Food Research International 137 (2020) 109675

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Research International

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodres

Review

Pineapple (Ananas comosus): A comprehensive review of nutritional values,

volatile compounds, health benefits, and potential food products
Maimunah Mohd Ali a, Norhashila Hashim a, c, *, Samsuzana Abd Aziz a, c, Ola Lasekan b
a
Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
b
Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
c
SMART Farming Technology Research Centre, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is a tropical fruit that is highly relished for its unique aroma and sweet taste. It is
Health benefits renowned as a flavourful fruit since it contains a number of volatile compounds in small amounts and complex
Nutritional value mixtures. Pineapple is also a rich source of minerals and vitamins that offer a number of health benefits. Ranked
Physicochemical composition
third behind banana and citrus, the demand for pineapple has greatly increased within the international market.
Pineapple
The growth of the pineapple industry in the utilisation of pineapple food-based processing products as well as
Volatile compounds
waste processing has progressed rapidly worldwide. This review discusses the nutritional values, physico­
chemical composition and volatile compounds, as well as health benefits of pineapples. Pineapple contains
considerable amounts of bioactive compounds, dietary fiber, minerals, and nutrients. In addition, pineapple has
been proven to have various health benefits including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant activity, monitoring ner­
vous system function, and healing bowel movement. The potential of food products and waste processing of
pineapples are also highlighted. The future perspectives and challenges with regard to the potential uses of
pineapple are critically addressed. From the review, it is proven that pineapples have various health benefits and
are a potential breakthrough in the agricultural and food industries.

1. Introduction specific treatments to avoid microorganism contamination (Ismail,

Pineapple is a tropical fruit widely cultivated in South America
which can either be consumed fresh or processed into various food
products. It is ranked third in production of tropical fruit after banana
and citrus. The pineapple market has been growing extensively due to
the attractive aroma compounds and nutritional values as well as huge
demand and competitive retail prices (Abu Bakar, Ishak, Shamsuddin, &
Wan Hassan, 2013; Martínez et al., 2012). The top five pineapple pro­
ducers worldwide in 2017 were reported as Costa Rica (3056.45 metric
tons), Philippines (2671.71 metric tons), Brazil (2253.90 metric tons),
Thailand (2153.18 metric tons), and India (1891.00 metric tons) (Sta­
tista, 2020). Pineapple is mainly cultivated in the tropical and sub-
tropical regions due to the temperate climate and rainfall distribution.
The crop can bear fruits at an early stage after flowering, allowing yield
production throughout the year (Shamsudin, Zulkifli, & Kamarul
Zaman, 2020). The shelf life of pineapple can be prolonged by storing
the fruit under specific conditions and storage temperature as well as
Abdullah, & Muhammad, 2018). In this context, a well-reasoned antic­
ipation is to transform perishable fruits into staple products with a
longer shelf life has been developed to reduce the qualitative quality
deterioration of the fruit during storage.
Due to the high recognition of the nutritional and beneficial values in
pineapples, it is a golden opportunity for fruit growers to gain access to
domestic and international markets for the fruit. Maturity level, type of
cultivar, climate conditions as well as postharvest handling are several
factors that contribute to the chemical and biochemical properties pre­
sent in pineapple (Ancos, Sánchez-Moreno, & González-Aguilar, 2016;
Chaumpluk, Chaiprasart, & Vilaivan, 2012). Pineapple that is planted
with good agricultural practice will produce fruit with excellent taste
and aroma while fruit that is infected by pests and disease will produce
fruits with off-flavours (Sipes & Wang, 2016). In recent years, pineapple
has gained much attention since the nutritional composition has
contributed to the potential uses as functional food and various
pineapple-based products. A previous study done by Lasekan and

* Corresponding author at: Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia.
E-mail address: norhashila@upm.edu.my (N. Hashim).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109675
Received 28 April 2020; Received in revised form 27 July 2020; Accepted 6 September 2020
Available online 17 September 2020
0963-9969/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Mohd Ali et al.
Hussein (2018) identified that pineapples are rich in ester compounds
including methyl-2-methylbutanoate, methyl hexanoate, methyl-3-
(methylthiol)-propanoate, methyl octanoate, and 2-methoxy-4-vinyl
phenol which are associated with the flavour quality of different types
of pineapple varieties. In this sense, different maturity levels in pine­
apple results in changes in the chemical composition and different
aroma profiles of the fruit, especially during storage.
Based on the physicochemical composition and nutritional values,
pineapple can be considered as one of the most useful fruits for
manufacturing value-added compounds such as antioxidants, organic
acids, bromelain, and phenolic compounds. Barretto et al. (2013)
extracted volatile compounds from the pineapple flesh to be utilised as
aroma enhancing products as well as the production of natural essences.
Likewise, the health benefits of pineapple are also associated with
different phytochemicals and functional bioactivity to maintain the
metabolism and improve human health (Hossain & Rahman, 2011). The
typical bioactive compounds of pineapple are mainly phenolic com­
pounds and flavonoids that are present in the morphological parts of the
fruit (Lobo & Yahia, 2016). The health aspects involving the nutrient
attributes of pineapple are the main consideration in developing the
food-based and waste processing products. By taking advantage of the
complete utilisation of pineapple, the potential for profitable goods
either in the food industries and other sectors could provide a wide
variety of food-based and waste processing products with high economic
importance. Thus, the overall purpose of this review is to provide a
comprehensive overview of the chemical composition, nutritional
values, volatile compounds, health benefits, and potential uses of
pineapples. With these findings, the food manufacturers and researchers
may gain fundamental knowledge to explore new perspectives for
pineapple products.
2. Pineapple physiology and characteristics
Pineapple is an exotic fruit that is highly valued due to its aroma,
flavour, and juiciness. To date, there are many pineapple varieties with
various colours, shapes, sizes, and flavours. Pineapple is a rather me­
dium size compared to other tropical fruits which consist of multiple
fruitlets with a distinctive maturation pattern from the top part near the
crown until the bottom part of the fruit (Montero-Calderón, Rojas-Graü,
& Martín-Belloso, 2010). Considering the fact that pineapple is a non-
climacteric fruit, the quality of the fruit changes and is not uniform at
different maturity levels. Typically, the maturity indicators of pineapple
are evaluated based on physical, physicochemical, and chemical attri­
butes of fruit with acceptable flavour and morphological characteristics
(Nadzirah et al., 2013). Apart from varietal differences and maturity
stages, the quality and shelf life of pineapple is strongly influenced by
Fig. 1. Different varieties of pineapples cultivated in Malaysia. Images courtesy of (MPIB, 2020).
2
Food Research International 137 (2020) 109675
the postharvest handling and management (MPIB, 2020). Fig. 1 shows
the different varieties of pineapples cultivated in Malaysia. In terms of
postharvest handling of the pineapple waste processing, the utilisation
of the fruit waste is substantially high, especially at the retail market.
Thus, there is an urgency to tackle the issue of the potential uses of
pineapple waste in addition to the utilisation of fruit flesh.
Generally, the pineapple tree is expected to bear fruit within 15
months or up to two years after planting (Hossain, 2016). The first three
months after planting is the critical stage for fruit flowering and ripening
since the plant becomes sensitive to climatic factors including temper­
ature and cloud cover. The crop requires optimum temperatures be­
tween 20 and 30 ◦ C with sufficient sunlight where the precipitation is
higher and well-circulated for pineapple growth (Aragón, Carvalho,
González, Escalona, & Amancio, 2012; Luengwilai et al., 2018). The
harvesting time is one of the important criteria to assess the pineapple
quality that can influence the chemical composition of the fruit. The
tolerance to different pests and diseases along with the maturity stages
are vital points to be investigated in the growing of pineapples (Ali,
Bachik et al., 2019; Siti Rashima, Maizura, Hafzan, & Hazzeman, 2019).
Due to the high perishability of overripe pineapple, the optimum har­
vesting time should be targeted when the peel colour turns from green to
yellow either by manual harvesting or semi-mechanised harvesting
(Reinhardt et al., 2018). Normally, the pineapples are graded according
to the standard shapes and sizes after harvest followed by several in­
dicators such as the severity of mechanical defects or any condition that
can affect the fruit quality (Khatiwada, Walsh, & Subedi, 2016). In view
of the harvesting time, there are several aspects that must be considered
including the fruit must be of good quality, free from serious defects, and
at the time of harvest selection is based on optimum maturity indices
(Montero-Calderón et al., 2010). Consequently, the decision at the
harvesting time is evaluated in terms of the fruit quality that is crucial
for maximum postharvest storage and shelf life. After harvest, the
selected pineapples are categorised for packing and transportation based
on the shape, size, maturity, as well as any requirement underlined by
the fruit distributors.
Prior to the packing process, several operations are performed
including washing, waxing, fungicide treatment, and drying (Shamsudin
et al., 2020). The pineapple is then pre-cooled at 13 to 15 ◦ C depending
on the fruit size for 12 h (Steingass, Carle, & Schmarr, 2015). Pre-
cooling is important to minimise the enzymatic degradation and avoid
microbial growth after fruit harvesting. For the operation involving fruit
packing, the fruit is checked for quality control before being packed and
sealed until the shipment period. The temperature is adjusted between 8
and 10 ◦ C during storage in which the packed fruits are stacked on
pallets in a cold storage room (Hossain, 2016). In the cases concerning
shipment by the sea, the fruit should be harvested only one day before
M. Mohd Ali et al. Food Research International 137 (2020) 109675

