the stimuli (Lang, 1987; Smith, Holmes,
Whitemore, Collins, & Devonport, 2001).
It has been suggested that each proposition can activate the motor program
behind the imagined actions with varying degrees of success (Smith et al., 2001). Lang
(1987) and Smith et al. (2001) reported that in scenarios where the three propositions
were tested that response propositions would create physiological reactions within the
body.
Imagery and Body Responses. S
ome researchers have displayed results that
suggest a link between the use of imagery and a physiological response in the body (Ay,
Halaweh, & AlTaieb, 2013; Lang, 1978; Smith et al., 2001). In the work of Ay et al.
(2013) the use of imagery and the resulting effect it had on learning a new skill was
examined. Findings provided evidence for a physiological reaction via the use of
response propositions. Earlier work had also made similar connections in research,
providing that there were physiological reactions present under the use of response and
stimulus propositions (Lang, 1978). In the work of Smith et al. (2001) it was held that
within the three groups in the study; control, stimulus proposition, and
stimulusresponse propositions, performance results formed a linear progression.
Stimulus proposition alone scored significantly higher than the control, and
stimulusresponse propositions scored significantly higher than stimulus proposition
alone. It was theorized that this linear set of increases owes to an increased activation
of motor programs (Smith et al., 2001). Envisioning the event, and the associated
actions and feelings involved with completing these tasks can mold the connections the
brain makes in a way similar to, albeit less effective than, that which physical practice
does.
Imagery and Performance. In work by Smith et al. (2001), Malouff et al. (2008),
and Ay et al. (2013) experimental studies investigated the effects of imagery under both
stimulus and stimulusresponse propositions. In their work, Smith et al. (2001)
examined the relationship between an imagery program and performance of the
‘penalty flick' skill of field hockey. The research followed a sevenweek program where
athletes underwent imagery sessions three times per week. The research used three
groups, control who underwent no imagery training, a group that used an imagery script
laden with stimulus propositions, and a group that used a script with both stimulus and
response propositions. The findings showed statistically significant differences in
performance of the skill following the sevenweek program. The stimulus based
imagery achieved better than control, while stimulusresponse achieved higher again
than stimulus alone.
While examining performance differences in learning a new skill, Ay et al. (2013)
also had similar findings. Participants were in two groups, one control, and one
experimental group. The experimental group was instructed to imagine the skill they
were learning using a stimulusresponse proposition, imagining the task being carried
out but also the thoughts and feelings of the action being undertaken. The control
group only undertook physical practice. Results showed a significant improvement in
both conditions, however, the increase in performance shown by the imagery group was
greater.
In the work of Malouff et al. (2008) an experiment was conducted using imagery
directly preceding the practiced action. Subjects were split into three groups: control,
imagery, and selfinstruction. The imagery and selfinstruction groups were instructed to
carry out their form of intervention directly before performing the task itself. In this
experiment, the level of improvement was not considered significant. The researchers
noted that this was likely due to the athletes reporting that they did not totally comply
with the instructions during each iteration of the test, and due to no extensive teaching
and learning of the relevant skills.
Imagery and External Stimuli. E
xternal stimuli are not out of the ordinary in
most typical sport settings, with crowds being present at major games from high school
through professional sports. The crowd presence has been known to affect an athlete
(Calmels, Berthoumieux, & d'ArripeLongueville, 2004). In the work of Calmels et al.
(2004) researchers examined the effects that imagery could have on the selective
attention of national softball players. The researchers were testing to see if imagery
trained athletes could process higher amounts of external stimuli before overloading
than athletes without the training (Calmels et al., 2004). The group undertook 28
sessions of prerecorded imagery training sessions that were laden with stimulus
response propositions. While the groups did report improvements in external stimulus
processing, the results did not approach statistical significance indicating that there is
the potential for improvements in athletes (Calmels et al., 2004).
Practical Usage for eSports.
From the reviewed literature there are a number of factors that appear to
contribute to a successful imagery program. From the studies that found statistically
significant performance increases (Ay et al., 2013; Smith et al., 2001), the length of time
the athletes were trained in imagery were longer than in studies that found insignificant
relationships (Malouff et al., 2008). This indicates that it would appear to be beneficial
to regularly practice imagery, perhaps even taking a permanent training spot in a
general training regime. Also, use of stimulusresponse propositions were more
effective in increasing performance, and in learning new skills (Ay et al., 2013; Lang,
1978; Smith et al., 2001). This suggests that the regular imagery sessions should make
use of imagery that is not solely stimulus based but should incorporate the response
propositions. Finally, the effects on external stimulus processing are of interest for
eSports as the athletes must compete not only in online tournaments with no audience
but also large arena audiences in the final rounds of their seasons. Incorporating the
stimulus propositions regarding crowd noise and interference can provide some amount
of extra processing benefit to the athletes (Calmels et al., 2004).
With this evidence, the manual presents three strategies for athletes and
coaches to incorporate imagery usage into their regular training regime. These
strategies will help to formulate an imagery script laden with response propositions, use
imagery to minimize the effect of crowd distraction, and to use imagery to learn new
skills in gameplay.

