Journal of Cleaner Production 187 (2018) 215e221

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Sound absorbing properties of perforated composite panels of

recycled rubber, fiberboard sawdust, and high density polyethylene
Xinwu Xu*, Huixiang Wang, Yan Sun, Jingquan Han, Runzhou Huang
College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Recycled natural or synthetic polymers, typically waste rubber, may find their novel usage in the pro-
Available online 20 March 2018 duction of acoustic materials for their good impedance properties. To that end, rubber granules from
used tires (R), high-density fiberboard flooring sawdusts (W), and fresh HDPE pellets (P) were fully
Keywords: blended at a proven mass ratio of 18, 40, and 42 percent, with 5 percent MA-PE as coupling agent based
Recycled rubber on W/R/P overall weight. The mixture was mould-pressed into composite panels at 185
C for 20 min,
Wood-rubber-plastic composites
under a pressure of 1 MPa. Small holes of 1 mme6 mm in diameter were subsequently drilled at three
Sound absorption coefficient
perforation rates (3%, 6%, and 9%). Sound absorption testing was conducted with an impedance tube
High-density fiberboard sawdust
following ISO 10534-2 standard at incident sound frequencies from 63 Hz to 6300 Hz. To imitate a
Helmholtz resonating structure, distance (D) between the perforated sample and the adjuster was set as
50 mm, 100 mm, and 150 mm, creating different cavity volumes. It was found that perforated WRPC
panels have both high sound absorption coefficients and broad bandwidth, especially at frequencies
lower than 1000 Hz. At higher frequencies range, hole size seemingly showed no evident influences
while larger perforation rates produced higher sound absorption coefficients (SAC). The SAC-frequency
curves showed 2, 4, and 6 peaks as D was 50 mm, 100 mm, and 150 mm, respectively, with half-peak
bandwidth decreasing as frequency increases. The above results may supply helpful guidance to
design WRPC acoustic materials.
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Acoustic environment is increasingly taken as one of the key
factors deciding living quality in rural areas which are continuously
persecuted by noises from various sources. Recycled natural or
synthetic polymers, typically waste rubber, may find their novel
usage in the production of acoustic materials for their good
impedance properties.
Usually, the noisy sound from all these sources tend to show
complicated mixing acoustic characteristics especially frequencies
composition. Hence, it’s generally insufficient to eliminate all the
noises using a single technical method. A good noise-decreasing
method is to set up a combined construction on the surface of a
wall or an inner ceiling. The construction includes a perforated
board and a porous filler. Basically, the perforated board, usually
with quality visual surface appearance, works as a Helmholtz
resonator together with the rigid surface of a wall or ceiling, which
was initiated from Hermann von Helmholtz’s invention dated back
* Corresponding author. College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing
Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, PR China
E-mail address: xucarpenter@aliyun.com (X. Xu).
to the 1850s (Helmholtz, 1885). In a Helmholtz resonator noise
silencer, the porous filler acts directly as a sound absorber and the
structure may consume sound energy through resonance effect.
The highest sound absorption coefficients of a Helmholtz resonator
can be reached if its natural frequency couples that of an incident
sound wave, which is the theoretic foundation to design a Helm-
holtz resonator noise absorber. Resonance frequencies of a Helm-
holtz resonator depend on multiple parameters, such as thickness
of the perforated board, perforation ratio of the board, perforation
size (diameter of holes), volume of cavity between board and wall
or ceiling surface.
The complexity to install and to maintain the filling materials is
typically considered a shortage. Latter researchers, therefore, made
efforts to simplify the above construction by improving the perfo-
rating pattern without porous fillers. Maa et al. invented a micro-
perforated panel (MPP) noise absorber and gave its related the-
ories (called the Maa’s theory) since the 1980’s (Maa, 1975, 1987,
1998; Fuchs and Zha, 1995, 2006). His work and many subse-
quent researches showed that mere panels with micro-sized holes
of sufficiently small diameters may show satisfying broad band