the shipment. Regarding the shelf life of pineapple, the fruit should be composition, nutritive potential, and the functional properties of the
stored at a temperature of 10 to 15 ◦ C with a relative humidity of 85 to fruit. This scenario has led to advancement towards exploring the
95% for a storage period of up to one month (Reinhardt et al., 2018). nutritional value as well as the physicochemical composition of pine­
Even though low temperature is recommended for fruit storage, a tem­ apples. The exceptional feature of abundant nutrients and chemical
perature below 8 ◦ C will induce chilling injury symptoms such as composition are of interest to the food processing industries. This section
darkening flesh and peel, quality deterioration, and imperfect fruit discusses valuable information related to the physicochemical compo­
colour progression (Dolhaji, Muhamad, Ya’akub, & Abd Aziz, 2019). sition and nutritional value of pineapples as a major tropical fruit of the
Therefore, the internal quality attributes during the yield production are world.
heavily dependent on the postharvest handling and storage conditions.
Pineapple possesses different composition values with different va­ 3.1. Physicochemical composition
rieties and maturity stages of the fruit. To date, more than 100 varieties
of pineapple exist in which only 6 to 8 varieties are grown commercially The physicochemical composition is vital because of the potential
(Steingass et al., 2020). The main variety is Smooth Cayenne, effect on the quality and shelf life of different types of varieties of
comprising more than 70% of pineapple cultivated around the world. pineapples. Various research works have been performed on different
Recently, it has been substituted by the successful hybrid of MD2 which pineapple varieties such as Gold (Dolhaji et al., 2019), Smooth Cayenne
was produced from the hybridisation of Smooth Cayenne. The MD2 (Steingass et al., 2020), Red Spanish (Pino, 2013), Shenwan (Wei, Ding,
variety has high sugar content, longer lifespan, and is more aromatic Liu, Zhao, & Sun, 2014), MD2 (Steingass et al., 2016), and Morris
compared to other pineapple varieties (Hossain, 2016). In addition, (Lasekan & Hussein, 2018). Pineapples are normally synthesised to
Morris is derived from the Queen variety which has a high tolerance to obtain a favourable physicochemical composition for specific uses,
pest and diseases compared to other pineapple varieties (Siti Rashima which primarily depend on the chemical structures and processing
et al., 2019). It has a deep yellow flesh, spongy texture, and high sugar conditions. The physicochemical composition of pineapple is closely
levels that are responsible for the pleasant flavour during fruit ripening. correlated to the sensory attributes such as aroma (volatile compounds)
The Morris variety is mainly commercialised for local markets and and taste (Ancos et al., 2016). In this regard, the important properties to
exported as fresh produce. This is due to the conical shape of this variety predict physicochemical composition apart from the sensory attributes
which is incompatible for canning processed fruits. In contrast, N36 is are titratable acidity, total soluble solids (TSS), pH, moisture content,
derived from a breeding process between Smooth Cayenne and Spanish firmness, and translucency of the fruit pulp. Colour is a significant
varieties which has high resistance to pests and diseases and a longer parameter in fruits because the consumers are prone to evaluate the
shelf life (Siti Roha, Zainal, Noriham, & Nadzirah, 2013). For this va­ specific product based on the visual appearance (Sánchez-Zapata,
riety, the pineapple flesh is suitable for the canning processed fruits. The Fernández-López, & Angel Pérez-Alvarez, 2012).
main factors for the external quality of pineapple are determined based Fibres derived from the pineapple crown and leaf are cheap, biode­
on the size, appearance, aroma, and skin colour. As for the internal at­ gradable, renewable, and available in abundance (Prado & Spinacé,
tributes of pineapple, it is highly influenced by the maturity levels and 2019). Pineapple fibre possesses many chemical constituents including
type of variety which is essential to determine fresh consumption of the cellulose (79 to 83%), lignin (5 to 15%), pectin (1%), hemicellulose
fruit. Table 1 shows the main pineapple varieties at different varietal (19%), wax (2%), and ash content (1%) (Asim et al., 2015). The most
groups. prominent fibre components in pineapple are hemicellulose, cellulose,
and pectin. Pineapple fibre is an essential natural fibre that has high
3. Physicochemical composition and nutritional values flexural rigidity and tensile strength. Pineapple fibre also has multi-
cellular lignocellulosic fibre and hydrophilic in nature owing to the
The increasing trend in pineapple production in the commercial line high cellulose content. In terms of the dietary fibre of pineapple, Smooth
has been recognised due to its high concentration of phytochemical Cayenne and MD2 varieties have an average dietary fibre content of
approximately 0.5 to 1.5 g/100 g fresh weight (fw) (Ancos et al., 2016).
It should be noted that the amount of fibre obtained from pineapple
Table 1
varies extensively with the geographical origin, variety, and climato­
Pineapple varieties at different varietal groups.
logical condition.
Group Varieties Weight Flesh References
Siow and Lee (2012) investigated the effect of osmotic pre-treatment
(kg) colour
with sucrose, maltitol, and trehalose on the quality changes of frozen
Cayenne Smooth Cayenne, 2 to 3 Pale (Dolhaji et al., pineapples. It was found that firmness and drip loss changes were
Sarawak, Hilo, yellow 2019; George et al.,
Champaka, Kew, 2016; Nadzirah
detected on slow cooling in the presence of maltitol and trehalose. For
N36 et al., 2013; Siti sucrose-treated pineapple, there was no change in firmness and drip loss
Rashima et al., on slow cooling. A previous study done by Nadzirah et al. (2013) eval­
2019) uated the titratable acidity, pH, and TSS of N36 pineapples during
Queen Queen, Morris, 0.8 to Deep (Dolhaji et al.,
storage. The pH values were increased along with the storage days from
Ripley, Mauritius, 1.5 yellow 2019; Lasekan &
Alexandra, Hussein, 2018; Siti 3.24 to 3.84. On the other hand, the titratable acidity and TSS values
Yankee Rashima et al., increased in the range of 0.16 to 0.36% and 1.4 to 5.3 ◦ Brix, respectively.
2019) In another study, Rahim, Seng, and Rahim (2014) determined the TSS
Spanish Josapine, Mas 1 to 2 Deep (Chiet et al., 2014; values of pineapples ranging from 7.6 to 13.9 ◦ Brix harvested from four
Merah, Red golden Pino, 2013)
Spanish yellow
different harvest days.
Extra Sweet Gold, MD2 1.5 to Deep (Ancos et al., 2016; George, Razali, and Somasundram (2016) investigated the changes
Cayenne 3.0 golden Lasekan & Hussein, of Sarawak pineapple flesh based on the firmness, TSS, pH, and titratable
Hybrids yellow 2018; Siti Rashima acidity from one to five months after anthesis. The firmness and pH
et al., 2019)
values reduced whereas the TSS and titratable acidity values increased
Pernambuco Perola, 1–5 White (Antoniolli et al.,
Pernambuco, 2012; Guimarães during the fruit development. Siti Rashima et al. (2019) studied the
Sugar Loaf et al., 2018) relationship between the physicochemical properties including colour
Modilonus Perolera, 3–4 White (Angel, Lizcano, & changes, pH, and TSS of three different pineapple varieties (Morris,
and Manzana Monte Viola, 2015) MD2, and N36) and consumer acceptability. The results demonstrated
Perolera Liro
that different pineapple varieties possess different compositions which