Strategy One Basic Imagery Training
Imagery is skill that can be harnessed by athletes to imagine different situations
and the athlete's responses. Before an athlete can begin to image complex skills and
processes, basic imagery training is necessary to develop an imaging mindset. To
begin imagery training, it is common to start simple, as in this example.
To begin, pick a simple skill relevant to the athlete's role, for example, a COD
player may pick a onepoint toss in ‘uplink.' Now ask the athlete to sit back, close their
eyes and relax. Imagine completing the skill, feel each movement in your muscles.
Feel the tactile feedback of the controller's joysticks, hear the light click as each button
is depressed. Focus on each movement that makes up the skill, feel the muscles
contract to carry out the commands.
Don’t focus on any one particular sense, instead feel it as if you were completing
it at that moment. Combine the incoming messages, the click of buttons, the feedback
in the joysticks, and the sounds of the game audio. Imagine the perfect execution of
this skill over and over again, feeling how each muscle works together to accomplish
the goal.
This basic goal setting script is the base of which to build each image around.
Imagine the sights, the sounds, and the feel of the action. The more vivid the image is,
the more accurately it opens the motor pathways in the brain. This image script should
be practiced regularly until the image is crystal clear, before moving on to build this
simple skill execution image into reactions to other inputs. For example, once the
basics of this image are concrete in the mind of athlete, ask them to introduce an enemy
player running a defensive play. Ask the player to imagine how to react, and how their
muscles will adapt to this new play.
The slow buildup of imagery programs is important as it allows an athlete to
master each skill in turn. By only introducing strategy and reactionary action to the
images after mastery, it allows modification of techniques without risking the underlying
skill.

Strategy Two Imagery for Skill Acquisition
Acquiring new skills is a reality in every sport. As an athlete advances, new skills
and tactics are required to compete at the higher level of competence. Learning a new
skill is often accomplished through physical practices, but this process can be enhanced
through the use of imagery. In the vein of the basic imagery training presented in
strategy one, it is simple to apply the power of imagery to the learning of new skills. In
studies comparing traditional learning of skills and learning accompanied by imagery,
researchers found that those who made use of imagery performed the skill to a higher
level (Ay et al., 2013).
Imagery training for new skills involves a small amount of skill modeling before
practicing imagery of the skill. Skill modeling is accomplished through the use of video
footage of the skill being used, where in a coach will highlight the intricacies of the
action. After a stage of modeling, imagery can begin, wherein the athlete places
themselves into the image of the new skill. The process is simplistic, and each phase
will be short, but the repetition establishes links in the brain to better perform the action
before physical trials have even begun.
The first stage of using imagery for new skills is modeling. As briefly mentioned
above, this is accomplished through the use of video footage. Before learning the new
skill, the coach and athlete should sit down together and review footage of the skill
being learned. In the case of eSports, this would be in Youtube or Twitch clips of other
professional players. During these film sessions, the coach will highlight to the athlete
the specific parts involved in the skill, drawing attention to each movement that makes
up the whole.
Once the athlete and coach are comfortable with the theoretical knowledge of the
skill that the athlete has, it is time to move on to building an image for the skill. When
building the image script, have a clear idea of each movement highlighted during
modeling. Since each movement determines the feelings on the controller, each specific
movement’s effect on the joysticks and buttons has to be clear. Build each movement
into a full image, including as many details as possible. The result should be a movie
that plays out in the mind of the athlete; the athlete should be able to clearly envision
each movement of their fingers, feel each muscle contract to accomplish it, and hear the
click of the buttons as they watch the player on the screen complete the skill.
Once a full script of the skill is built in the player's head, the athlete can then
move to incorporate this script into the training regime. This manual recommends that
imagery used to learn new skills should be practiced at least once per day. When this
imagery is completed is up to the athlete, but the authors suggest each night before bed
when an athlete is most relaxed. The image can be practiced more than once per day,
and it would be more beneficial to frequently envision the new skill. However, time and
other commitments can interfere with this which is why the manual suggests once per
day.

