DISCLAIMER: THIS DOC ONLY CONTAINS THE MOST ESSENTIAL INFO

so go revise using the ​slides​.

Unit 3
3.1
Aerobic respiration (with oxygen)
Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy (opposite of photosynthesis)
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

Glycolysis
- Cytosol
- 6c carbon sugar to 2 x 3c pyruvate
- Produce 2 NADH 2 ATP from substrate level phosphorylation
Link reaction
- Pyruvate is actively transported to the matrix of mitochondrion
- Oxidative decarboxylation: Co2 and hydrogen is removed
- Nad → nadh
- Co2 moves out of leaf
- Pyruvate → 2c acetyl compound (then add coenzyme A) → acetyl coenzyme A
- Produce 2 co2 and 2 nadh
Krebs cycle
- Mitochondrial matrix
- Acetyl coa + 4c oxaloacetate → 6c citrate and coa
- 6c citrate → 4c oxaloacetate
- Produce 4 co2, 2 atp, 6 nadh, 2 fadh2
Oxidative phosphorylation
- inner mitochondrial matrix
- Hydrogen (from NADH and FADH2) is split into e and p
- E: transported down energy gradient thru ETC. oxygen is the final electron acceptor
- P: actively transported to the intermembrane space using energy from e moving down
ETC ⇒ build up of proton gradient ⇒ diffusion of protons down electrochemical proton
gradient from intermembrane space to matrix thru atp synthase
- Atp synthase generates atp by chemiosmosis
- Produce 34 atp
In total, 1 glucose produces 38 ATP
anaerobic respiration
Alcohol fermentation
glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy
C6H12O6 → 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2 + energy
- Ethanol as final electron acceptor
- Produce 2 co2, 2 ethanol, 2 atp
Lactic acid fermentation
glucose → lactic acid + energy
C6H12O6 → 2CH3CHOHCOOH + energy
- Lactic acid as final electron acceptor
- Lactate is carried in bloodstream to liver & converted back to glucose
- Process requires energy from respiration (requires extra o2)
- Produce 2 lactate and 2 atp

3.2
Pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus, bronchioles, alveoli

Inhale: ribcage expand, intercostal muscles contract, diaphragm contracts (down), lower air p in
lungs

Thorax holds lungs.

- Change in thorax volume → change in lung pressure
- Air is drawn in when there is low lung p.

Protection of alveoli:
- nasal cavity:
- Nose hair trap large dust particles
- Superficial blood vessels warm incoming air stream
- Trachea and bronchi:
- Goblet cells secrete mucus to trap finer dust particles and moisten air
- Ciliated epithelium sweeps mucus into buccal cavity (swallow)
Alveoli:
- Elastic connectivity tissues to expand and recoil
- One cell thick → shorter diffusion distance
- Narrow blood capillaries → single file of rbc → increase surface area
- Rich supply of capillaries closely surrounding alveolus, maintaining the concentration
gradient of gases
- Thin film of moisture → keep alveolar wall flexible and dissolve oxygen
 Oxygen absorption
1. One cell thick alveolar wall that
separates blood capillaries from
alveolar air is permeable to oxygen
and co2
2. Since alveolar air contains a higher
concentration of oxygen than blood,
oxygen dissolves in the thin film of
moisture lining the alveolar walls and
diffuses into the blood capillaries
3. Oxygen combines with haemoglobin
in RBCs to form oxyhaemoglobin -
reversible reaction, depending on the
amount of oxygen in surroundings
4. In the lungs where the oxygen
concentration is high, oxygen
combines with haemoglobin to form
oxyhaemoglobin.
5. When blood passes through
oxygen-poor tissues, oxyhaemoglobin
releases oxygen, which diffuses across
walls of blood capillaries into cells of
tissues.
Tar: carcinogenic, cancer-causing (lung nose throat)
Nicotine: addiction, blood clot
Carbon monoxide: carboxyhaemoglobin
Irritants: paralyses cilia lining airways
3.3
Cuticle, upper epidermis, palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll (xylem, phloem), lower
epidermis, cuticle
Structure function refer to​ slides
OIL RIG
Carbon dioxide + water + energy → glucose + oxygen (opposite of respiration)
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Light dependent reaction
Co2 removal
1. Tissue cells produce a large amount of
CO2 as a result of aerobic respiration.
2. As blood passes through these tissues
(via blood capillaries), CO2 diffuses
into the blood and enters the RBCs.
3. CO2 reacts with water in RBCs to form
carbonic acid - catalysed by carbonic
anhydrase in RBCs
4. Carbonic acid is converted to
bicarbonate ions which diffuse out of
RBCs. Most CO2 is carried as
bicarbonate ions in blood plasma with
a small amount of dissolved CO2
carried in the RBCs
5. In the lungs, bicarbonate ions diffuse
back into RBCs where they are
reconverted to carbonic acid, and
then into water and CO2
6. CO2 then diffuses out of blood
capillaries into alveoli, where it is
expelled during exhalation.
Occurs in the photosystems in chloroplasts grana
Photolysis: Light energy harnessed is used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen
atoms (accepted by NADP to form NADPH and O2 moves out of leaf)
Atp from ADP + P​i
Light independent reaction
1. Carbon fixation
Carbon dioxide diffuses into the stroma and combines with RuBP ribulose biphosphate
(in the presence of RuBisCO)
2 x 3c glycerate 3-phosphate (GP)
2. Reduction
GP becomes triose phosphate
Using hydrogen from nadph and energy from atp
3. Regeneration of ribulose bisphosphate
RuBP is regenerated using energy from ATP

