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Unconventional Completions
Unconventional Completions
Unconventional Completions
This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, 30 September–2 October 2013.
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Abstract
In the last five years North America has changed the oil and gas markets by using horizontal drilling and
multistage hydraulic fracturing to unlock the hydrocarbons in low‐permeability reservoirs. This unexpected
increase in natural gas production over a short period of time in the US has led to extremely low prices due to
over‐supplying the market. There are indications that the US will become an exporter of natural gas, rather than
an importer, as originally planned. These plays require new technologies that enable reservoir characterization,
horizontal drilling, multistage completions, and multistage hydraulic fracturing. All these technologies have
evolved at a very rapid pace and continue to do so. This paper will focus on the completion technologies.
Three completion techniques have emerged as the most effective and efficient in these types of formations;
plug‐and‐perf, ball‐activated completions, and coiled tubing‐activated completions. The plug‐and‐perf technique
is cemented in place and uses composite bridge plugs and perforations to isolate and divert the fracture to the
correct stage. Ball‐activated completions use openhole packers to isolate the annulus and ball‐activated fracture
(frac) sleeves to divert the fracture to the intended stage. Coiled tubing‐activated completions use cement to
isolate the annulus, and coiled tubing‐activated sleeves or perforations to divert the frac fluid.
Each completion technique has benefits and considerations. The primary purpose of this paper is to give an
overview of these completion types, discuss the benefits and considerations, and how they compare in different
applications from an operations point of view. The secondary purpose of this paper is to discuss how drilling,
completion, and fracturing can greatly affect each other and create limitations if these processes do not
collaborate.
Overview of Completion Types
Plug‐and‐Perf
The plug‐and‐perf (PNP) technique uses cement to isolate the annulus between the openhole and the
steel pipe; perforations (perfs) divert the frac fluid into the wellbore at the desired location; and
composite frac plugs provide through‐tubing isolation from the stages below. This technique starts by
running steel pipe, called liner, into the openhole and cementing it in place. The cement hardens, and
the rig is then moved off location. The liner is cemented in place, so there is no circulation in the well.
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Without circulation the completion tools cannot be pumped down hole; therefore, during the first
stage, perforation guns require a through‐tubing trip that usually uses coiled tubing (CT). The
perforations penetrate though the liner and into the formation, creating an injection point for the frac
treatment. After the first stage is perforated, the running assembly is pulled out of the hole, the frac
crew is rigged up, and the first‐stage fracture is performed through these perforations. The perfs also
re‐establish fluid flow into the formation so a wireline tool assembly can be pumped downhole and
used for the remaining stages. The pump‐down assembly consists of a composite frac plug, setting tool
and perforation guns. This assembly is pumped downhole. When the assembly reaches the appropriate
depth, an electronic signal is sent through the wireline that sets and then releases the plug. The perf
guns are then pulled up hole to the intended perf depth. These guns often have the capability to
selectively fire sections of the guns independently. An electronic signal is sent to fire the first section of
the guns. The guns are then pulled up hole to the next perf depth, and another signal is sent to fire the
second section of the guns. This process is repeated until all selected depths are perforated. Using
multiple perforations per stage is called cluster perforating, and is illustrated in Fig. 1. When the perfs
for that stage are complete, the wireline is pulled out of the hole, rigged down, and the frac equipment
is rigged back up to fracture this stage. After the fracturing is complete, the equipment is rigged down
and the wireline is rigged up with another pump‐down assembly. This process is repeated until all
stages are fractured. When the frac process is complete, the plugs are milled out and the well is ready
to be put on production. A well diagram for the plug‐and‐perf completion is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Plug‐and‐Perf Completion
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Another way to set up the PNP completion is to run the plugs and perforations on CT, instead of
wireline. Some frac plugs with higher temperature and higher pressure ratings have not been optimized
for pump‐down application, so it may be recommended that these plugs be deployed on CT. In
addition, with CT deployment the plugs do not have to be pumped down, allowing control of how
much fluid is pumped into each stage, potentially saving water.