3
M. Mohd Ali et al. Food Research International 137 (2020) 109675

result in significant variation in terms of consumer acceptability. Table 2

Recently, Dolhaji et al. (2019) reported the effect of storage time on the Main constituents of pineapple (per 100 g).
TSS and pH of three different pineapple varieties stored at a sub-optimal Constituents Pineapple pulp Pineapple juice
temperature of 4 ◦ C for 28 days. Based on the findings, the quality pa­
Proximate composition
rameters deteriorated with storage days due to the physical injuries that Protein 0.5 0.4
were associated with quality degradation when exposed to cold tem­ Carbohydrate 11.7 12.1
peratures. Shamsudin et al. (2020) investigated the physicochemical Fat 0.5 0.1
properties of Josapine pineapples including TSS, pH, and titratable Total sugars 10.5 12.1
Fibre 1.2 0.2
acidity stored at 4 ◦ C for 25 days. The results indicated that the physi­ Ash 0.3 0.4
cochemical properties of pineapple were correlated well with the Minerals
ripening process of the fruit. Elizabeth and Tijesuni (2020) investigated Calcium 8.0 8.1
the physicochemical composition based on the different proportions of Magnesium 15.0 13.6
Potassium 140.0 134.0
pineapple fruit. Based on the findings, it was revealed that the total
Iron 0.17 0.2
soluble solids and pH increased for all samples, respectively. In addition, Manganese 0.8 1.2
Leneveu-jenvrin et al. (2020) evaluated the physicochemical properties Sodium 5.0 5.2
of minimally-processed pineapple during cold storage. The results Copper 0.06 0.04
showed that the correlation between the storage conditions did not Phosphorus 8.1 9.8
Zinc 0.08 0.08
significantly vary with the physicochemical properties (pH, titratable Vitamins
acidity, and TSS) of the fruit. Ascorbic acid 46.1 14.0
Folate 19.6 23.0
3.2. Nutritional values Niacin 0.3 0.3
Thiamin 0.1 0.1
Riboflavin 0.03 0.02
Pineapple primarily contains carbohydrates and water which are
vital sources of dietary fibre, sugars, organic acids, vitamins (ascorbic Note: ANSES. Ciqual Table, Nutritional composition of pineapples, 2020.
acid, niacin, and thiamin), and minerals (magnesium, manganese, and Source: (ANSES, 2020).
copper) (Ancos et al., 2016). Pineapple fruit also contains a proteolytic
enzyme namely bromelain which assists in the digestion process as well depending on the type of solvent system. A significant increase in the
as being essential for the therapeutic effects associated with bromelain. total sugar content of N36 pineapple has been reported based on the core
Bromelain has various potential uses as an anti-inflammatory, antioxi­ and peel extracts of the fruit (Nadzirah et al., 2013). The results showed
dant, anti-cancer activity, and cardioprotective agent (Zdrojewicz, 8.92% and 3.87% for the sucrose content at the core and peel extracts,
Chorbińska, Biezyński, & Krajewski, 2018). In addition, bromelain in resulting in high variability in the composition of different sections of
pineapple is useful for relieving menstrual disorders which is beneficial pineapples. Evaluation of antioxidant properties carried out by Chiet,
for females, especially during pregnancy and menstruation by reducing Zulkifli, Hidayat, and Yaakob (2014) reported the presence of bioactive
the excessive water accumulation in the body (Khalid, Suleria, & compounds and antioxidant capacity for three different varieties of
Ahmed, 2016). However, those who are on medications such as antibi­ pineapples (Josapine, Morris, and Sarawak) harvested at commercial
otics, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and antidepressants should be maturity stage. Josapine pineapples indicated the highest total phenolic
cautious about the consumption of too much pineapple since it has side and tannin content, followed by Morris and Sarawak. The antioxidant
effects with some medicines. The chemical and nutritional compositions capacity was assessed by the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP)
of pineapple, either the fruit pulp or fruit juice varies in terms of prox­ with Josapine obtaining the highest reducing capacity.
imate composition, minerals, and vitamins (ANSES, 2020). A summary George et al. (2016) evaluated the ascorbic acid content and anti­
of the compositional and nutritional characteristics of pineapple is oxidant activity of Sarawak pineapple at five different maturity levels. A
shown in Table 2. significant reduction was observed for the ascorbic acid content,
In order to evaluate the need for pineapple processing, an under­ whereas the antioxidant activity increased throughout the maturity
standing regarding the chemical composition as well as nutritional levels. In previous research work, Sharma, Ramchiary, Samyor, and Das
values of pineapple should be a vital indicator to monitor the quality of (2016) developed the optimisation process parameter for total phenolic
the fruit. The composition of pineapple is highly dependent on many content, total flavonoid, ascorbic acid, and antioxidant activity of
factors including the ripening process and type of cultivar. Hossain and pineapple using response surface methodology. Based on the optimal
Rahman (2011) reported the phenolic content of pineapple comprised of conditions at a temperature of 68 ◦ C and a screw speed of 70.3 rpm, the
methanol (51%), ethyl acetate (14%), and water extract (3%). Similar experimental values quantified were total phenolic content (46.91 mg
results were obtained for the determination of antioxidant activity Gallic Acid Equivalents/100 g), total flavonoid (48.75 mg of quercetin/
through a β–carotene-linoleate acid antioxidant assay at 100 ppm of g), ascorbic acid (51.97 mg/100 g), and antioxidant activity (95.95%),
concentration. This study showed that pineapple was a good source of respectively. Chaudhary et al. (2019) investigated the presence of cal­
antioxidant, indicating a high presence of phenolics in the fruit. In cium, potassium carbohydrates, water content, vitamin C, and crude
another study, Antoniolli et al. (2012) studied the antioxidant activities fibre which are important for maintaining a balanced diet and a healthy
of minimally processed pineapples treated with ascorbic acid and citric digestive system. As pineapple is rich in bromelain, the potential usage
acid. The pineapple slices were dipped into distilled water as a control of the chemical content was studied to reduce swelling in inflammatory
treatment and combined solutions of ascorbic acid and citric acid with cases including sore throat, gout, and arthritis (Khalid et al., 2016). The
20 mg/L of sodium hypochlorite for 30 s. The treated samples exhibited chemical structure of bromelain in pineapple is shown in Fig. 2.
the longest shelf life up to 8 days which eventually attributed to the In another approach, Campos, Ribeiro, Teixeira, Pastrana, and Pin­
dehydration and colour changes of the fruit. tado (2020) studied the enzymatic extract from pineapple by-products
In addition, Martínez et al. (2012) reported the in vitro antioxidant (stems and skins). A full characterisation was conducted based on the
activity of pineapple co-products as a potential source for food enrich­ bioactive molecules and biological activities to valorise the pineapple
ment. The dietary fibre content of pineapple co-products was observed by-product juices. The pineapple skin demonstrated low content of total
between 69.1 and 81.5 g/100 g on a dry matter basis using three phenolic compounds compared to the pineapple stem. The enzymatic
different test methods. The accumulation of pineapple co-product fractions signified 4.8% (w/w) and 17.3% (w/w) for pineapple stem and
extract was found to be a good source of natural compounds skin juices, respectively. Vollmer et al. (2020) examined the effect of