Rate limiting factors

- Co2 concentration (light independent reaction)
- Light intensity (light dependent reaction)
- Temperature (bc of RuBisCO)

3.4
Xylem (water and mineral salts)
- Long hollow tubes (no organelles and end walls, continuous column of water)
- Lignification (resist negative pressure, impermeable, pits in walls, structural support)
Phloem (food-- sugar and amino acids)
- Sieve tubes
- Companion cells
- translocation

Movement of water up
1. Root pressure
Active transport of ions into root xylem lowers its water potential resulting in an
accumulation of water in roots by osmosis and flows upwards up to a few meters
2. Transpiration (stream)
Process through which water vapour is lost from aerial parts of plants as a result of
evaporation of water at the surface of mesophyll cells into the air spaces within
the leaf, followed by diffusion of water vapour out of the leaf, mainly through the
stomata, down a water vapour concentration gradient from the surface of the spongy
mesophyll cells via the air spaces in the leaf to the atmosphere.
 Pulls xylem sap upwards because of cohesion (water molecules stick tgt bc of hydrogen
bonding) and adhesion (water molecules cling to surrounding material and surfaces)

Factors of transpiration:
- Light intensity
- Wind intensity
- Temperature
- Humidity
- Water supply

Wilting: rate of transpiration exceeds rate of absorption

- Flaccid and wilts
- Reduction of exposure
- Closure of stomata
Photosynthesis is affected by:
- Main: Co2 (closure of stomata. Less gaseous exchange)
- Main: Light (reduction of exposure)
- Water (not enough water)

Unit 2
2.1
Thermoregulation
- Convection: upward movement of warm air/ downward flow of cool air
- Conduction: hotter to colder thru contact
- Radiation: transferred via infrared waves
- Evaporation
 1. Lose heat → Vasodilation: by-pass arterioles constricted, skin arterioles dilated. Blood
flows to skin surface → lose heat
Vasoconstriction: opposite
2. Lose heat → Hair erector muscles relax
contract to trap a layer of air when cold
3. Sweat glands produce sweat when you need to lose heat. Lose heat thru evaporation
(latent heat of vaporization)
4. Shivering (non-coordinated contraction of skeletal muscles): Raising muscle heat
production about five times above basal rate.
Input → receptor → control centre → effector → output
Hypothalamus is control center

2.2
Nervous system
- Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
- Nerves (peripheral nervous system)

Sensory neurone (long-long… dendron → axon): receptor to central nervous system

Motor neurone (short-long): central nervous system to effector
Relay neurone (short-short): sensory neurone to motor neurone

Sensation: receptor → sensory n → relay n → forebrain

Voluntary action: central nervous system → relay n → motor n → effector
Involuntary action: Reflex arc: receptor → sensory n → (nerve impulse to spinal cord) → relay n
→ motor n → effector