Ball‐Activated Completions Systems
Ball‐activated completions systems (BACS) were designed to provide multistage isolation in openhole.
Openhole packers isolate the annulus between the openhole and the liner, and ball‐activated frac
sleeves divert the fracture and isolate individual stages. The frac sleeves contain a ball seat that
corresponds to a frac ball that will open the sleeve. The openhole packer can be a hydraulic‐set or fluid‐
activated. Both types of packers provide isolation in the openhole, just different setting mechanisms.
The hydraulic‐set packer is set by isolating the liner and pressuring up to the setting pressure, and the
fluid‐activated is set by placing the appropriate setting fluid over the packer and giving it time to set.
The components of the BACS are run in the hole on a liner string. They are strategically placed and
spaced out to isolate and fracture the desired stages. The completion string is often hung in the well
using a casing packer in the intermediate casing.
When the intended depth is reached, the first ball, which is also the smallest ball, is circulated down to
the liner isolation valve. After the ball seats, applying pressure closes the valve and creates a barrier to
prevent flow through the liner. Now that the valve is closed, the hydraulic‐set openhole packers, casing
packer, and any other hydraulically functioned equipment can be functioned by applying the
appropriate amount of pressure. At this point the rig can be moved off location because the liner
isolation valve provides through‐tubing isolation while the casing packer isolates the annulus.
When the frac crew arrives and rigs up, the pressure‐activated sleeve is opened by applying the
appropriate amount of pressure (which is higher than the packer setting pressure to ensure the sleeve
doesn’t open prematurely), and the first‐stage fracture can begin. After the first‐stage fracture is
complete, clean fluid is pumped between the first and second stage to clean out any proppant that has
settled in the liner. This is called a clean fluid flush.
The pump rate is briefly slowed and the ball corresponding to the second stage is dropped into the
flush and pumped down the first ball‐activated sleeve. The balls and ball seats in the frac sleeves have
different size increments, with the smallest at the toe and the largest at the heel, so all the balls can
pass through the other ball seats and land on the corresponding seat. When the ball lands on the seat,
it isolates from the previously fractured stage. Pressuring up against the ball shifts the sleeve open, and
the second‐stage fracture begins. The ball corresponding to the third‐stage frac sleeve is then dropped
in the flush of the second stage and pumped to the seat. When the ball lands, the sleeve is opened and
the third‐stage fracture begins.
This process is then repeated until all stages are fractured. The frac job does not require being shut
down between stages, resulting in a nonstop frac operation. After the fracture, the ball and ball seats
can be milled up, but it is not required unless a full‐liner diameter is needed. The BACS is illustrated in
Fig. 2.
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Fig. 2. Ball‐Activated Completion System
Coiled Tubing‐Activated Completion System
The coiled tubing‐activated completion system (CTACS) enables multistage hydraulic fracturing by
using CT to isolate individual stages. There are a variety of ways to set up these types of completions.
Coiled tubing‐activated frac sleeves can be used to provide the path for the frac fluid to enter the
selected portion of the formation, and a CT packer is used to isolate through‐tubing from the stages
below.
There are a variety of these frac sleeves in the industry. They all have the same functionality, but
different mechanisms open them. One type of sleeve is opened by using a CT tool to latch into the
sleeve and then mechanical force from the CT opens the sleeve. The other type of sleeve is a pressure‐
balanced sleeve. These have internal ports that are exposed to the internal pressure of the liner. As
long as both ports have the same pressure applied, the sleeve will not open. The intended sleeve is
opened by setting a CT packer between these two pressure ports and applying annular pressure. This
causes a pressure imbalance because the packer only allows the pressure to be applied to the top port,
not the bottom port. The pressure imbalance shifts open the intended sleeve, and the other sleeves
remain pressure‐balanced and in the closed position. The pressure‐balanced sleeve with the top and
bottom ports is shown in Fig. 3.