4
M. Mohd Ali et al.
Fig. 2. Chemical structure of bromelain in pineapple (Khalid et al., 2016).
pulsed light on the nutritional composition of pineapple using untreated
and thermally pasteurised samples. Based on the findings, bromelain
activity was fully retained in all treated samples. On the other hand,
thermal pasteurisation was unfavourable to antioxidant activity and
vitamin C which led to the retention of phenolic compounds and
furanone.
4. Volatile compounds
Huge attention has been applied to the volatile composition of
pineapple that plays a significant role in the sensory notes of fruit fla­
vours. The diversity and distinctive flavour of pineapple represented
comprehensive knowledge for continuing research into fruit aromas as
well as attractive attributes for the consumers (Lasekan & Abbas, 2012).
The aroma profile and volatile organic compounds of pineapple are
beneficial for monitoring quality control of raw and pineapple-based
processed products, particularly during storage and fruit shelf life. It
should be noted that not all volatile compounds are attributed to the
main aroma contributors. Although hundreds of volatiles can be iden­
tified in a pineapple sample, only several aroma-active compounds
associated significantly compared to the other volatiles based on the
overall odours. In this sense, the effectiveness of those aroma-active
compounds subjected to the aroma threshold, concentration, interac­
tion with other compounds, as well as volatility (Zhang, Cao, & Liu,
2019). The evaluation of the significance of individual volatile com­
pounds can be obtained by aroma extract dilution analysis, gas chro­
matography sniffing, calculation of odour-active value (OAV), odour-
specific magnitude estimation, and volatile recombination tests (Lase­
kan & Hussein, 2018; Pino, 2013). Thus, it is important to notice that the
odour-active compounds with low thresholds and high concentrations
produced a high OAV in order to demonstrate the importance in
enhancing the functionality of the overall volatile compositions.
Generally, flavour compound assessment is complex due to the lab­
oratory instrumentation required that is less sensitive compared to the
human olfactory system. Trained panellists were widely used for
5
Food Research International 137 (2020) 109675
olfactometry sniffing for aroma-active compounds. Nevertheless,
flavour identification should not be distinguished based on the degree of
volatility considering the changes arising during the extraction of
aroma-active compounds (Mahmud, Shellie, & Keast, 2020). There has
been significant progress in the flavour analysis in order to overcome the
limitation in the flavour and volatile identification. Factor analysis is
one of the solutions in evaluating the main relationship between the
volatile compounds and the selected variables (Dembitsky et al., 2011).
In this case, the collected instrumental data assists in the threshold
testing which recombines the identified volatile compounds in a model
matrix. It is crucial to perform this procedure which contributes to the
refinement of the flavour identification. Although each type of sample
has its odour-active signature, it may vary greatly based on the quan­
tification of volatile compounds either by olfactometry system or by
flavour identification (Shui et al., 2019). The main volatile compounds
identified in various pineapple cultivars are presented in Table 3.
Most of the volatile compounds are responsible for the flavour
composition of pineapple which is quite complex based on the fruit
quality. The advanced techniques of extraction, separation, and identi­
fication of volatile compounds give comprehensive information
regarding the volatile distribution and composition of the fruit. The
identification of volatile compounds of pineapple is performed by
various means such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS),
gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O), electronic nose, solvent
extraction, head-space solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME), solvent-
assisted flavour evaporation (SAFE) as well as sensory evaluation for
different analytical purposes (Lasekan & Hussein, 2018; Porto-Figueira,
Freitas, Cruz, Figueira, & Câmara, 2015; Sung, Suh, Chambers, Crane, &
Wang, 2019; Torri, Sinelli, & Limbo, 2010). Researchers Braga, Silva,
Pedroso, Augusto, and Barata (2010) reported on the volatile composi­
tion using the solid phase microextraction (SPME) coupled with GC-MS
during drying of pineapple. The fruit samples were dried by adding 0.5%
ethanol in normal and modified atmospheric conditions in order to
regulate water evaporation. In another case, Montero-Calderón, Rojas-
Graü, Aguiló-Aguayo, Soliva-Fortuny, and Martín-Belloso (2010)
M. Mohd Ali et al.
Table 3
Main volatile compounds identified in various pineapple cultivars.
Cultivar Main volatile compounds
Gold Methyl butanoate
Methyl 2-methylbutanoate
Methyl hexanoate
Methyl 2-methylpropanoate
Ethyl hexanoate
Gold Methyl butanoate
Methyl 2-methyl butanoate
Methyl hexanoate
Methyl 2-methyl
propanoate
Ethyl hexanoate
Methyl 3-(methylthio)
propanoate
Smooth Ethyl hexanoate
Cayenne Ethyl 3-(methylthio)
propanoate
Ethyl nonanoate
Methyl 3-(methylthio)
propanoate
Methyl hexanoate
Tainong 17 Hexanoic acid, methyl ester
Butanoic acid, 2-methyl-,
methyl ester
Butanoic acid, methyl ester
Octanoic acid, methyl ester
Smooth Methyl 3-acetoxyhexanoate
Cayenne Methyl 3-
methylthiopropanoate
Methyl 5-acetoxyhexanoate
Methyl octanoate
Methyl hexanoate
Ethyl hexanoate
Tainong 3-(Methylthio)propanoic
No. 6 acid ethyl ester
3-(Methylthio)propanoic
acid methyl ester
Octanoic acid, ethyl ester
Butanoic acid, 2-methyl-,
ethyl ester
Octanoic acid, methyl ester
Red Ethyl acetate
Spanish 3-Methylbutan-1-ol
Methyl 3-(methylthio)
propanoate
Ethyl octanoate
2-Methylpropyl acetate
Shenwan Methyl octanoate
Methyl decanoate
Methyl hexanoate
Octanoic acid isopropyl
ester
MD2 Methyl butanoate
Ethyl butanoate
Ethyl 2-methylbutanoate
Ethyl hexanoate
Methyl 3-hydroxybutanoate
MD2 Ethyl acetate
Methyl (E)-2-butenoate
Methyl 2-hydroxyhexanoate
Methyl 5-acetoxyhexanoate
Dimethyl propanedioate
Morris Methyl-2-methylbutanoate
Methyl-2-methyl
acetoacetate
Methyl hexanoate
Methyl-3-(methylthiol)-
propanoate
Methyl-3-hydroxy-4-
methyl-pentanoate
Food Research International 137 (2020) 109675
investigated the effect of modified atmosphere packaging on the volatile
composition of fresh-cut pineapples stored at 5 ◦ C. Methyl butanoate,
Relative References methyl 2-methylbutanoate, and methyl hexanoate have been identified
amount (µg/ as the most abundant volatiles. On the other hand, methyl and ethyl 2-
kg) methylbutanoate, 2,5-dimethyl-4-methoxy-3(2H)-furanone, and ethyl
2435 (Montero-Calderón hexanoate have been denoted as the most odour-active volatiles in spite
2105 et al., 2010) of packaging condition and storage period.
1163 Montero-Calderón et al. (2010) identified 20 volatile compounds
383
101
using the HS-SPME method for Gold pineapple at 30 ◦ C. Ester com­
2902 (Montero-Calderón pounds contributed the most abundant compounds including methyl
2427 et al., 2010) butanoate, methyl 2-methyl butanoate, and methyl hexanoate, whereas
1204 the most odour-active compounds were methyl and ethyl 2-methyl
571
butanoate and 2,5-dimethyl 4-methoxy 3(2H)-furanone. Wei et al.
129
623 (2011) identified 18 volatile compounds in both the flesh and core of
pineapple using HS-SPME and GC-MS stored at 25 ◦ C. Ester compounds
such as butanoic acid methyl ester, hexanoic acid methyl ester, and 3-
106 (Wei et al., 2011) (methylthio) propanoic acid methyl ester were the most dominant in the
91
60
flesh and core with the total of 65.47 and 81.18, respectively. In a
27 similar manner, Wei et al. (2011) investigated the volatile composition
