EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping

School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Topic 1.2: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

This note includes the concepts and properties of limits:

• introduction to one sided
• two sided and infinite limits
• the concepts of continuity and how it relates to limits.

Definition of limits

Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be a function defined on an interval. Suppose that 𝑎 and 𝐿 are numbers such
that the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches a is 𝐿. The idea is generally defined as

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

Meaning that the limit returns value of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿as value of 𝑥 sufficiently close to a value 𝑎.
However, it need not be exactly

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎

Limits of functions are conceptualized in one-sided and two-sided limits.

In general, we can define the limit notation as:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐

The limit returns the value of f(x) when the value x is get close to a number c. It does not necessarily
equal that number itself, i.e. lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑐)
𝑥→𝑐

The limit of f(x) is 𝐿 as x approaches c, provided we can make all x sufficiently close to c, from both
sides but not x = c.

f(x)→L when x→ c

Example
Consider the phenomenon of a roller coaster

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

f(b)

With reference to the graph, as values of 𝑥 gets closer and closer to the origin, the path of
the roller coaster gets closer and closer to the peak, 𝑓(𝑏).

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏)
𝑥→0

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏) means that whenever 𝑥 approaches to c from either side of ‘0’ of the
𝑥→0
graph 𝑓(𝑥) approaches to the point 𝑓(𝑏).

One sided and two-sided limits

One sided limit happens when the function does not return a single value as x approaches c.
We can take for example the Heaviside function H (also called the step function) as an
example as follows.

Example
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 < 0
Find the lim 𝐻(𝑥) given that 𝐻(𝑥) = {
𝑥→0 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 ≥ 0

1.2 Y
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

This example shows the limit is different from each side as x tends to zero. When we approach
x = 0 from right side of the function, it is moving towards y of value equal to 1. However, as
we approach x = 0 from left side of the function, it is moving towards the y of the value 0.
From the definition of limits, the limit of the function needs to move towards a single value

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

“L” as we let x approaches “c”. However, in this case, the function does not return a single
number as x tends towards 0 from both sides. Therefore, the limit does not exist!

In this case, we should consider the one-sided limit. As the name implies, we only look at one
side of the limit point.
Left-hand Limit
𝑙𝑖𝑚−𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
Meaning that the limit returns value of
𝑓(𝑥) close to L as value of x sufficiently
close to a value a from the left side of the
graph (x < a) denoted by "𝑥 → 𝑎− ".
However, x need not be exactly a.
Right-hand Limit
𝑙𝑖𝑚+𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
Meaning that the limit returns value of
𝑓(𝑥) close to L as value of x sufficiently
close to a value a from the left side of the
graph (x > a) denoted by "𝑥 → 𝑎+ ".
However, x need not be exactly a.

The only difference between the right-hand limit and the left-hand limit is just the sign of “+”
and “-” denoted below the limit. For the right-hand limit, “x → 0 + ” (“ + ” sign) indicates that
we consider the values of x > c. Similarly for the left-hand limit, “x → 0 - ” (“ - ” sign) indicates
that we consider the values of x < c.

Thus, the one-sided limit in the Heaviside function example can be written as:
lim− 𝐻(𝑥) = 0 and lim+ 𝐻(𝑥) = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

If
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐 − 𝑥→𝑐

Then the normal limit exists and can be concluded as

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐

One-sided limit usually applies to piece-wise defined functions.

Example

−5𝑥 2 − 𝑥,    −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0
ℎ(𝑥) = {           0,       0 < 𝑥 ≤ 2 }
       5𝑥 2 ,        2 < 𝑥 ≤ 4

Find

(a) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0− ℎ (𝑥)

(b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0+ ℎ (𝑥)
(c) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0 ℎ (𝑥)
(d) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2− ℎ (𝑥)

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

(e) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2+ ℎ (𝑥)

(f) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2 ℎ (𝑥)

Solution
(a) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0− ℎ (𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0− ( − 5𝑥 2 − 𝑥) = 0
(b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0+ ℎ (𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0+ 0 = 0
(c) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0 ℎ (𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0+ ℎ (𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0− 0 = 0
(d) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2− ℎ (𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2− 0 = 0
(e) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2+ ℎ (𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2+ 5 𝑥 2 = 5(2)2 = 20
(f) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2+ ℎ (𝑥) ≠ 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2− ℎ (𝑥)
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2 ℎ (𝑥) does not exist

Limits computation

Now we learn the general rules for computing them. Limits can be added, subtracted,
multiplied, divided and raised to a power. Such limits operations are only applicable if the
normal limit exists. The limits properties (Limit Laws) are applied for these computations.
Suppose that c and k are constant values and > 0 . Given that