Strategy Three Imagery Script for Competition.
Combining the basic imagery lessons in strategy one and the knowledge in
strategy two, it's possible for an athlete to craft their script specific to their competitive
needs. As competitions can vary wildly, imagery is a useful tool to envision any of the
many outcomes possible. Because of this volatility in competitive outcomes, this
strategy will briefly provide key points to remember when crafting a script for a
competition.
As mentioned above competitions do not follow a script, they are by their very
nature random. In competitions nearly anything can happen, that's why imagery can aid
in preparing for situations which are hard to physically practice, due to their unlikelihood.
When using imagery to envision these events, it is important to remember a number of
key factors. These factors make up the vivid nature of the image, and they are the
senses of the body. When crafting images, involve as many senses as possible. If an
athlete is aware of and competed in the arena before, then have them recall specific
smells or how the crowd echoed around that particular arena. These specific sounds
and smells can be different from the training room, so involving them in the image
allows the brain to link the location to those skills even before a controller is in hand.
Touch, remember the feelings of the tables, the floor, and the provided chairs at
the arena. Were the chairs particularly uncomfortable, or did they click when you sat
forward? Involve these features in the image, as again they add to the reality induced by
the images. Finally remember the feel of the controller, how the muscles in your hands
and arms cooperate to accomplish the goal. Remember the specific movements
required by this competition.
By building the images around the sights, smells, and sounds of the competition
arena an individual is preparing the mind for competition there. Imagine carrying out the
skills practiced to perfection, in that arena. Imagine the noises of the crowd as the
athlete correctly runs the play. Continue to overlap the senses into the image of the skill
to be completed.
Imagery for competition settings is similar to imagery for skill acquisition. It is just
modified to be envisioned in the area of competition. It allows the athlete to become
aware of factors that are not present in the training rooms, like the crowds and
equipment that they may not use at their regular facilities. The more of the competition
environment that is brought into the image, the better prepared the athlete will be for
competition.