25 of pineapple in the flesh and core by means of GC-MS and HS-SPME
techniques. The main compounds detected in pineapple flesh were
ethyl butanoate, ethyl 2-methylbutanoate, ethyl hexanoate, 2,5-
28 (Wei et al., 2011)
19 dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone, decanal, and ethyl 3-(methyl­
13 thio)propionate. In the pineapple core, the dominant compounds were
14 ethyl 2-methylbutanoate, ethyl hexanoate, and 2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-
3(2H)-furanone. It was found that pineapple aroma was highly corre­
277 (Kaewtathip &
lated with butyl butyrate which could improve the enzymatic synthesis
127 Charoenrein, 2012)
118 of esters (Lorenzoni et al., 2012).
64 Although hundreds of volatile compounds can be identified in the
39 pineapple samples, only some aroma-active components contributed
20
significantly compared to the overall odour. Kaewtathip and Char­
78 (Zheng et al., 2012) oenrein (2012) detected 19 volatile compounds which consisted of 14
33 esters, 2 hydrocarbons, 2 sulphur compounds, and one lactone in
46 Smooth Cayenne pineapple during freezing. The freezing process
22 contributed to the internal defects of pineapple flesh that resulted in the
21
reduction of volatiles. In previous work, Zheng et al. (2012) evaluated
the volatile compounds of two pineapple cultivars (Tainong No. 4 and
Tainong No. 6) using GC-MS. A total of 11 volatile compounds were
5000 (Pino, 2013) identified in Tainong No. 4 pineapples such as furaneol, 3-(methylthio)
300
propanoic acid methyl ester, 3-(methylthio)propanoic acid ethyl ester,
180
192
and δ-octalactone. In contrast, 28 volatile compounds were quantified in
66 Tainong No. 6 pineapples including ethyl-2-methylbutyrate, methyl-2-
methylbutyrate, 3-(methylthio)propanoic acid ethyl ester, ethyl hex­
327 (Wei et al., 2014) anoate, and decanal. Likewise, Zhang, Shen, Prinyawiwatkul, and Xu
130
(2012) found the main volatiles in fresh-cut pineapple during the baking
100
19 process were ethyl acetate, ethyl hexanoate, ethyl 3-(methylthio)-pro­
pionate, methyl hexanoate, methyl 3-(methylthio)-propionate, 2-methyl
990 (Steingass et al., methylbutyrate, and 2-methyl ethylbutyrate. From that study, valuable
1035 2014)
information related to the pineapple volatiles at different baking tem­
1050
1233
peratures could be important in determining various pineapple-baked
1478 foods with different aroma odours. Pino (2013) identified a total of 20
890 (Steingass et al., odour-active compounds including ethyl 2-methylbutanoate, 2,5-
1107 2016) dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone, 1-(E,Z,Z)-3,5,8-un-decatetraene,
1575
1-(E,Z)-3,5-undecatriene, ethyl hexanoate, ethyl 3-(methylthio)prop­
1769
1507 anoate, and methyl hexanoate from Red Spanish pineapple that
103 (Lasekan & contributed to the typical pineapple aroma.
156 Hussein, 2018) Further, Barretto et al. (2013) determined the volatile fractions in
397 pineapple which comprised of esters (35%), ketones (26%), alcohols
307
65
(18%), aldehydes (9%), acids (3%) as well as other compounds (9%).
Fig. 3 illustrates the typical chromatogram of pineapple consisting of a
total of 35 volatile compounds identified using the SPME technique.
Decanal, ethyl octanoate, acetic acid, 1-hexanol, γ-hexalactone, and
γ-octalactone represented the main odour-active compounds treated
using hydrodistillation. Wei et al. (2014) successfully identified 15
volatiles of Shenwan pineapple including seven esters, two aldehydes,
two lactones, one alcohol, one terpene, one ketone, and one
6
M. Mohd Ali et al.
Fig. 3. Chromatogram of pineapple volatiles using SPME method treated by hydrodistillation (Barretto et al., 2013).
hydrocarbon using the SPME method. The results indicated that methyl
hexanoate, δ-octalactone, decanal, and geranyl acetone were the most
potent odorants in the pineapple samples. Steingass, Grauwet, and Carle
(2014) studied the volatile composition of green-ripe pineapple using
HS-SPME and GC-MS techniques. A total of 142 volatile compounds
were identified of which 132 were odour-active including d-octalactone,
c-lactones, 1-(E,Z)-3,5-undecatriene and 1,3,5,8-undecatetraene, and
methyl esters. More extensive investigation was performed by Porto-
Figueira et al. (2015) who described the characteristic of aroma com­
pounds of pineapple using SPME method (DVB/CAR/ PDMS fibre) at
40 ◦ C for 30 min. Esters were found to be the most potent compounds
followed by hexyl hexanoate, methyl hexanoate, ethyl hexanoate, and
hexyl butanoate.
A tentative study to detect the volatile compounds of green-ripe
pineapple accumulated a total of 290 volatiles by GC-MS, including
esters, terpenes, alcohols, aldehydes, 2-ketones, free fatty acids, and
miscellaneous γ-and δ-lactones (Steingass et al., 2015). Similarly,
Steingass et al. (2016) reported the presence of methyl 3-methylbuta­
noate and 4-methoxy-2,5-dime-thyl-3(2H)-furanone which have been
identified as major components of the fruit flavour from fully-ripe air-
freighted pineapple samples. Lasekan and Hussein (2018) described the
flavour profiles of pineapple that consisted of sweet, floral, fruity, fresh,
green, apple-like, and woody notes. Among 59 compounds identified
from six pineapple varieties, the potent contributors were methyl-2-
methylbutanoate, methyl hexanoate, methyl-3-(methylthiol)-
propanoate, methyl octanoate, 2,5-dimethyl-4-methoxy-3(2H)-fura­
none, δ-octalactone, 2-methoxy-4-vinyl phenol, and δ-undecalactone.
Decanal, ethyl hexanoate, ethyl pentanoate, and terpenes were identi­
fied in pineapples under several coatings: sunflower seed infusion,
fennel seed infusion, and cassava starch employing HS-SPME coupled
with GC-MS (Guimarães, Silva, Madruga, Sousa, Brito, Lima, Mendonça,
7
Food Research International 137 (2020) 109675
Beaudry, & Silva, 2018).
A recent study investigated by Ikram, Ridwani, Putri, and Fukusaki
(2020) evaluated the metabolite changes in pineapples during the
ripening process. A total of 54, 47, and 56 metabolites were obtained
from the skin, flesh, and crown sections of pineapple, respectively. The
results revealed the predominant metabolites that were associated with
the volatile profile and ripening stages of pineapples. Zainuddin, Zaka­
ria, Saim, Hamid, and Osman (2020) examined the extraction of volatile
compounds in MD2 pineapple using HS-SPME. The extraction temper­
ature was significant with the increasing amount of selected volatile
compounds including ethyl acetate, methyl isobutyrate, and butanoic
acid methyl ester. Yoyponsan, Thuengtung, Ogawa, Naradisorn, and
Setha (2019) evaluated the effect of harvest maturity and storage con­
dition on the volatile compounds of Phulae pineapple. A total of 18
volatile compounds were identified in the ripe stage of pineapple
including esters, terpenes, terpenoids, alcohols, phenols, and aldehydes.
Adiani, Gupta, and Variyar (2020) investigated the relationship between
the microbial quality and volatile compounds of minimally processed
pineapple stored at 4 ◦ C. Based on the correlation analysis, 9 volatile
compounds (ethanol, methyl acetate, ethyl acetate, n-propyl acetate, 3-
methyl-1-butanol, 1-butanol-3-methyl acetate, 1-butanol-2-methyl ace­
tate, 2-heptanone, and 2-phenyl ethyl acetate) were positively corre­
lated with the microbial counts of the samples.
5. Potential food and waste processing of pineapples
The high nutritional value and abundant chemical composition of
pineapple have attracted the interest of the food industries to incorpo­
rate into different food products. Further, the production and con­
sumption of pineapple produces large volumes of solid wastes that in
turn contribute to the possibility of valuable waste processing products.
M. Mohd Ali et al. Food Research International 137 (2020) 109675