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.174
0959-6526/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
216 X. Xu et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 187 (2018) 215e221

sound absorbing performance competing with above-mentioned as the binder in the matrix, rubber units (mainly particles) as the
combined construction (Kang and Brocklesby, 2005; Lee et al., damper, and wood (fibers or particles) as the mechanical
2005). Normally, the holes have sub-millimeter sizes in diameter strengthener (Chen et al., 2014, 2015). Cosnita et al. (2017) made
so that they themselves will provide enough acoustic resistance similar composites, and investigated the water stability and me-
and also sufficiently low acoustic mass reactance necessary for a chanical properties. Either extrusion or platen pressing process is
wideband sound absorber. Normal industrial perforation technol- optional to make WRPC panels. Extrusion process is normal in
ogies such as machining punching, however, have difficulty to plastic and wood plastic composites (WPC) industries. However,
process micro-sized perforations. Qian et al. processed ultra-micro the reduced flowability caused by rubber particles, plus the limited
perforations using micro electromechanical systems (MEMS), and dimension of an extruded panel, gives superiority to platen press-
their research results confirmed the Maa’s theory about MPP ing process. Chemical couplers, e.g., maleic anhydride grafted
structure in noise absorption (Qian et al., 2013). Further studies polyethylene (MAPE) and/or silanes, are normally induced to
improved MPP structures using multiple MPP layers (Qian et al., improve interfacial bonding strength, which may further worsen
2017; Liu et al., 2017), various cavity depths (Wang and Huang, flowability of mixed raw materials (Chen et al., 2016). The aim of
2011), arbitrary cross-shape (Ning et al., 2016), or various perfora- this paper, therefore, is to disclose the acoustic behaviors of platen-
tion sizes (Kim and Yoon, 2017) to reinforce sound absorption ef- pressed WRPC panels under various perforation conditions.
fects of MPP-based noise silencers.
Acoustic materials or structures are normally auxiliary building 1. Experimental
parts attached on walls or ceilings surface. They needn’t bear heavy
loads and are less mechanically required. In this case, recycled 1.1. Materials
natural or synthetic substances may find their novel usage in the
production of noise barriers. Lou et al. recycled polyester and High-density fiberboard (HDF) sawdust was acquired from a
polypropylene nonwoven selvages to produce functional sound small mill using HDF to make floorings. In southern China, such
absorption composites (Lou et al., 2005). Kim et al. investigated the HDFs were overwhelmingly made of planted poplar wood with
sound transmission properties in wood and high density poly- melamine modified urea formaldehyde (MUF) resin as the adhe-
ethylene composites, detecting the influence of mineral fillers (Kim sive. The HDF sawdust was oven-dried in lab resulting in random
et al., 2015). sizes smaller than 2 mm. Fresh high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
Rubber is advantageous over many other materials available in pellets and recycled rubber granules were purchased from market.
acoustic applications for its characteristic good attenuation prop- Density of HDPE ranged from 0.948 to 0.953 g/cm3. Rubber particles
erty. As an example, Swift et al. Investigated noise barriers of were from ground waste vehicle tires, with sizes from 0.165 mm to
recycled rubber granulates, finding that the adhesive actually re- 0.245 mm. Maleic anhydride grafted polyethylene (MA-PE) was