SelfTalk
Selftalk is an interesting concept that has been attracting a lot of attention over
the last twenty or so years, especially in sport psychology (Hardy, Gammage, & Hall,
2001). Selftalk is most readily described as any time an individual thinks about a
specific thing. This definition is broad and hard to make use of in a functional sense. A
working definition for selftalk is internal (overt or covert) dialogue offering instruction or
motivation where the primary audience is the one talking (Hardy et al., 2001). Selftalk
is often practiced in sport, whether it is due to prior knowledge of its benefits or in a
spontaneous manner is open to interpretation (Hatzigeorgiadis, Galanis, Zourbanos, &
Theodorakis, 2014). There is also evidence to support the theory that selftalk of a
positive, motivational, or instructional tone can increase a number of facets of
performance (Barwood, Corbett, Wagstaff, McVeigh, & Thelwell, 2015; Blanchfield,
Hardy, Morree, Staiano, & Marcora, 2014; Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2014).
Selftalk is not limited to the positive usage; there are cases of negative selftalk,
or the attempt to stifle negative selftalk (Dugdale & Eklund, 2002). In some cases of
negative selftalk, an athlete may attempt to ignore this negativity which can bring forth
the irony effect. The irony effect being the harder an individual tries not to do
something, the more likely they are to do that thing. Dugdale et al. (2002) provide
alternatives to ignoring the negatives which can lead the individual to maintain a more
taskfocused outlook and involvement. Overall, the trend in the literature points to use
of motivational, positive selftalk being associated with performance increases and a
task involvement.
Review of Literature.
Use of SelfTalk. I n the work of Hardy et al. (2001) researchers examined the
general usage of selftalk in sports in a qualitative study. The study encompassed 150
collegiate athletes in a descriptive analysis of their usage of selftalk in both training and
competition settings. Furthermore, the study examined what it referred to as the 4 W's;
where, when, what and why of the selftalk use. The ‘where' of selftalk usage showed
that athletes split their usage between either sport related locations or nonsport related
locations. The overall trend was clearly towards usage at sportrelated venues (Hardy,
2001). ‘When' revealed that the overwhelming majority of the interviewed athletes used
selftalk during both practice and competition settings, with a majority being during
competition settings (Hardy, 2001). ‘What' and ‘why' revealed a number of more
indepth observations revolving around the specific reasoning as to the usage of
selftalk. It revealed that the majority of respondents were using selftalk that covered
task instruction with varying structures. Responses showed that athletes used a
mixture of cue words, phrases, and sentences to process their thoughts. The final W,
‘why,' revealed that the majority of the respondents were using selftalk for motivational
purposes, including motivation towards taskmastery (Hardy, 2001). The study gives a
particularly wellrounded view of typical selftalk usage at least within the community of
collegiateaged athletes, who are typically among the highest performing individuals in
their chosen sport.
Performance and Motivational SelfTalk. T
here is evidence in the literature to
support a link between motivational selftalk and increases in performance (Barwood, et
al., 2015; Blanchfield, et al., 2014; Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2014). Some researchers
examined the relationship between selftalk and performance (Blanchfield et al., 2014).
In the study, cyclists were tested on a timetoexhaustion test on standing cycles. The
researchers then split the cyclists into two groups, and over a 14 day period, ran a
selftalk intervention. One group completed the intervention along with regular exercise,
while the second group only completed regular exercise. The results showed that not
only were the athletes who practiced selftalk able to extend their timetoexhaustion,
but they were even able to decrease their perceived exertion during the test (Blanchfield
et al., 2014). The control group’s timetoexhaustion showed no significant differences,
nor any changes to perceived exertion.
In the work of Barwood et al. (2015) researchers examined the differences in
performance levels comparing motivational selftalk to neutral selftalk. In the study, two
groups were defined after two initial 10km cycle time trials. These two groups were
motivational selftalk or neutral selftalk. A thirdtime trial occurred after groups were
defined. Following these three time trials was the selftalk intervention, where each
group was schooled on their respective style of selftalk (Barwood et al., 2015). A final
time trial was conducted after the completion of the selftalk intervention, and results
showed a significant reduction in time to complete the 10km time trial in the group who
practiced motivational selftalk. The neutral selftalk group saw no difference in any
facet of their performance. Interestingly, the motivational selftalk group also saw
significant increases in power output during the 10km time trial (Barwood et al., 2015).
This study supports the findings of Blanchfield's earlier work (2014) under similar
settings. However, it did not hold the same effect on perceived exhaustion.
While examining the relationship between selftalk and performance in
professional swimmers, Hatzigeorgiadis et al. (2014) staged a motivational selftalk
intervention. The intervention program undertaken in this study lasted for ten weeks,
while also continuing regular practice with one group learning to use motivational
selftalk, and the control group did not. The results showed a statistically significant
increase in performance for athletes who underwent the selftalk experimental
treatment. The researchers controlled for event distance and sex in this study to
minimize extraneous variables that may otherwise affect the increase (Hatzigeorgiadis
et al. 2014). This is another example of empirical data suggesting a link between
increases in performance and the use of motivational selftalk.
SelfTalk and Task Focus. As noted in Hardy's (2001) work, the majority of
athletes surveyed responded that they used selftalk to maintain a focus on skill
mastery. Skill mastery is synonymous with the taskinvolved goals and climates
Achievement Goal Theory (AGT) describes, and that this manual recommends. This
tendency among athletes to use selftalk to focus on maintaining and furthering skill
mastery is focused upon in the work of Miles and Neil (2013). Miles and Neil focused
their research on gaining qualitative information from a group of professional cricket
players during batting performance. The research combined an interview with video
footage of the batsmen and encouraged them to explain their use of selftalk during the
situations the footage showed. An overwhelming theme of the respondents was the use
of selftalk during spells of poor performance to refocus upon the fundamental skills.
The athletes reported that this would also help them to reduce performance anxiety
during competition, which was theorized by Nicholls in his AGT work (1984). This study
works well to show the relationship between the skill and the underpinning theory of this
manual.
Negative SelfTalk and Thought Suppression. N
eedless to say, where there
are positives of a given skill, there are often negative sides to be covered. The work of
Dugdale et al. (2002) examined the role that ironic awareness had in selftalk situations.
Ironic awareness is the concept that entails the more you endeavor to not do
something, the more likely it becomes that you will do that thing; a common example is
being told to not imagine a giant pink elephant for one whole minute. It is very easy to
find yourself imagining that giant pink elephant very quickly. Researchers found that in
sport situations an amount of negativity would enter the heads of players from the
umpires or referees, and in his first experiment, he suggested that the athletes were to
ignore this at first. Results of experiment one showed that ironic awareness was
involved as the athletes were unable to ignore the negative aspects of the officials'
involvement (Dugdale et al., 2002). The second experiment took a different approach to
suppressing (stopping) the negative thoughts, by replacing them with an unrelated cue.
Respondents in the second experiment reported having a much easier time refocusing
from the negative thought by replacing it with this unrelated cue. Dugdale theorized that
this could be extended to include the use of a taskrelated cue, to refocus the athlete's
attention back to the task at hand rather than the negative thoughts.