This section discusses the potential food-based and waste processing (Zdrojewicz et al., 2018). The pineapple flesh is often processed in
products related to pineapple as summarised in Table 4. various ways such as an ingredient in cakes, puddings, pies, compotes,
and garnish, especially for sweet dishes. Although pineapple is famous in
dessert cuisine, pineapple also suits well in savoury dishes such as curry
5.1. Pineapple food-based products
and meat dishes (Phoophuangpairoj & Srikun, 2014). In terms of pro­
cessed products, the potential of the fruit is transformed into various
A large amount of pineapple flesh or pulp is normally used in various
products including preservers, powder, beverages, toffees, jams, and
food-based products after peeling the skin and removing the central
syrups. To satisfy the demand for pineapple food-based processed
core. The flesh contained a high concentration of vitamins, minerals,
products, the therapeutic, nutritive, and medicinal values of the fruit are
fibre, as well as other chemical attributes that are essential for human
evaluated to incorporate as a vital ingredient in the food product. In
consumption (Barretto et al., 2013). The pineapple is mainly consumed
view of the strong aroma which should not be destroyed during the fruit
fresh, canned, minimally processed fruit as well as flavouring due to its
processing, the improvement in the post-harvest handling could enrich
sweet taste and aroma. Normally, the pineapple juice is fermented and
the effective operation for the whole range of processed products
made into a traditional dessert called nata de pina which is a popular
(Chaudhary et al., 2019).
dessert in the Philippines. The high content of moisture, sugars, and
Pineapple juice is one of the processed products after being pas­
fibre are important for the growth of microbes and assists in the
teurised and preserved as a juice. The microorganisms are destroyed
fermentation as a nutrient medium (Hossain, 2016). The dessert is
during the juice processing due to the chemical reaction in order to
known as pineapple gelatine due to the chewy texture and translucent
optimise the processing conditions (Barretto et al., 2013). Pineapple
gel which is almost becomes a jelly-like food. The sweet and tangy taste
beverages are an alternative drink processed with sugar, sweeteners,
of nata de pina is consumed as part of fruit salads, ice creams, candies,
citric acid, and water according to a specific blending ratio (Siti Rashima
and other desserts. In addition, the young and tender shoots of pineapple
et al., 2019). The option for low-calorie pineapple beverages can also be
can also be eaten, especially in salads. The young pineapple shoots
provided which could enhance its organoleptic qualities. Apart from
called hijos de pina are sold as a vegetable to be eaten as raw or cooked in
this, pineapple jam is another product processed from the fruit flesh,
a savoury dish.
pectin, sugar, and acid (Ismail et al., 2018). Pineapple jam is produced
Apart from that, a wide range of processed pineapple products are
after the flesh is dried, blended, and refrigerated at a certain tempera­
available in the commercial market including pineapple juice, dried and
ture. The jam mixture is then boiled and pasteurised before being sent
frozen pineapple, nectar, and canned pineapple (Khalid et al., 2016;
for packaging. Since pineapple has a flavourful aroma, it can be pro­
Othman, Buang, & Mohd Khairuzamri, 2011; Ramallo & Mascheroni,
cessed into candies and toffees in the form of bars or in combination with
2010). Since the consumers opt for better quality and freshness of
chocolates and nuts. The pineapple bars are combined with healthy
pineapple, the processing and storage of the fruit requires extreme
ingredients to provide nutrients and energy as a substitute for sweetened
precautions and handling in order to avoid any damage or defects
products, particularly for consumers with a specific diet.
Pineapple is also widely processed into powder as an instant powder
Table 4 and flavouring additive (Priyadarshani et al., 2019). In a study reported
The potential food-based and waste processing products related to pineapple.
by Rahma, Adriani, Rahayu, Tjandrawinata, and Rachmawati (2019),
Pineapple Potential uses References pineapple powder showed good physical attributes and is suitable as a
part binder and disintegrant for starch-based pharmaceutical excipients. The
Pulp nata de pina (dessert) (Hossain, 2016) suitability of pineapple powder as a binder material is preferable due to
Young shoot Fruit salad (Hossain, 2016) the long shelf life and it is useful for further applications in the food
Young shoot hijos de pina (eaten raw or cooked (Hossain, 2016)
industries. Furthermore, there is potential utilisation of pineapple that
in a savoury dish)
Pulp Dried and frozen pineapple (Ramallo & Mascheroni, has been processed into vinegar especially for overripe, discarded wastes
2010) and surplus fruits. Pineapple vinegar is made from the fermentation of
Pulp Cakes, puddings, pies, compotes, (Barretto et al., 2013) alcohol, acetic acid, and other reagents (Chaudhary et al., 2019).
and garnish (sweet dishes)
Continuous aeration for several days is applied to allow for the ethanol
Pulp Curry and meat dishes (Phoophuangpairoj & Srikun,
2014)
conversion via the acetic acid bacteria with the pineapple vinegar
Pulp Preservers, nectar, toffees, jam (Chaudhary et al., 2019) mixture. The abundant volatile compounds found in pineapple have
Pulp Juice, beverage, syrup (Khalid et al., 2016) been explored in the study related to wine processing. Pineapple wine is
Pulp Vinegar (Chaudhary et al., 2019) an alcoholic beverage made from innate microorganisms, sugar, and
Pulp Wine (Cannon & Ho, 2018)
yeast in various proportions (Cannon & Ho, 2018). The pineapple wine
Pulp Powder (Priyadarshani et al., 2019;
Rahma et al., 2019) is processed from the fermented juice with a good amount of sugar and
Pulp Canned pineapple (slices, cubes) (Othman et al., 2011) preservatives including sulphur-dioxide, sorbic acid, and potassium
Leaf fibre Composite material (Sena Neto et al., 2013) sorbate.
Leaf fibre Feedstock and energy production (Asim et al., 2015)
Leaf fibre Textile, automobiles, machinery (Prado & Spinacé, 2019)
equipment, sport items, insulators 5.2. Pineapple waste processing
Leaf fibre Medicine, cosmetics, and (Asim et al., 2015)
biopolymer coatings The potential of pineapple waste to be used in industrial applications
Leaf fibre Furniture and construction (Reinhardt et al., 2018) has been addressed although there has been relatively little research
materials
Leaf fibre Coarse textile and cloth (Asim et al., 2015)
carried out compared to the fruit flesh. Approximately 25% of the total
Leaf fibre Cigar wrapper and casting net (Asim et al., 2015) weight of pineapple consists of fruit waste including the upper crown
Leaf fibre String for jewels, caps of tribal (Asim et al., 2015) which produces almost 3 billion tons of by-products per year (Prado &
chiefs Spinacé, 2019). In spite of the technological advancement in the pine­
Peel Methane gas for waste treatment (Hossain, 2016)
apple industry in recent years, several parts of the pineapple including
Peel, crown, Dairy feed (Chaudhary et al., 2019)
core the crown, core, and peel are still discarded even though those fruit parts
Crown Liquid medium and (Prado & Spinacé, 2019) can be potentially commercialised for economical uses. The disposal of
nanocomposite reinforcement pineapple wastes creates a serious environmental issue because of the
Stem Starch-based pharmaceutical (Rahma et al., 2019) higher biological and chemical oxygen demand (Nouri, Chen, & Maq­
excipient
bool, 2014). For this reason, fibres of the pineapple leaf offer an