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 , lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

1) lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 ± 𝑀

𝑥→𝑐

2) lim[𝑘𝑓(𝑥)] = k lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘(𝐿)

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

3) lim[𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) . lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿𝑀

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿

𝑥→𝑐
4) lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥)
=𝑀 𝑖𝑓 lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
𝑥→𝑐

5) lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = [ lim 𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

The limit contain an integer n (can be any real number in positive, negative, integer, fraction, etc)
can be consider as an extended case of property 3. For example if n=2.

lim [𝑓(𝑥)]2 = [ lim 𝑓(𝑥)]2 = lim 𝑓(𝑥). lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿(𝐿)

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

6) lim 𝑘 = 𝑘
𝑥→𝑐

7) lim 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑐 𝑛
𝑥→𝑐

𝑛 𝑛
8) lim √𝑥 = √𝑐 , 𝑐 > 0
𝑥→𝑐

9) lim 𝑛√𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

10) Other limit functions

i) lim sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑐 v) lim sin−1 𝑥 = sin−1 𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 < 𝑐 < 1

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

ii) lim cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑐 vi) lim cos −1 𝑥 = cos−1 𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 < 𝑐 < 1
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

iii) lim ex = ec vii) lim tan−1 𝑥 = tan−1 𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ∞ < 𝑐 < ∞

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

iv) lim ln 𝑥 = ln 𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐 > 0

𝑥→𝑐

A limit can be computed in several methods:

• Tabulation
• Graphically
• Numerically
• Algebraically
• L’H𝑜̂pital rule
• Squeeze theorem

Example
x−1
𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥 −1
for values of x near 1. The following table gives the values of x close to 1, but not exactly equal
to 1.

𝑥 (0.2→0.999) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 (1.8→1.001) 𝑓(𝑥)

0.2 0.806452 1.8 0.165563
0.4 0.641026 1.6 0.193798
0.6 0.510204 1.4 0.229358
0.8 0.409836 1.2 0.274725
0.9 0.369004 1.05 0.317209
0.95 0.35057 1.01 0.330022
0.995 0.335006 1.005 0.331672

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

0.999 0.333667 1.001 0.333

The value of 𝑓(𝑥) for both conditions of 𝑥 (0.2→0.999) and 𝑥 (1.8→1.001) seem to approach
1
.
3

Regardless of which side of x approaches the value 1, the function is always approaching a
single value of 1/3 which means that
x−1 1 x−1
lim+ 3 = = lim− 3
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1 3 𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1

y
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5 f(x
)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 x
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

x−1
In this case, we could express such condition by saying “the limit of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 −1
as x approaches 1 is equal to 1/3.”
x−1 1
lim =
𝑥→1 𝑥 3 − 1 3

Example
Compute the value of
lim(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 10)
𝑥→2

Solution
lim(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 10) = lim 𝑥 2 + lim 5𝑥 − lim 10
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
= 4 + 10 - 10
=4

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Example
Evaluate the following.
3 − 𝑥 + 5𝑥 2
lim
𝑥→1 −3𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 + 2

Solution
The first thing we should always do when evaluating a limit is to simplify the function as much
as possible.

Make sure the limit of the denominator is not zero.

3 − 𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 lim (3 − 𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 )
𝑥→1
lim =
𝑥→1 −3𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 + 2 lim(−3𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 + 2)
𝑥→1

3−𝑥+5𝑥 2
= lim
𝑥→1 −3𝑥 3 +7𝑥+2
3−1+5
= −3+7+2
7
=6

Example
Evaluate the following limits
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10
lim
𝑥→2 𝑥2 − 4

Solution
𝑥 2 +3𝑥−10 0
lim =
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 −4 0

So, we need to simplify the function before evaluating the limits

𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 5)
lim 2
= lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 −4 𝑥→2 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2)
𝑥+5
= lim 𝑥+2
𝑥→2
7
=
4

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

In calculating the limit function, we learn a fact that if if 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥), for x=c where 𝑐 ∈
[𝑎, 𝑏] then
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
Squeeze Theorem

Suppose that

𝑓(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥)

And lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

For some 𝑎 ≤ 𝑐 ≤ 𝑏. Then

lim ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐

Example
1
Evaluate lim 𝑥 2 cos ( 𝑥 ) .
𝑥→0

Solution
There is no way to simplify this function.