Practical Usage for eSports Athletes.
The information presented in the literature provides evidence for the inclusion of
selftalk modules in the coaching regimes of any sport, including eSports. What can be
gleaned from the literature is that these selftalk modules should include training in the
use of motivational selftalk. The strict performance benefits are one thing. However, it
is also worth investigating the benefits on performance anxiety of thought stoppage as
discussed in Dugdale et al. (2002). This manual focuses on the findings leading to
higher performance, and as such, offers two strategies to improve the use of
motivational selftalk. It also offers one strategy to make use of negative thought
stoppage, including replacement of negatives with taskbased cues, which can be
extremely helpful given the effects of close crowds in many eSports competitions.

Strategy One Instructional SelfTalk
Instructional selftalk is a form of positive selftalk used to center focus of an
athlete towards specific skills or processes. It has been theorized by some researchers
that instructional selftalk is more useful with tasks requiring fine motor skills (Malouff et
al., 2008). Instructional selftalk can be used by athletes at a number of times during
competition and practice, including directly before the skill, before the competition, or
only during specific skills. This is up to the discretion of the athlete, but this manual
recommends to use imagery as often as possible in early stages of learning.
Instructional selftalk takes the form of cue words that are directly related to the
performance of the skill. For example, in golfing, individuals may focus upon their putt,
so their cue words may be, ‘still body.' This is a conscious reminder to the athlete of
what is required to complete the task. Another example in eSports is in a racing game,
a particularly tight curve in the track is ahead, and so the athlete instructs themselves to
‘break in, accelerate through and out.' These small bite size bits of information provide
instruction and provide direct focus on the skill.
To create instructional selftalk cues, an athlete should first target a number of
skills they feel they could improve upon, or that they feel often do not go as well as
planned. Once the athlete has chosen these skills, break each skill down with them.
For example, in a firstperson shooter if an athlete is having trouble moving between
cover objects without being shot, ask him to identify the most important movement
aspect to move between these objects. The athlete may return answers related to
‘staying low,' ‘moving quickly,' or ‘hugging walls.' Without any specific instruction, the
athlete has just defined their cue words. Tell the athlete to write these cue words out,
and begin to make use of them in practice scenarios first. Instruct the athlete to use
one of these cue words each time they intend to move between cover objects, whether
they believe there is an active threat or not. This is about establishing routine use of the
cue words. If the athlete feels they need to use the cue words out loud, reiterate that
this is a perfectly acceptable way to make use of the instructional selftalk. In the case
that the athlete comes up with indepth responses, for example, ‘Stay low, use your
slidedash to cover ground quickly while hugging walls and other halfcover objects,' the
this response is not a viable cue for instructional selftalk. Using a phrase this long and
complex may induce ‘paralysis by analysis.' This phrase describes the feeling when
there is too much information to process in a short period. The resulting feeling often
‘locks up' the athlete, stopping them from carrying out any action, and can even result in
decreases in performance. In the case of instructional selftalk, it is important to keep it
simple. Short and easy to repeat cue words, or small phrases, are ideal.