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Fig. 3. Pressure‐Balanced CT‐Activated Sleeve
Like the BACS system, the CTACS system is run in hole and strategically spaced out on a liner string, but
the liner is often ran back to the surface and hung on the wellhead. When the string reaches the
setting depth, the system is cemented in place and the rig is moved off location.
To fracture, a CT unit is brought to the location and the CT assembly is set up with a locator tool, CT
packer, and circulation sub. The CT assembly is run to the bottom of the well and the locator tool is
used to locate the first frac sleeve. When the correct depth is reached, the CT packer is set between
the two internal pressure ports on the frac sleeve. Pressure is applied to the CT annulus and the
intended sleeve opens. All other sleeves remain in a pressure‐balanced and closed position, and the
first‐stage fracture is performed through the annulus of the liner and the CT. When the fracture is
complete, the pumping units are shut down. Applying a pulling force on the packer releases it; it is then
moved up hole to the next stage. The fracture for this stage is performed after the locator tool detects
the second frac sleeve and the CT packer is reset, pressure is applied, and the second sleeve is opened.
This process is then repeated until all stages are fractured. CTACS is shown in Fig. 4.
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Fig. 4. Coiled Tubing‐Activated Completion System
While fracturing down the annulus of the CT and the liner, there is also pressure and a small amount of
flow applied through the CT. This helps to protect the CT from collapsing, which can be caused by the
annular pressure. In addition, this allows downhole pressure monitoring at the injection point of the
fracture. Having accurate downhole pressures can help avoid screen‐outs. Screen‐outs occur when the
proppant cannot pass into the formation and it starts accumulating in the liner. When the proppant
starts accumulating, it causes a loss of fluid flow into the formation. If this occurs, the fracture cannot
be continued. To get tools downhole and assist with the cleanout will require a through‐tubing run
because the tools cannot be pumped down. With the CTACS, the CT is already in the hole at the
location of the screen‐out, so an additional through‐tubing run is not required. The well can be
circulated from the CT to the annulus until the piled up proppant is removed and fracturing can
resume.
The other option to consider when using the CTACS is to use a sand jet perforator (SJP) to create the
diversion path for the frac fluid, and either a CT packer or a sand plug to isolate through tubing. A sand
plug is a special mixture of fluid and proppant that is designed to intentionally screen‐out. When the
sand plug reaches the injection point, it cannot pass into the formation and causes a screen‐out that
will isolate that stage during the next stage fracture. A cleanup run is necessary to remove the sand
plugs once the frac job is complete.
With this setup, there are no completion tools to be run on the liner string. A blank liner string is run
into the wellbore and cemented into place. At this point the rig can be moved off location and the CT
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and pressure pumping crews rigged up. The CT tool assembly has a SJP that uses abrasive jet cutting to
create perforations in the pipe. After the first stage is perforated, the frac job begins.
If the operator is using a sand plug to isolate the stage, the sand plug is pumped into the perfs when
the stage is fractured and then the CT is moved up to the next stage. Otherwise, the operator finishes
the first stage and moves to the next stage. When the second stage depth is reached, the CT packer is
set to provide isolation from the previously fractured stage, and the SJP cuts perforations. This process
is then repeated until all stages are fractured. See Fig. 5 for the well diagram using a SJP combined with
a CT packer.
Fig. 5. CTACS Using SJP and CT Packer
Hybrid Completions
There are also a variety of hybrid systems available, based on these three completion types. The hybrid
systems that are relative to this paper provide a means of isolating the annulus other than the primary
or typical design. Plug‐and‐perf can use openhole packers to isolate rather than cement. In that case,
the liner string would be used to run and space out the packers in the wellbore. Besides locating the
plug and perforations between the packers, the process would be the same during the fracturing, using
a plug to isolate through‐tubing and perforations to divert the frac fluid. In addition, the CTACS can use
openhole packers to isolate between stages. The packers would be run in and spaced out with the liner
string along with the frac sleeves, and the frac operations would be the same as mentioned above.