Consider the range of cosine function: −1 ≤ cos (𝑥) ≤ 1

1
So, −1 ≤ cos ( 𝑥 ) ≤ 1
1
−𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑥 2 . cos ( 𝑥 ) ≤ 𝑥 2

Since lim 𝑥 2 = 0 and lim (−𝑥 2 ) = 0

𝑥→0 𝑥→0

By Squeeze theorem,
1
lim 𝑥 2 cos ( ) = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Limits to infinity
There are infinite cases in limits whereby
1) When x approaches a finite value, the f(x) tends to a value c.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞

2) The f function increases or decreases without bound when x approaches a particular

value of c.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞
𝑥→𝑐

Example
Evaluating the following limits.

(a) lim 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥
𝑥→∞
(b) lim 7𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 − 6
𝑥→−∞

Solution
(a) lim 2𝑥3 − 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 = ∞ − ∞ − ∞
𝑥→∞

If we are getting the answer as “zero” or “-∞”, in both cases, we are wrong. There is simply
no way to know how ∞ − ∞ will be and therefore we need to simplify the function before
considering how to compute.
3 8
lim 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 = lim 𝑥 3 (2 − − 2 )
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥

3 8
lim 𝑥 3 = ∞ and lim (2 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) = 2
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞

3 8
lim 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 = lim 𝑥 3 . lim (2 − − )= ∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥2

(b) lim 7𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 − 6
𝑥→−∞
4 6
lim 7𝑥5 − 4𝑥 − 6 = lim 𝑥 5 (7 − − )
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥4 𝑥5

For the separate terms,

4 6
lim 𝑥 5 = −∞ and lim (7 − 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 5 ) = 7
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞

4 8
lim 7𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 − 8 = lim 𝑥 5 . lim (7 − − )= −∞
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥4 𝑥5

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Example
1
Consider a simple function (𝑥) = 𝑥 .
4

3
1
lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2

1
As the denominator gets larger, the value of the
fraction gets smaller. -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-1

Example -2

Evaluate the following limit. -3

-4
1 1 1
(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥−3 𝑥→3− 𝑥−3 𝑥→3+ 𝑥−3

Solution
1
lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 − 3

f(x) is undefined at x = 3. When we are getting close to x = 3, we are getting −∞ from the left
and ∞ from the right.
Thus,
1 1
lim = −∞ and lim =∞
𝑥→3− 𝑥−3 𝑥→3+ 𝑥−3

Cases Potential Solution

Substitution results in indeterminate case Use L’H𝑜̂pital’s rule (discussed in Chapter
0 ±∞ 2) or squeeze theorem
(0)   or  (±∞).

Substitution results in undefined values A common factor between numerator and

non-zero denominator can be simplified to apply the
( ) implying the limit does not exist.
0
substitution method.
Numerator/ denominator has radical Rationalize the numerator.
notation for 𝑥.
Piecewise defined functions. One-sided limit be used for computation.
The behavior of the graph for 𝑓(𝑥) near
𝑥 = 𝑐 can be identified by left-hand or
right-hand limit.

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Definition of continuity

A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if

1. f(c) exists
2. lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
3. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐)
𝑥→𝑐

Definition
The function f(x) is continuous at a point at x = c if the limit is the same as the value of the function
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐)
𝑥→𝑐

The function f(x) is continuous on the interval [a, b] if it is continuous at the end points.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏)
𝑥→𝑎 + 𝑥→𝑏−

Example
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3
Determine whether 𝑓(𝑥) = is continous.
𝑥−3

Solution
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1)
𝑓(𝑥) = = =𝑥+1
𝑥−3 𝑥−3

f(x) is straight line with a hole in it at x = 3 (discontinuity). Thus, f(x) is discontinuous at x = 3

but continuous elsewhere.
5
4
3
2 f(x)

1
0
-2 0 2 4

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Intermediate value theorem

Intermediate Value Theorem

Suppose function f(x) is continuous on the interval [a, b] and k is any number between f(a) and f(b),
then there exists a number x = c in [a, b] such that,
𝑎<𝑐<𝑏
𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑘

Example
Show that 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 9 has a root within the interval [1, 2].

Solution
We are looking for a value c between x = 1 and x = 2 such that f (c) = 0. Therefore, we need to
show that 1 < 𝑐 < 2 and 𝑓(𝑐) = 0.

We have 𝑓(1) = 1 and 𝑓(2) = −1, and f(x) is continuous since it is a polynomial, so we can
conclude these two conditions satisfy the Intermediate Value Theorem, i.e. when 1 < 𝑐 < 2,
the equation 𝑓(𝑐) = 0.
𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 9 has at least one root 𝑐 within the interval [1, 2].

25

20

15

10 1.132
5 464
f(x)
0
0 1 2 3 4
-5

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