Strategy Two Motivational SelfTalk
Motivational selftalk is another style of selftalk intervention that does not use
skill specific words or phrases. In much the same way as instructional selftalk, it
remains important to keep these phrases or cue words short and simple. Where
instructional selftalk appeared to increase the performance of fine motor skills,
motivational selftalk has showed increased performance and endurance in long
distance endurance athletes (Barwood et al., 2015; Blanchfield et al., 2013). The
recommendations of this manual are to practice motivational selftalk as frequently as
instructional, especially during learning phases.
Motivational selftalk often takes the form of general motivational cue words and
phrases. These phrases and cue words used in motivational selftalk are not skill or
sportspecific and aim to increase performance and positivity in athletes through
continued positive attitudes. Some athletes unknowingly already use motivational
selftalk, by repeating phrases like ‘You’ve got this’ before races or performances. What
many athletes are not aware of is that these small phrases can have tangible benefits
when practiced regularly.
To begin the use of motivational selftalk, instruct athletes to pick out a number of
phrases that are short, but motivating. For example, ‘You've got this,' ‘Pick it up,' ‘Push
it harder,' are all phrases of motivational selftalk that can aid in continued performance
through positivity. Once the athlete has a number of these phrases written down, the
athlete can begin using these phrases during practice. Use in practice can be overt,
spoken out loud, or covert in the athlete's head.
Some researchers have suggested that motivational selftalk phrases can be
used early on in the task, or more specifically during difficult times in the exercise
(Blanchfield et al., 2013). This manual suggests making use of both by using
motivational cues early in the exercise to maintain early stages of energy output, but
also to maintain effort during difficult midsections of effort when exhaustion may be
beginning to set in. In any of these situations presented, remember the fundamentals of
the selftalk. Use the selftalk to remain positive, keep it simple, and keep it
motivational. Deviating from these simple ideals can skew the meaning and therefore
the effects of the selftalk.

Strategy Three Negative Thought Stoppage
Negative thoughts are a natural addition to difficult tasks. When performing at
maximal levels of exertion, either mentally or physically, the allure of a way out will be
present. Negative thoughtstoppage is introduced to combat these thoughts, to help the
athlete remain positive. When approaching negative thoughtstoppage, it is important to
approach it in a way that avoids the irony effect discussed in Dugdale et al. (2002). As
such, this program implements the use of replacing negative thoughts or modifying
them instead of attempting to suppress them entirely.
Replacing negative thoughts is a basic process involving, at first, the awareness
of negative talk. When the athlete is aware of negative selftalk, they should
acknowledge the messages, and replace them with a phrase that combats the negative
information presented. For example, if the negative message of ‘We're too far behind,
we can't win this' seeps into the thoughts of the athlete, they can replace this message
by repeating a positive counter to it. For example, a positive counter could be ‘Two
points can be scored in 5 minutes and we have 25 left, we will come back!' This
acknowledges the negative message and replaces it with a positive process. This
operates similarly to negative thought modification. Negative thought modification takes
the incoming negative messages and modifies them to be positive. In the example
given above, the message of being too far behind gets modified to ‘We're not too far
behind, we can win this.' By not replacing the entire message, it is easier for the athlete
to modify negative thoughts ‘onthefly.'
Negative thoughts are a constant in the sporting world. Regardless of the sport or
athlete, negative thoughts have a way of making their way into the minds of athletes.
By learning techniques to manage these thoughts, reflecting them back into positive
motivations, an athlete can better manage the pressures of games and poor
performance. Thought stoppage in the manners discussed above are more effective
than attempting to ignore the messages completely and should be practiced at every
opportunity available for athletes. The strategy can be used in practice and competition
situations, but it is recommended by this manual, to begin with practice situations before
moving on to competitive settings.