8
M. Mohd Ali et al.
alternative source of natural fibres in order to replace conventional
mechanical materials in composites. The pineapple fibres are renewable,
biodegradable, inexpensive, and available in abundance despite being
rarely utilised (Rahma et al., 2019). Due to the fact that the pineapple
fibres are disposed by waste burning, the proper utilisation of the fibres
could assist in solving the waste disposal problem. Sena Neto, Araujo,
Souza, Mattoso, and Marconcini (2013) investigated fibres from
different pineapple varieties to evaluate the fibre characteristics and
intrinsic variabilities for engineering applications. It was observed that
the high degree of cellulose crystallinity affected the mechanical fea­
tures for composite material. Moreover, pineapple leaf fibres are often
used for feedstock and energy production in the field (Asim et al., 2015).
Due to pineapple fibre having a soft surface, smooth, and white in colour
compared to other natural fibres, it is ideal for the utilisation of bio­
composites to reduce the wastage of renewable materials. Pineapple leaf
fibre consists of many chemical compositions including polysaccharides,
lignin, wax, pectin, uronic acid, pentosane, as well as inorganic com­
pounds (Prado & Spinacé, 2019). It also possesses high specific strength
and flexural rigidity which is applicable to replace raw material in
composite matrix reinforcements.
To further enhance the utilisation of pineapple leaf fibre, recent
applications have expanded for various purposes including textile,
automobile, machinery equipment, sport items, insulators, and so on
(Prado & Spinacé, 2019). The use of pineapple leaf fibre can also be
suitable for other applications in medicine, cosmetics, and biopolymer
coatings. Considering the high cellulose content in pineapple leaf fibre,
this material is suitable for utilisation in making furniture as well as
building and construction materials (Reinhardt et al., 2018). Pineapple
leaf fibre produces a silky-white and strong fibre at an early stage in
order to yield maximum vitality (Hossain, 2016). In an attempt to pro­
duce processing products based on the pineapple leaf fibre, it has been
used to weave coarse textile or cloth. In addition to this, pineapple fibre
also has been used to wrap cigars in a bulk amount and transformed into
a casting net. In West Africa, the pineapple fibre is made as a string for
jewels as well as special handmade material for the caps of tribal chiefs
(Asim et al., 2015). A recent study conducted by Najeeb et al. (2020)
revealed the composition of pineapple leaf fibres for biocomposite ap­
plications. The findings indicated that the fibre surface elemental
composition including carbon (53%), oxygen (43%), and potassium
(3%) are compatible with the matrix polymer.
On the other hand, pineapple peel waste can be produced as a
methane gas via the indigenous microorganisms (Hossain, 2016). The
production of methane gas can potentially be used for waste treatment
for alternative green energy to sustain the environment and protect from
chemical pollution. Moreover, the potential of pineapple waste such as
peel and core is being exploited as feed for animals. For instance, dairy
cattle consumed fermented pineapple waste with high acidity compared
to fresh waste as dairy feed. In this case, dried and ensiled pineapple
waste was suitable as an additional roughage in the total portion for
dairy cattle (Asim et al., 2015; Chaudhary et al., 2019). The pineapple
crown is another important resource of cellulose in order to substitute
leaf waste using chemical treatments. Prado and Spinacé (2019) studied
the feasibility of pineapple crown for removal of non-cellulose com­
pounds through bleaching treatments. The results demonstrated that the
high hydrophilicity of pineapple crown was attributed to the existence
of sulphate compounds which was essential in applications for liquid
medium and nanocomposite reinforcement.
Similar to other parts of pineapple, the fruit stem is also used as a
starch-based pharmaceutical excipient. The starch was isolated from the
pineapple stem through spray drying to improve the physical properties
of the waste (Rahma et al., 2019). In this context, the physicochemical
attributes of spray-dried starch appeared as untreated starch without
going through the process of gelatinisation. The industrial use of pine­
apple waste in recent years is an undeniable fact considering the high
ratios of pineapple by-products compared to other tropical fruits. It is
anticipated that pineapple waste material can be processed for further
9
Food Research International 137 (2020) 109675
industrial uses including fermentation and bioactive compound extrac­
tion. In addition, pineapple waste has also been processed as the sub­
strate of a potential source of sugars, vitamins, organic acids, and other
chemical attributes from the fruit (Chaudhary et al., 2019). The pine­
apple peels that attributed to the 50% of the solid waste have been
considered as the source for fibre enrichment, enzyme compounds, and
bacterial cellulose production for bioremediation (Villacís-Chiriboga,
Elst, Van Camp, Vera, & Ruales, 2020). In this regard, numerous works
have been progressively undertaken to utilise pineapple waste in order
to penetrate and compete in the current world waste processing market.
6. Health benefits
It is well known that adequate intake of nutrients is important for
human health. Pineapple has been recognised to possess valuable
bioactive compounds for medical purposes. The fruit is effective as a
contraceptive, a diuretic as well as for the removal of intestinal worms
(Hossain, 2016). In addition, pineapple is often used to increase appetite
for food nourishment and boost the excretion of fat for topical
debridement. As a source of bromelain, pineapple is used by substituting
proteolytic enzyme as an anti-inflammatory for soft tissue (Siow & Lee,
2012). Kargutkar and Brijesh (2018) successfully investigated the po­
tential of the anti-inflammatory activity from the pineapple leaf extract
to identify the phytochemical properties that were responsible for acute
inflammatory diseases. In that study, the components that were identi­
fied in the extract included proteins, flavonoids, tannins, carbohydrates,
glycosides, and phenols. Pineapple is also rich in vitamins and micro­
nutrients which are recommended for daily intake. In addition to this,
pineapple is also low in calories and is often incorporated in a weight-
watcher’s diet. The potential health benefits of pineapple are illustrated
in Fig. 4.
In a study conducted by Zdrojewicz et al. (2018), the researchers
found that one ripe pineapple contained approximately 16% of the daily
requirement for vitamin C which was equivalent of 28 mg vitamin C for
half a glass of pineapple juice. Vitamin C is known to be a good anti­
oxidant and keeps cells healthy against free radicals, specifically for
delaying osteoblast ageing as well as monitoring diabetic progression. It
is also believed that the thiamine content in pineapple plays an impor­
tant role in monitoring nervous system function. The sufficiency of
thiamine particularly for patients who have a problem in the nervous
system is beneficial in reducing the metabolic changes due to diabetes
and glucose levels as well as in the production of red blood cells (Cannon
& Ho, 2018). As a potential source of dietary fibre, pineapple is effective
in healing bowel movement, constipation, and gastrointestinal function
(Dittakan, Theera-Ampornpunt, & Boodliam, 2018). Similarly, Hossain
and Rahman (2011) demonstrated that the functional dietary fibre in
pineapple is essential in reducing the risk of diabetes, colon cancer, and
cerebro-vascular diseases as well as relieving the symptoms of diar­
rhoea. Apart from that, it is also noted that malic acid in pineapple as­
sists in maintaining oral health, enhancing immunity and preventing
dental plaque formation (Chaudhary et al., 2019).
One of the most important trace elements in pineapple is manganese
which is equivalent to 73% of the daily requirement intake and is vital
for energy production (Zdrojewicz et al., 2018). Manganese has been
reported for the alleviation of skeletal defects, blood glucose level con­
trol, and aids in insulin resistance as well as Type 2 diabetes (Dittakan
et al., 2018). The trace element permits the effect of oxidant enzymes
including ligases and transferases that is significant against free radicals
for cholesterol degradation. Chaudhary et al. (2019) described these
beneficial effects were important for regulating emotional stability as
well as strengthening bone growth in adults. In view of the nutrients
components, pineapple contains bromelain that is one of the most
complex bioactive compounds for antioxidant, digestion improvement,
and as a cardioprotective agent (Asim et al., 2015). It has been described
that bromelain can be used to treat bacterial infections, bronchitis,
pneumonia, sinusitis, parasitic gastrointestinal infection, and is effective
M. Mohd Ali et al.
Fig. 4. Potential health benefits of pineapple.
against intestinal parasites such as tapeworms and nematodes (Siow &
Lee, 2012). Priyadarshani et al. (2019) revealed that bromelain was
commonly used to regulate the severity of myocardial infarction as well
as in analgesic combinations for treating patients with acute thrombo­
phlebitis in order to heal skin infection, oedema, and inflammation. The
multitude of bromelain utilisation possibilities aside from abundant
nutrients emphasise the chemical composition and health benefits of
pineapple to assist in developing a diverse functional spectrum of
pineapple-based products targeted for accelerating future functionalities
and commercial applications.
7. Future perspectives and challenges
Pineapple is a perishable and non-climacteric fruit due to the aroma
and flavour quality. Even though pineapple is one of the major tropical
fruits with a high consumption around the world, the preservation in
terms of the freshness and quality over a long period is still required. The
main concern for the pineapple commercial market is the limitation of
the shelf life, especially the fresh-cut and minimally processed fruits.
The fruit processing involving peeling, pruning, cutting, and slicing the
pineapple flesh and it is prone to increase the production of ethylene and
respiration rates. Further, these biochemical reactions may be attributed
to the loss of vitamins and nutrients, fast deterioration, flavour loss as
well as fruit shrinkage. In terms of flavour and aroma compounds,
human sensory evaluation is normally conducted to determine the
aroma profile and sensory attributes during the shelf life of the pine­
apple. However, fruit determination by sensory analysis is time-
consuming and requires a selection of trained panellists to evaluate
the aroma profile of the fruit. This is because it delivers information
based on the overall aroma perception and consumer acceptability. On
the other hand, instrumental techniques are also widely used to assess
the fruit aroma and volatile compounds including gas chromatography-
mass spectrometry, gas chromatography-olfactometry, and solid-phase
microextraction. Despite the success of these instrumental techniques
in monitoring the shelf life of pineapple, it still requires extensive
analytical skill and is not suitable for automation purposes. This leads to