Recent advances in technology have now also enabled the BACS to use cement to isolate the annulus,
rather than the openhole packers. The frac sleeves are run in the hole with the liner string, and the
string is cemented into place when it has reached the setting depth. Special liner wiper plugs are used
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to ensure they clean the cement out of the liner while passing through the ballseats without opening
the sleeves. There also must be a cemented pressure‐activated sleeve at the toe of the well so
communication with the formation can be established without through‐tubing intervention.
All three major completions systems now have the flexibility to be cemented or openhole. If it is
proven that certain formations produce better with a cemented or openhole completion, the
completion system can be designed either way. So, which is the better completion? It all depends on
the application.
Benefits and Considerations
Plug‐and‐Perf
Number of stages – The number of stages is virtually unlimited because each plug and set of
perforation guns is run on separate trips. The only limitation is the length of the wireline to
deploy the tools, and the length of the coiled tubing to deploy tools and/or mill out the plugs.
Stage placement –The placement of the stage is not final until the perforations are fired, so the
placement can be changed during the frac job. The perf guns can be moved up or down the well
to the optimal target before they are fired. This enables operators to gather and analyze more
data before determining stage placement.
Contingency options – Should a screen‐out or other downhole problems arise, there aren’t any
diameter restrictions above the stage being fractured, so it is possible to use through‐tubing
tools to recover.
Fracturing logistics – Pressure pumping services are not the only requirement during the frac
job. Wireline and/or coiled tubing are required to deploy tools and mill out plugs. All these
services have to be coordinated to avoid any nonproductive time for the other services.
Fracturing operation efficiency – This completion technique is not the most efficient during the
frac job because pressure pumping and wireline have to be rigged up and rigged down between
each stage.
Post fracture – When the frac job is completed, the composite frac plugs require mill out to put
the well on production. Removing the plugs leaves a full production diameter through the liner.
The flexibility of stage placement can be a huge benefit if stage placement is unknown immediately
after the well is drilled. As soon as the well is drilled, the rig can run and cement the liner string
completion and move on to the next location. Operators can then analyze any additional data obtained
while drilling, or run additional logs to characterize the lateral and place the stages in the optimal
location. In addition, any real‐time monitoring of the frac job, such as microseismic, could influence
SPE 166431 9
where the stages are place. The capability of moving the perforations enables the stage placement to
be adjusted on the fly, and to place the stages in the optimal location.
Ball‐Activated Completion Systems
Number of stages – Because the frac sleeves are dependent on incremental ball and ball seat
sizes, the number of stages is limited to the number of ball and ball seat combinations. Newer
technology has reduced these limitations by allowing more than 40 individual ball and ball seat
combinations.
Stage placement – When the system is set, the stages are fixed at the depth of the frac sleeves
and packers. If a geological hazard or nonproductive zone is located, a stage can be skipped by
not dropping the ball that corresponds to the frac sleeve in that stage. This is not an ideal case
because completion equipment in the hole adds cost to the well without adding any value.
Contingency options – There can be very limited contingency options should a screen‐out or
other downhole problems occur. The ball seats create diameter restrictions in the completion
string that can hinder the use of through‐tubing tools. Contingency options depend on the
diameters above the stage where the incident occurs and if through‐tubing tools can reach the
problem area.
Fracturing logistics – Pressure pumping is the only service required on location during the frac
job.
Fracturing operation efficiency – The nonstop fracturing operations translates to very efficient
fracturing operations.
Post fracture – Most frac balls are designed to come off the ball seats, so the well can be
produced through the ball seats. However, the production diameter is restricted if the ball seats
are not removed. The ball seats are designed to be milled out, so they can be removed if
needed.
The combination of improved logistics and nonstop fracturing are the big advantages with this type of
completion system. These advantages drive overall efficiency during the frac process. In some
applications these types of systems can reduce the amount of pumping time from weeks to days.
Coiled Tubing‐Activated Completion System
Number of stages – This system has a virtually unlimited number of stages. The length of the CT
and the ability to effectively operate the tools in longer laterals are the only limitations.