duces the sound absorption (Swift et al., 1999). Gao and Hou used as an interfacial bonding coupler.
investigated Low frequency acoustic properties of a honeycomb-
silicone rubber acoustic metamaterial (Gao and Hou, 2017). 1.2. Methods
Maderuelo-Sanz et al. used waste tire rubber in fiber form to make
a sound absorber (Maderuelo-Sanz et al., 2012). More in- 1.2.1. Experimental procedures
vestigations, however, were conducted on acoustic metamaterials
1.2.1.1. Acoustic samples fabrication. HDF sawdust (W), rubber
mixing waste rubbers (fibers or particles from waste tires or other
granules (R), and HDPE pellets (P) were fully blended at a reported
products) with other substances, such as plant flours or fibers,
mass ratio of 40, 18, and 42 percent, with 5 percent MA-PE based on
polypropylene or polyethylene, where rubber acts as an acoustic
W-R-P overall weight, in literature (Chen et al., 2014, 2015, 2016).
reinforcing unit. Segura-Alcaraz used regenerated fibers and rubber
Following the proven platen-pressing parameters (185
C, 20 min,
from waste tires and made rubber-fiber-rubber layered construc-
under a pressure of 1 MPa), the mixed raw materials were directly
tion panels as sound absorbers (Segura-Alcaraz et al., 2014). Rubber
mould-pressed into 5 mm thick acoustic test samples (circular-
granulometry had influence on sound absorbing behaviors. Bujor-
shaped, diameter ɸ ¼ 100 mm or 30 mm). A single layer lab vulca-
eanu et al. presented an experimental acoustic system for waste
nizer was used herein with maximum heating temperature up to
rubber particles with different backing plates including plaster-
300
C. Six metal circular dies, 100 mm or 30 mm in inner diameter
board, oriented strand board, and polystyrene (Bujoreanu et al.,
and 5 mm in depth (l0 ), were evenly set between two platens
2017). Hong et al. matched waste rubber particles with polymer
(Fig. 1). In this way, circular acoustic samples were directly pro-
porous foams (Hong et al., 2007).
duced other than subsequent cutting from pressed panels, which
Combination of rubber with wood gives another research di-
can ensure the sample shape and size accurately.
rection to make acoustic materials, since wood is naturally porous
The samples were conditioned at room temperature for a week
with ultra-micro holes and may help silence incident noises.
and were perforated using a electrical driller. The holes,
Ghofrani et al. fabricated plywood/waste tire rubber composite
1 mme6 mm in diameter (d ¼ 1e6 mm), were arranged evenly in a
panels. The acoustical coefficient of the panels are significantly
homocentric pattern (Fig. 2). All holes in a WRPC sample account
affected by the amount of WTR (Ghofrani et al., 2016). Tiuc et al.
glued fir sawdust and recycled rubber granules into a hybrid
acoustic material, which showed superior sound absorption prop-
erty to glass wool and flexible polyurethane foam in a frequency
range under 1600 Hz (Tiuc et al., 2016). Tomyangkul et al. suc-
cessfully made hybrid foams with natural rubber (NR) and bagasse
or oil palm fibers treated with sodium hydroxide solution. Both
treated fibers enhanced the sound absorption efficiency of NR
foams, especially at medium and high frequencies. Fiber loadings
may affect the cell size and geometry (Tomyangkul et al., 2016).
Manufacture of composites of wood, rubber, and plastics
(WRPC) is a relatively novel direction, where plastic materials work Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a platen-press with arrayed sample dies.
 X. Xu et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 187 (2018) 215e221 217