2.3
Structure of eye refer to ​slides

In bright light, circular muscles contract, radial muscles relax, pupil constricts (vice versa)

Stimulus → receptor → control center → effector → output

Change in light intensity → retina → sensory n → (relay n) brain → motor n → effector

Focusing on distant object (​≥​7m): ciliary muscles relax, suspensory ligaments becomes taut and
tighten their pull on the lens, lens become thinner and less convex, increases focal length, light
rays from distant object are sharply focused on retina, photoreceptors stimulated, nerve
impulses (by optic nerve)→ brain interprets impulses → see

How we see things

1. Light rays are refracted through the cornea and the aqueous humour onto the lens
2. The lens cause further refraction and the rays are brought to a focus on the retina
3. The image on the retina stimulates the rods or cones (depending on light intensity)
Image formed on retina is inverted and diminished

2.4
Bonds between monomers are covalent bonds

Carbohydrates: C​x​(H​2​O)​y

Monosaccharides (R)
- Sweet and soluble
- glucose, fructose, galactose
Disaccharides
- Soluble, glycosidic bond
- sucrose (NR), maltose, lactose
Polysaccharides
- insoluble
- glycogen, cellulose
2.5
Lipids contain CHO
Soluble in organic solvents (not water)
Formed by condensation reaction (glycerol and 3 fatty acids → triglyceride)
Ester bonds are formed in the production of triglycerides
Saturated fatty acids: no double bonds
Unsaturated fatty acids: one or more double bonds present (-C=C-)
Polyunsaturated: when several double bonds present

BREWCC
1. Buoyancy aid
2. Release twice as much energy as carbohydrates
3. Electrical and heat insulation
4. Waterproofing
5. Complete oxidation produces metabolic water
6. Concentrated food reserve

Water UHHH
1. Universal solvent
2. Highly cohesive water molecules
3. High latent heat of vaporization
4. High specific heat capacity

2.6
Proteins contain CHONS
Monomer: amino acid (r group, amino group, carboxyl group)
Peptide bond (formed between amino and carboxyl group)​: n-c-c​-​n-c-c

Primary structure: amino acids, peptide bonds

Secondary structure: alpha helices, beta pleated sheets, peptide + hydrogen bonds
Tertiary structure: ​4 bonds (hydrogen-- temp and pH, ionic-- temp and pH, hydrophobic
interactions-- temp, disulfide-- temp)​, fibrous (keratin), globular (enzymes)
Quaternary structure: haemoglobin

Denaturation: loss of 3d conformation and function, different bonds that maintain the shape
are broken
Caused by change in temp or ph

2.7
Enzymes (globular proteins)
Anabolic reactions: small to big
Catabolic reactions: big to small... Breaking down
catalyst
- Speeds up biological reactions
- Effective collision

Characteristics of enzymes (BRUHA)

- Biological catalysis
- Required in small amounts
- (remain) unchanged after reactions
- Highly specific in action
- Bc of their 3d shape at the active site
- Substrate molecules have to be COMPLEMENTARY
- Affected by temp and ph

Enzymes lower the activation energy (Energy is needed to raise molecules to a transition state
and the minimum amount of energy needed to do so is activation energy. It is an energy that
has to be overcome before the reaction can happen.)

E + S → E-S complex → E + P
1. The shape of the active site of the enzyme is specific and complementary to the shape
of the substrate. Upon effective collisions between enzyme and substrate, the enzyme-
substrate complex is formed.
2. Interactions between enzyme and substrate molecules strain/weaken chemical bonds
within substrates. Thus, lowering activation energy.
3. When reaction between substrates finished, product(s) no longer fit into the active site
and are released. Enzymes are released.

Temperature:
<optimum temperature: low ke, enzymes are inactive, less effective collision, less E-S complex
optimum temperature: 35-40 degrees. High ke, active enzymes, high frequency of effective
collisions, more E-S complex formed
>optimum temperature: bonds that maintain the 3d conformation are broken, it is no longer
complementary to the substrate, enzyme is denatured and loses its function

pH:
Optimum pH: functions most efficiently.
Rate of reaction is at a maximum.
maintains its specific 3D conformation and so the enzyme active site is complementary to the
substrate.
Enzyme binds the substrate(s) to form the enzyme-substrate complex. Substrate is converted to
products.
Away from optimum pH:
Structure is maintained by various bonds.
Changes in pH alter the bonding pattern, thereby altering the 3D conformation/shape of the
active site of the enzyme
no longer complementary to the active site. No enzyme-substrate complex and products are
formed
denatured and loses its catalytic function
normally reversible (unlike temperature changes), provided it is not too extreme.