Stage placement – If using the frac sleeves, the stages are fixed at the depths that the frac
sleeves are set. Using the SJP to create the diversion of the fluid enables the flexibility to adjust
the stages on the fly by moving the CT up or down the hole.
Contingency options – Should a screen‐out or other downhole problem occur during the frac
job, CT is already in hole and at the depth of the incident. The BHA is set up to circulate from
the annulus through the CT, or vice versa. This makes the recovery of a screen‐out relatively
easy and minimizes nonproductive time.
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Fracturing logistics – During the frac job, pressure pumping and coiled tubing services are
required on location.
Fracturing operation efficiency – Fracturing briefly shuts down between each stage to move the
CT tool assembly to the next stage. Because the frac job is performed with the CT in hole there
is no rigging up and rigging down between each stage, so it is still very efficient, even though
the frac job shuts down.
Post fracture – After the frac job is complete, the well can be put on production with a full‐
production diameter without an additional through‐tubing trip.
Having CT in the hole while fracturing offers several benefits. It enables real‐time downhole pressure
monitoring through the column of fluid inside of the CT. The ability to monitor actual pressure at the
point of injection can help avoid screen‐outs. However, if a screen‐out does occur, the CT is at the
depth of the problem and the CT tool assembly is capable of circulating and recovering from the
screen‐out. This drastically reduces the amount of nonproductive time because a CT unit does not have
to be mobilized and run in the hole. Having efficient contingency options can enable a more aggressive
frac plan because screen‐outs can be cleaned out with little nonproductive time. Some operators use
this to their advantage and design a more aggressive frac plan because they have little fear of
screening out.
A summary of the benefits and considerations are provided in Table 1
Table 1. Summary of Benefits and Considerations
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Correlation of Other Services
Drilling Affects Wellbore Completions
How the well is drilled directly affects the type of wellbore completion that can be used. The quality of
the wellbore determines if the completion system can be run to the intended depth, and if annular
isolation can be achieved. An out‐of‐gauge hole can make it difficult to achieve annular isolation with
cement or openhole packers; particularly openhole packers because they are designed to seal in
certain size holes. A wellbore full of ledges, sharp bends, and tortuosity makes it difficult to get a
completion system to the intended depth. This is especially true for systems that require completion
tools that have a larger diameter than the liner and increase the stiffness of the liner string. In addition,
how fast the curve is built and the stiffness and diameter of the completion string affect the system
getting to the intended depth.
The size of the hole and the casing also affect the completion. If the size of the hole and casing is not
compatible with the intended completion system, the desired completion may not be available for that
well. That could result in inefficient frac operations, insufficient frac parameters and other challenges.
Wellbore Completions Affect the Frac Design
The well completion technique directly affects the frac design. The completion determines the flow
diameter for the frac fluid. A diameter that is too small limits the pump rates, the concentration of
proppant, and other frac parameters of the well. In addition, the completion equipment determines
the overall wellbore pressure ratings. Even if enough horsepower is available on location, the pressure
ratings of the completion system cannot be exceeded. The type of completion system determines how
much control the operator has on the amount of fluid pumped into each stage. This is an important
factor in formations that react negatively when too much fluid is placed in the stage. The only way to
control exactly how much fluid enters each stage is through a single injection point and shutting down
the frac job when the stage is complete. CTACS and PNP using CT to run the plugs and perfs, and only a
single perforation per stage, are the only methods to get exact fluid placement.
Services Collaboration
As described above, it is very important that the drilling, completions, and fracturing collaborate;
otherwise, it could result in a sub‐economic well. If a poor‐quality well is drilled and the completion
can’t get to the intended depth, a portion of the well cannot be fractured or produced. Additionally, if
the hole is drilled too small and restricts the size of the completion, the intended frac design cannot be
pumped. Running the wrong size or type of completion can limit your frac parameters and options.
Without designing all three services together, it is impossible to have a truly optimized well.
Applications
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Appraisal Phase
The appraisal phase is a very unique situation for operators. They know very little about the formation
and field they are in, and need to know if it will be feasible and economical for long‐term production.