(a) pr=0.03 (b) pr=0.06 (c) pr=0.09

Fig. 2. Perforated WRPC samples for sound absorption testing.

for the overall perforation ratio (pr), i.e., 3,6, and 9 percent. rffiffiffiffiffi
Non-perforated WRPC panels were simultaneously prepared c s
f0 ¼ : (1)
following the same conditions mentioned above to acquire basic 2p Vl
physical and mechanical properties, including density, static
bending strength (MOR) and modulus (MOR), tensile strength, where, f0 ðKHzÞ is the resonant frequency of the resonator, c is
impact strength, and 24-h water absorption. sound propagation speed in air (340 m/s at 20
C), s is cross-
sectional area of the aperture, V is the static volume of the cavity,
and l is the equivalent length of the aperture with end correction.
1.2.1.2. Acoustic measurement. Following the ISO standard 10534-2
Considering a perforated panel with multiple apertures at a same
(ISO, 2001), the transfer function method was used to test the
size (shown in Fig. 1), perforation rate (pr), is induced as:
sound absorption coefficients (SAC) of the perforated WRPC
samples. n$s
A BSWA impedance tube testing and analyzing system was used pr ¼ (2)
S
(Fig. 3). The system contains a sound source, a sound transmission
tube, and a sample fixing tube. The sound source may create si- where, n is quantity of apertures and S is the total area of the panel.
nusoidal incident waves at frequencies from 63 Hz to 6300 Hz. Correspondingly, equation (1) can be changed as:
When source sound frequencies are lower than 1600 Hz, a SW100-L
rffiffiffiffiffi
sound source was used (ɸ ¼ 100 mm, Fig. 3), and a SW030-L source c pr
f0 ¼ : (3)
was used with 30 mm diameter tubes (ɸ, Fig. 3) correspondingly for 2p Dl
frequencies from 1600 Hz to 6300 Hz.
Samples (perforation rates, pr ¼ 3, 6, 9%; hole sizes, d ¼ 1e6 mm, where D is the depth of the cavity (Fig. 3). The equivalent length l is
Fig. 2) were installed and fixed (Fig. 3). Vaseline was smeared on the revised value of actual panel thickness l0 (Fig. 2) considering
sample rim for sealing. In that way, the installed sample as well as the influence of aperture ends:
the fixing tube actually formed a Helmholtz resonator. The distance
between the sample and the adjuster (or cavity depth, D, Fig. 3) was Dpr
l ¼ l0 þ b0 d þ (4)
set as: D ¼ 50 mm, 100 mm, and 150 mm, creating different cavity 3
volumes for the Helmholtz resonant system.
where, b0 is empirically calculated by equation (5):

1.2.2. Data analysis 8 5 pffiffiffiffiffi pr

b0 ¼ （1  pr þ ） (5)
1.2.2.1. Resonant frequency prediction. To mathematically depict, a 3p 4 4
general model to calculate the resonant frequency of a Helmholtz Combining equations (3)e(5), the resonant frequency of a
resonator is given as: perforated WRPC sample installed in the impedance tube is
calculated as:
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
c u
u n pr
f0 ¼ t   o: (6)
2p D l þ 8 1  5 pffiffiffiffiffi p2r Dpr
0 3p 4 pr þ 4 d þ 3

Equation (6) shows the close relationship of f0 with perforation

rate, cavity depth, panel thickness (or aperture length), and aper-
ture sizes.