Conclusion
A psychological skills training manual has benefits for athletes of every sport.
These findings can easily be extrapolated towards its application to emerging eSports
athletes. By making use of a number of specific strategies inside each skill covered,
this manual provides a guide for coaches and athletes into the world of sports
psychology consulting and the skills employed within. Addressing Achievement Goal
Theory also conveys to coaches the idea of motivational climates within training
environments and how these climates can affect the performances of athletes.
Achievement Goal Theory (AGT) highlights the basic motivations towards goal
achievement in humans. Athletes’ goals exist in a 2x2 framework, horizontally from ego
(performance) to task (skill) and vertically from approach to avoidance. An athlete,
therefore, may establish four different goal orientations. The difference between
egoavoidance or egoapproach is if an athlete is determined to achieve success by
beating the competition (approach) or to avoid looking bad, compared to competition
(avoidance). The difference between taskapproach and avoidance is if an athlete is
seeking to improve on the athlete’s current skillset (approach) or to avoid being
incompetent based on selfreferenced performances (avoidance).
All of these different goal orientations of athletes have advantages and
disadvantages when it comes to setting goals and achieving them in their sports.
Research supports, as highlighted above, that typically taskapproach and avoidance in
concert with egoapproach goals lead to higher performance. Athletes who exhibit
tendencies towards egoavoidance will not always have the same positive results from
goal setting or other mental training skills.
It is for this reason that the manual has made the recommendation towards
fostering an environment that is high on task involvement while acknowledging the
benefits of egoapproach tendencies. When fostering the environments suggested by
this manual, it is beneficial to apply the foundations of AGT to each of the skills and
specific strategies this manual expands on. By maintaining a focus on skill, while
striving for high levels of performance, an athlete stands to benefit the most from the
manual. The specific skills and strategies presented in this manual are easily applied in
a variety of situations and have evidence to support a link between their usage and
performance increases.
The use of goalsetting, imagery and selftalk in the literature point towards
increases in performance. Goalsetting has been used by athletes to create a plan of
action towards achieving long range goals in sports. Used in concert with imagery and
selftalk, athletes can maintain high levels of positivity and motivation to achieve goals
and learn new skills. While this manual makes use of simple methods and instructions,
its results and the theories that underpin them are not. Mental skills training for athletes
is simple to start, but difficult to master, and this manual provides a starting point for
athletes and coaches looking to increase their performance now and into the future.

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Appendix A: Example Performance Profile (Adapted from Jones, 1993)
Construct I ISA SSA ISASSA D

(ISASSA) x I
Confidence 10 10 5 5 50
Concentration 10 10 8 2 20
Composure 10 10 5 5 50
Commitment 10 10 8 2 20
Organization 8 10 4 6 48
Discipline 9 10 6 4 36
Will 6 10 8 2 12

Appendix B: SMART Goals Worksheet
Specific:
S What do you
want to
accomplish?
Measurable :
M How will you
know when
you have
accomplished
it?
Attainable:
A Can I reach
this goal?
Reasonable:
R Is it
reasonably
likely that I
will be able to
reach this?
Timely:
T In what period
of time will I
accomplish
this?

Appendix C: Staircase Goal Setting Sheet (Blank)

Appendix D: Staircase Goal Setting Sheet (Completed Example in Text)

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