Therefore, the objectives are to gather as much data as possible and to learn about the formation and
field. Due to the uncertainty at this point, there are higher risks in the wellbore. The stage placement
will most likely be unknown by the time the well is drilled. In addition, there is a much higher chance
that a poor well will be drilled or a screen‐out will occur during the frac job because operators don’t
understand the formation and know how it will react and what it can tolerate.
The ideal completion parameters for this application would be a system that offers stage placement on
the fly, no increase in the diameter or stiffness of the completion string, and a full‐bore diameter in the
liner string so additional logs can be run and through‐tubing tools can be used to assist with a screen‐
out stage. Based on these parameters, PNP would be the ideal completion for this application. The
placement of the stages does not have to be known until the stages are to be fractured, leaving plenty
of time to analyze any data gathered while drilling and gather any additional data with other logging
trips. Microseismic monitoring can also be used to analyze the frac job and modify the stage locations
accordingly. Since there are no completion tools to install in the well on the liner string, this
completion system is the easiest to get in the hole because there is no increased diameter or stiffness.
There are no diameter restrictions through the liner, so a full suite of through‐tubing tools can be used
to recover from a screen‐out.
Another completion to consider for this application would be the CTACS using the SJP. The liner string
does not require any completion tools, so there are no increases in stiffness and the OD, or decreases
in the ID of the liner. The SJP enables the stages to be placed on the fly as well. However, this is an
annular frac job, so the frac flow area will be reduced. The reduced flow area could create limitations
in the frac parameters.
Development
When operators reach the development phase, the formation and field is largely understood, so the
objectives will change. The objectives become cost savings, efficient operations, and maximized
production. The risks associated with not knowing the formation are much lower now, and a variety of
completion options are available. Each individual application will determine which completion is best.
In formations where a stable borehole can be drilled and the chance of screening out is low, the BACS
offers improved logistics and efficiency. The amount of services required on location is narrowed down
to only pressure pumping. This can help reduce cost as well as simplify the planning. Reducing the frac
time from weeks to days helps eliminate nonproductive time and speeds up the time to production.
This was a huge benefit a short while ago when there was a shortage of horsepower. Some operators
were waiting six to eight months for frac fleets to get to their well. There were operators that switched
to this completion type so they could obtain a frac crew and get their wells on production.
SPE 166431 13
In formations that are prone to screen‐outs or that are sensitive to over‐displacement, a CTACS should
be considered. The CTACS enables a quick recovery and minimal downtime from a screen‐out. The fact
that the frac job is shut down between stages enables control of the amount of fluid to be pumped
into the formation, preventing over‐displacing. The efficiency also remains very high throughout the
frac process because the CT or pressure pumping does not need to be rigged up or rigged down
between stages.
When operators reach the development phase, there are also ways to improve efficiency for the PNP
technique. If operators start using pad drilling and the wells are close together, simultaneous
operations can be used. While the plugs and perforations are being run on one well, the well next to it
can be fractured. When both operations are complete, the services can be switched between the two
wells, reducing the amount of nonproductive time for wireline and pressure pumping services. There
are also applications that do not have enough supplies, such as water or proppant, to fracture a large
number of stages per day. An economic analysis would need to be performed to see if the additional
cost of completions tools is more economic because only a limited number of stages can be done per
day.
Conclusion
In conclusion, each completion type has benefits and considerations and there is no single solution for
every application in unconventional reservoirs. Each application has its own challenges that require
analysis from the economic, operational, and practicality standpoint. In addition, to be a fully
optimized wellbore, the drilling, completion, and stimulation plans have to be coordinated together so
that one aspect of the well does not cause limitations to another. As these techniques and knowledge
of these formations continue to grow in North America and across the globe, these types of plays will
continue to drastically shape the oil and gas markets, as well as the global economy.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the management of Baker Hughes for allowing publication of this paper. He would
also like to show his appreciation to the members of the Baker Hughes Unconventional Resources team and the USA Land
geomarket team for their support and contribution to the contents of this paper.