1.2.2.2. SAC related to frequency. As shown in Fig. 3, sound pres-

Fig. 3. BSWA impedance tube: schematic and practical diagrams.
sures at microphone 1 (Mic.1) and 2 (Mic.1) were measured and
their transfer functions were calculated. SAC as a function of fre-
quency were then calculated and output through a computer
software. From a SAC-frequency curve, four characteristic acoustic
indexes can be extracted: number of resonance peaks (Np), peak
SAC (Ap), frequency at peak SAC (fp), and band width at half Ap
(W0.5Ap). For a designated SAC peak, the later 3 indexes are sche-
matically defined in Fig. 4.
218 X. Xu et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 187 (2018) 215e221
Fig. 4. Example diagram to define the four characteristic indexes of a SAC-frequency
function.
2. Results and discussions
2.1. Basic physic-mechanical properties of non-perforated WRPC
panels
Non-perforated WRPC panels had an average density of 1049 kg/
m3, which distributed basically uniform in thickness direction (i.e.,
vertical density profile, VDP). This VDP pattern indirectly proved
that the disperse particles (sawdust and rubber granules) were
homogenously distributed in the melt HDPE matrix through hot-
pressing. HDPE as the bonding agent in a WRPC matrix combined
sawdust and rubber granules under the interfacial optimization by
MA-PE coupler. The WPRC panels had satisfying mechanical
strengths (tensile: 10.69 MPa; three-point bending: 26.24 MPa;
impact: 8.6 MPa), outstanding water resistance (24-h water ab-
sorption: 0.58 percent), and characteristic flexibility (bending
modulus: 1280 MPa). The above physic-mechanical properties
ensure the potential utilization of WRPC panels in exposed acoustic
applications such as noise barriers in public traffic. However, non-
perforated WRPC panels showed low sound absorbing capacity
(SAC values lower than 0.2). Hence, facing the usage of acoustic
applications, dense WRPCs need perforation treatment.
2.2. Natural frequencies of WRPC resonation structures: predicted
vs. tested
According to equation (6), the natural frequency (NF) of a
resonating system containing a perforated WRPC panel is dicided
by four structural parameters, e.g., perforation ratio (pr), cavity
depth (D), panel thickness (or aperture length, l0), and aperture size
(d).
Fig. 5 presents the fitness of calculated values from equation (6)
and tested data. At three perforation ratios, all resonation fre-
quencies fit well in tendency, which confirms the usefulness of the
Helmholtz resonator mathematic model.
More importantly, it’s evident to judge the theoretic influences
of each structural parameter from the model, which was typically
plotted in Fig. 6. Perforation ratio showed little influence on natural
frequency of perforated WRPC panels with same hole sizes (Fig. 6a),
while larger holes brought lower NF values at a fixed perforation
ratio (Fig. 6b). Cavity depth behind the perforated WPRC panel,
Fig. 5. Resonation frequency for all samples at three perforation ratios: Calculated
versus tested.
however, played a significant role (Fig. 6c). When D increased to
150 mm, NF decreased sharply from above 1.2 KHz to nearly 200 Hz,
which disclosed the sensitive effect of cavity depth on NF. This may
supply practical guidance to construct a resonating acoustic
structure by simply adjusting the distance between the perforated
WPRC panel and the stiff surface of a building wall or ceiling.
2.3. SAC of perforated WRPC panels as a Helmholtz resonance
structure
Fig. 7 compares SAC against frequency from 63 Hz to 6300 Hz of
various perforated WRPC resonance systems.
Cavity depth (D) showed its significant influence on SAC-
frequency curves, with peak number as the most. According to
Maa’s theory, sound absorption coefficient (SAC) has a close rela-
tionship with cavity depth as:
4r
SAC ¼   (7)
ð1 þ rÞ2 þ 2pmf  cot 2pCfD
where, r is the relative sound impedance, m is the relative sound
mass of a designated Helmholtz resonator, f is sound frequency, and
C is sound velocity. SAC may reach maximum values provided
equation (8) is satisfied:
2pfr D
2pmfr ¼ cot (8)
C
Equations (7) and (8) show that resonance may happen peri-
odically depending on cavity depth, which can be confirmed in
Fig. 7. Ignoring the complex SAC curve shape at frequencies lower
than 1200 Hz which will be specifically discussed later, it’s evident
to see that two, four, and six SAC peaks appear when D was set as
50 mm, 100 mm, and 150 mm, respectively. The peaks distribute
evenly among the tested frequency range (63e6300 Hz).
It’s noted from Fig. 8 that cavity depth D plays an evident role
deciding fp where resonance may happens, while perforation size
(d) and ratio (pr) of WRPC panels showed no evident influences on
fp. In that case, acoustic structures may create more opportunities
simply by setting longer distance between WRPC panels and the
stiff surface of a wall or a ceiling.
Peak SAC (Ap) values change with incident sound frequency
 X. Xu et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 187 (2018) 215e221 219

Fig. 7. SAC as a function of incident sound frequency: a full-frequency scanning from

63 Hz to 6300 Hz.

depending on cavity depth as well. Ap monotonically decreases

with increased frequency when D ¼ 50 mm (Fig. 7a/b/c), or
increases first then decreases when D ¼ 100 mm (Fig. 7d/e/f),
but conversely increases with higher frequency when D ¼ 150 mm
(Fig. 7g/h/i). Anyhow, all tested peak SACs were higher than 0.6,
showing good sound absorbing performance.
Band width at half Ap (W0.5Ap) is another effective parameter
other than peak SAC to judge the applicable range of an acoustic
material or structure facing complicated noise sources. Fig. 9 ana-
lyzes W0.5Ap at different peaks. It’s evident to see that W0.5Ap
sharply decreases from peak 1 to later peak(s). Since peak 1 is
basically at frequencies lower than 1000 Hz (fp ¼ 400e800 Hz,
Fig. 8), perforated WRPC panels are suitable to act as low-frequency
noise silencers. In that range, W0.5Ap can be up to 808 Hz (Fig. 9a,
where D ¼ 50 mm, d ¼ 1 mm, pr ¼ 0.06). Peaks other than peak 1
are of ignorable practical importance, since their band widths are
too narrow even under 50 Hz, no matter how cavity depth D was
set.
Fig. 9 also discloses the influences of perforation size and ratio
on W0.5Ap. An overwhelming law is: the higher perforation ratios or
the smaller hole sizes, the broader band width. Actually, a panel
with high perforation ratios and adequately small holes can be
viewed as a porous material which is widely proven to be fit for
broad-band noise absorption. Hence, micro-perforated panel (APP)
acoustic materials were invented and applied in many literature
(references 2e13). This research showed that WRPC panels are also
an optional material for APP sound absorbers.