Unit 1
1.1
Cell surface membrane
rER-- folding of protein
Golgi apparatus-- modification of protein
Double membrane: nucleus (nuclear envelope), mitochondria, chloroplasts
Visible under LM: chloroplast, nucleus, mitochondria, cell membrane, cell wall
structure of a typical bacterial cells.. prokaryotic (small and unicellular, peptidoglycan cell wall,
DNA and lack of membrane bound organelles)

1.2
1. Diffusion
a. Simple diffusion
Both directions, but a net movement of substances from a region of high concentration
to a region of low concentration
phospholipid bilayer: fully permeable to small & lipid-soluble, such as O2 and CO2 or
(non-polar) substances bc of transient pores. barrier to ions, large & polar substances
like sodium ions, amino acids and sugars

b. Facilitated diffusion: thru cell membrane using specific protein channels down a
concentration gradient, from regions where they are of higher concentrations to regions
where they are of lower concentration
Channel proteins are large for large and polar substances (eg. water, sodium ions) to
pass through
Permanent pores are present too
channel proteins are the proteins that look like horizontal lips. carrier proteins can turn around.

2. Active transport: metabolic energy in the form of ATP is used to move substances across a
membrane against its concentration gradient, from a region where the molecules are of lower
concentration to a region where they are of higher concentration
a. Occurs against a concentration gradient
b. Requires energy in the form of ATP
c. Highly selective process
d. Involves protein “pumps” at the membrane
Occurs at root hair cells and intestinal epithelial cells to absorb ions or nutrients

3. Bulk transport
a. Endocytosis (enter)
i. Phagocytosis: solid
ii. Pinocytosis: fluids
b. Exocytosis (exit)
c. requires energy in the form of atp

4. Osmosis: net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential through
a selectively permeable membrane to a region with a lower water potential.

1.3
Homeostasis: the ability to maintain a constant internal environment
Hormones: a chemical messenger produced by an endocrine gland (transported in the
bloodstream to target organ (s) where it exerts its functions)
Endocrine glands: ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream
negative feedback: a type of control in which the response counteracts the input to achieve
homeostasis

blood glucose concentration increases → detected in pancreas in islets of Langerhans → insulin

secreted by beta cells → glucose to glycogen in liver, muscle cells etc.

Type 1 diabetes Type 2 diabetes

- Young people - Old people

- Body attacks the cells in the pancreas - Body doesnt make enough insulin or
so u cant make insulin insulin doesnt work
- Constant thirst, undiminished hunger, - Defective insulin receptors
excessive urination - treatment by diet
 - Injection of insulin into the
bloodstream daily, regular
measurement of blood glucose level

1.4
Excretion: removal of metabolic waste (mainly urea) from the body
Plasma consists of SMHDWW
- Soluble proteins
- Mineral salts
- Hormones
- Dissolved food substances
- Waste products
- water

Formation of urine
Step 1: ultrafiltration in the bowman’s capsule
In the glomerulus, water and relatively small molecules of the blood plasma, such as ions
(mineral salts), urea, glucose and amino acids pass out of the capillaries into the lumen of the
capsule. This filtrate is known as the glomerular filtrate. Red blood cells, white blood cells,
platelets and proteins are retained in the glomerulus as they are too large to pass out. This
process is described as ultrafiltration because it is powered by the high pressure of the blood.

Step 2: selective reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule

The proximal convoluted tubule is the longest section of the nephron and it is here that a large
part of the glomerular filtrate (most of the mineral salts, all of the glucose and amino acids) is
reabsorbed into the capillary network via facilitated diffusion and active transport. Most of the
water is absorbed by osmosis in this part

Step 3: blood ph and ion regulation in the distal convoluted tubule

Cells of the tubule walls adjust the composition of the blood, in particular, the pH by controlled
secretion of H+ and reabsorption of HCO3-.
The pH of the blood remains in the range pH 7.35-7.45.
In the distal convoluted tubule, the concentration of useful ions is regulated.
Eg: Concentration of K+ is adjusted by secretion of any excess in the plasma into the filtrate.
Concentration of Na+ and Cl- in the body is regulated by varying the quantity of sodium and
chloride ions reabsorbed from the filtrate.
Step 5: water reabsorption in the collecting duct
Too much water → water potential raised →
- osmoreceptors of hypothalamus not stimulated → posterior pituitary gland secretes
less ADH → collecting duct walls less permeable, medulla absorbs less water → large
volume of dilute urine formed
- thirst receptors not stimulated →
Blood plasma at normal concentration

Dialysis
- contains same concentration of essential substances, such as glucose, amino acids and
minerals, so that they do not diffuse out of the blood into the dialysis fluid.
- does not contain metabolic waste products to ensure that waste products such as urea
are removed from the blood.
- The tubing in the machine is narrow, long and coiled to increase the surface area to
volume ratio to speed up the rate of exchange of substances.
- The direction of the blood flow is opposite to the flow of the dialysis fluid to maintain
the concentration gradient for the removal of waste products.
important~
- sucrose solution of concentration 0.5 mol dm–3 has a lower water potential compared
to the potato cylinder. There is a net movement of water from the potato cylinder to
the sucrose solution by osmosis across the cell surface membrane. The cells become
plasmolysed (and flaccid) and results in the potato cylinder decreasing in length
- Insulin is secreted by beta cells when the blood glucose increases
- Effector produces a response → lead to heat loss
- Sweat glands produce sweat → evap of sweat leads to heat loss by latent heat of
vaporization
- Muscle
- Liver (glucose → glycogen)
- Hormones are produced from control centre to effector, travel through blood so
hormone would be on the arrow between control centre and effector

questions~
Why is it described as a fluid mosaic model?
- Fluid bc it enables lateral movements of phospholipids and proteins within membranes
- Scattered bc of the scattered proteins of proteins when viewed from above
- Extensive weak hydrophobic interactions between phospholipids
Why are transmembranes needed for glucose, potassium ions and calcium ions to pass through
the cell surface membrane?
- Glucose molecules are large and polar, thus they are too large and unable to pass
through the transient gaps in the phospholipid bilayer, which acts as a barrier to ions,
large and polar substances.

- Potassium and calcium ions are positively charged and hence cannot diffuse through the
hydrophobic fatty acid tails of the phospholipid bilayer, as they repel the hydrophobic
fatty acid tails.

- Hence, transmembrane proteins are required to provide larger channels for them to
pass through as glucose and potassium and calcium ions cannot pass through otherwise.

With reference to (graph), describe and explain _ on _(enzyme) activity.

With reference to fig 3.3, describe and explain the effect of temperature on the rate of lipase
activity from 10 to 40 degrees.
 - Trend: As temperature increases from 10°C to 40°C, the rate of lipase activity increases
from 0.20μg/min to 1.3μg/min. [D] [1]
- Explain: The kinetic energy of the substrate, lipids and enzyme molecules, lipase
increases, thereby increases the frequency of effective collisions between lipids and
lipase active sites [E] [1]
- Explain: which increases the rate of formation of enzyme-substrate complex and
increases the rate of products formed. [E] [1]
- From graph: The rate of enzyme activity is highest at 1.3μg/min is at its optimum
temperature of 40°C. [D] [1]

The secretion of gastric juice is an example of a reflex action. Outline the reflex arc that occurs
to cause secretion of gastric juice.
- The presence of food in the mouth stimulates the receptors in the taste bud causing
nerve impulses to be generated [1] These nerve impulses are transmitted along the
sensory neurone, across a synapse to the relay neurone in the central nervous system
(brain), and across a second synapse to the motor neurone [1] The motor neurone
transmits the nerve impulse to the effectors which are the stomach glands and results in
the secretion of gastric juice. [1]
Explain why transpiration is a consequence of gaseous exchange.
- Stoma must be open for the uptake of carbon dioxide and release of oxygen by diffusion
- as carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis while oxygen is a by-product from
photosynthesis
- thus, transpiration involving the diffusion of water vapour from the intercellular spaces
through the open stomata into the atmosphere results ;