2.4. SAC at low frequency range–considering peak 1

Residents are normally exposed in mixed noises from indefinite

sources such as air conditioners, elecators, water pumps, and traffic.
They are normally of low and fickle frequencies but may be more
hazardous to man’s health than high-frequency noises. Hence, the
sound absorbing performance of an acoustic material or a structure
at low-frequency range is crutial for noise control in normal living
surroundings. The key is how to cover the mixed frequencies using
an individual material or structure. In that case, a perforated WRPC
Fig. 6. Natural frequency as a function of perforated WRPC panel sound absorbtion
panel can be a qualified choice due to its broad bandwidth as
structural parameters.
mentioned above.
Fig. 10 is extracted from Fig. 7 typically for Peak 1, which is
valuable to analyze the acoustic properties of perforated WRPC
220 X. Xu et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 187 (2018) 215e221
Fig. 8. Frequency at peak SACs periodically distributed in tested frequency range.
panels at sound frequencies under 1000 Hz. Most SAC-frequency
curves showed a double-peak feature (especially see in
Fig. 10aef). To simplify, only one peak was chosen as peak 1 in
former discussions (Figs. 8 and 9), but two peaks do exsist and
effectively broaden the high-SAC region. It’s noted that the double-
peak feature is insignificant when perforation ratio pr increases to
9%, where SAC falls down with peak values down to about 0.5. This
is easy to explain: since sound waves can easily propagate inward,
they can be reflected outward along the holes as well. Hence, for
low-frequency noise control, it’s of no practical meaning to create
Fig. 9. Band width at half peak SAC.
WRPC panels at two high perforation ratios. However, this can
never negate the good performance of higher-pr WRPC panels in
high-frequency domain. As for perforation size, smaller holes (e.g.,
d ¼ 1 mm or 2 mm) brought prominent sound absorbing capability,
which re-confirms the conclusions related to MPP structure.
3. Conclusions
This research fabricated a new acoustic material using recycled
rubber and fiberboard sawdust with fresh HDPE as the binder. A
perforated panel combined with the impedance fixing tube actually
forms a Helmholtz resonator. Its sound absorbing performance is
affected by three structural parameters, i.e., perforation ratio, hole
size, and cavity depth. Perforated WRPC panels have broad-
bandwidth sound absorbing performance but show superiority at
 X. Xu et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 187 (2018) 215e221
Fig. 10. SAC as a function of incident sound frequency: at low frequencies.
low-frequency domain under 1000 Hz. Cavity depth plays an more
important role than perforation ratio and size deciding the number
of resonance peaks and peak SAC values. Band width sharply de-
creases from peak 1 to later peak(s), and the peaks other than peak
1 are of ignorable importance in practice due to their narrow band
width. Perforation size and ratio affect band width as well. An
overwhelming law is: the higher perforation ratios or the smaller
hole sizes, the broader band width.
Large samples were for low-frequency acoustic testing, and
small samples for high-frequency testing. For processing difficulty,
no 6 mm-diameter holes were drilled as pr ¼ 0.03, and no 1 mm-
diameter holes as pr ¼ 0.09.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Priority Academic Program
Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (No: PAPD),
the Jiangsu Department of Education (No: 13KJA220003), the
Zhejiang Provincial Key Investigation Program (No: 2017C01117),
and the Analysis and Test Center of Nanjing Forestry University.
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