the development of non-destructive techniques in order to execute
various quality determinations of pineapple fruit in a rapid way. In this
case, the technology transfer of the non-destructive techniques relies on
the advancement of future studies to connect the gap between the lab­
oratory applications and the field scale (Ali, Hashim, Aziz, & Lasekan,
2020).
10
Food Research International 137 (2020) 109675
The production line of the pineapple industry usually comprises of
the aspects of cultivation, processing, transporting, and marketing. In
order to compete in the global market and international trade, the
pineapple industry needs to survive in terms of the production line and
the value chain. At the current moment, pineapple processing is not
well-prepared with cutting-edge technology. This situation leads to low
production yield and affects the technical infrastructure. Several efforts
have been taken to enhance production efficiency and improve the
productivity and quality of the fruit through development programmes
for individuals or associations. Furthermore, the cultivation of pineapple
is emphasised in terms of research and development activities to focus
on the long-term demand. These include expansion research into the
production of new pineapple cultivars, post-harvest technology, and
environmental-friendly crop practices. Some processing technologies
and treatments used in the research focusing on the dietary fibre of
pineapples that can be potentially commercialised are also evaluated.
Pineapple co-products as an ingredient in the food industry possess high
levels of polyphenolic compounds and antioxidants due to the high di­
etary fibre content of the fruit (Martínez et al., 2012). Hence, the po­
tential of pineapple co-products should be recognised as one of the
nutraceutical sources in supplying new alternatives for low-cost and
health-related purposes. Nevertheless, to date only a few of the pine­
apple co-products have been successfully processed from the fruit waste
from a nutritional point of view. Further investigation into the incor­
poration of food and waste processing products from pineapple should
be developed in terms of the oxidative stability and non-caloric bulking
agents.
It is well-known that pineapple is a nutritious fruit and has numerous
health benefits for humans. With the advancements in the pineapple
industry, the quality of the fruit is normally determined based on various
factors including the harvesting time, storage, growing condition, and
postharvest handling (Priyadarshani et al., 2019). Despite this
advancement towards production and the elucidation of the pineapple
industry, the yield production remains challenging owing to the tech­
nical difficulties and the lengthy processing methods. Special focus
should be placed on the improvement of modern storage and postharvest
facilities in order to facilitate fruit distribution and transportation.
Extensive effort should also be recommended to maintain the perish­
ability of pineapple from the production to the marketing line with the
interest in online monitoring in the fruit industry. As an added bonus,
the growers should consider improving the distribution and preservation
chain for good economic returns of the fruit. Taking the application of
M. Mohd Ali et al.
non-destructive techniques for quality evaluation of pineapples as an
example, these applications are relatively time-saving, rapid, and
involve minimal or no sample preparation (Amuah et al., 2019).
Therefore, the simultaneous detection of pineapple quality using non-
destructive approaches signifies a major role for rapid determination
of quality changes of the fruit. Much progress has been made in devel­
oping non-destructive techniques in improving the accuracy and
robustness of the existing trend.
8. Conclusions
The pineapple industry has huge potential for technological
advancement in both domestic and international trade. Pineapples have
become a profitable fruit in recent years in view of its unique aroma,
abundant volatile compounds, and nutritional values. In this review, the
physicochemical composition, nutritional values, volatile compounds,
health benefits, as well as potential food-based and waste processing
products of pineapple have been discussed. Apart from that, pineapple
can be beneficial for other utilisation in pharmaceutical and biomedical
products since the fruit is rich in nutrients, dietary fibre, and bioactive
compounds. The existence of high levels of minerals and vitamins as part
of the required daily intake for human consumption is accountable for
the unique traits and characteristics of the fruit. Nevertheless, attention
should be addressed to the emerging technologies and modern appli­
cations and not be solely engaged in the labour skills required to enlarge
the planting operations. The related organisations and agencies focusing
on pineapple production need to offer facilities and provide relevant
services to draw the interest of the private sector and plantation owners
in developing the cultivation of pineapples, especially in rural areas.
Additionally, research and development focusing on pineapples
should be implemented extensively in various fields including machin­
ery, agronomy, disease and pest control as well as postharvest handling
and management. New discoveries need to be identified with respect to
expanding the niche and market for pineapple food-based and waste
processing products. Pineapple has huge potential to be exploited for
commercial value since it is available throughout the whole year. The
scientific works regarding the functional foods derived from pineapple
are required in order to adapt into new processed products while pre­
serving the nutritional values of the fruit. For this, the promising use of
every part of the fruit such as leaf, crown, and core are suggested for
future studies. The research concerning pineapple along with the
chemical composition is necessary to retain the fruit quality and func­
tional properties. Furthermore, these studies could provide new visions
in relation to the production of better yield of pineapple. Thus, it is
beneficial to figure out the fundamental concerns related to the pine­
apple with the goal of the optimum exploitation of the fruit.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the support from the Department
of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and
Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Tech­
nology, Universiti Putra Malaysia for supplying the technical facilities
for this work under the Putra Grant, GP-IPB (Vot. No.: 9687800).
CRediT author statement
Maimunah Mohd Ali: Software, Data curation, Writing-Original
draft preparation, Visualization, Investigation. Norhashila Hashim:
Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing-Reviewing and Editing. Sam­
suzana Abd Aziz: Formal analysis, Supervision. Ola Lasekan:
Conceptualization, Supervision.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors have declared no conflict of interest.
11
Food Research International 137 (2020) 109675
References
Abu Bakar, B. H., Ishak, A. J., Shamsuddin, R., & Wan Hassan, W. Z. (2013). Ripeness
level classification for pineapple using RGB and HSI colour maps. Journal of
Theoretical and Applied Information Technology, 57(3), 587–593.
Adiani, V., Gupta, S., & Variyar, P. S. (2020). Microbial quality assessment of minimally
processed pineapple using GCMS and FTIR in tandem with chemometrics. Scientific
Reports, 10(6203), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-62895-y.
Ali, M. M., Bachik, N. A., Muhadi, N. ‘Atirah, Tuan Yusof, T. N., & Gomes, C. (2019).
Non-destructive techniques of detecting plant diseases: A review. Physiological and
Molecular Plant Pathology, 108, 1–12. 10.1016/j.pmpp.2019.101426.
Ali, M. M., Hashim, N., Aziz, S. A., & Lasekan, O. (2020). An overview of non-destructive
approaches for quality determination in pineapples. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Engineering, 1, 1–7.
Amuah, C. L. Y., Teye, E., Lamptey, F. P., Nyandey, K., Opoku-Ansah, J., &
Adueming, P. O. W. (2019). Feasibility study of the use of handheld NIR
spectrometer for simultaneous authentication and quantification of quality
parameters in intact pineapple fruits. Journal of Spectroscopy, 2019, 1–10. https://
doi.org/10.1155/2019/5975461.
Ancos, B., Sánchez-Moreno, C., & González-Aguilar, G. A. (2016). Pineapple composition
and nutrition. Handbook of Pineapple Technology: Postharvest Science, Processing and
Nutrition, 221–239. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118967355.ch12.
ANSES. (2020). ANSES-CIQUAL French food composition table version 2020. https://
ciqual.anses.fr/#.
Antoniolli, L. R., Benedetti, B. C., Souza Filho, M. de S. M. de, Garruti, D. dos S., &
Borges, M. de F. (2012). Shelf life of minimally processed pineapples treated with
ascorbic and citric acids. Bragantia, 71(3), 447–453. 10.1590/s0006-
87052012000300019.
Angel, L., Lizcano, S., & Viola, J. (2015). Assessing the state of maturation of the
pineapple in its perolera variety using computer vision techniques. In 20th
Symposium on Signal Processing, Images and Computer Vision (pp. 1–6). https://
doi.org/10.1109/STSIVA.2015.7330446.
Aragón, C., Carvalho, L., González, J., Escalona, M., & Amancio, S. (2012). The
physiology of ex vitro pineapple (Ananas comosus L. Merr. var MD-2) as CAM or C3
is regulated by the environmental conditions. Plant Cell Reports, 31(4), 757–769.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00299-011-1195-7.
Asim, M., Abdan, K., Jawaid, M., Nasir, M., Dashtizadeh, Z., Ishak, M. R., & Hoque, M. E.
(2015). A review on pineapple leaves fibre and its composites. International Journal
of Polymer Science, 2015, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/950567.
Barretto, L. C. de O., Moreirade, J. de J. da S., dos Santos, J. A. B., Narain, N., & dos
Santos, R. A. R. (2013). Characterization and extraction of volatile compounds from
pineapple (Ananas comosus L. Merril) processing residues. Food Science and
Technology, 33(4), 638–645. 10.1590/S0101-20612013000400007.
Braga, A. M. P., Silva, M. A., Pedroso, M. P., Augusto, F., & Barata, L. E. S. (2010).
Volatile composition changes of pineapple during drying in modified and controlled
atmosphere. International Journal of Food Engineering, 6(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/
10.2202/1556-3758.1835.
Campos, D. A., Ribeiro, T. B., Teixeira, J. A., Pastrana, L., & Pintado, M. M. (2020).
Integral valorization of pineapple (Ananas comosus L.) By-products through a green
chemistry approach towards Added Value Ingredients. Foods, 9(1). https://doi.org/
10.3390/foods9010060.
Cannon, R. J., & Ho, C. T. (2018). Volatile sulfur compounds in tropical fruits. Journal of
Food and Drug Analysis, 26(2), 445–468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jfda.2018.01.014.
Chaudhary, V., Kumar, V., Sunil, Vaishali, Singh, K., Kumar, R., & Kumar, V. (2019).
Pineapple (Ananas cosmosus) product processing: A review. Journal of
Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 8(3), 4642–4652.
Chaumpluk, P., Chaiprasart, P., & Vilaivan, T. (2012). Postharvest non-destructive
determination of fruits: A model on fruit maturity assay via biosensor based on
colorimetric change of gold nanoparticles. Acta Horticulturae, 945, 205–212.
10.17660/ActaHortic.2012.945.27.
Chiet, C. H., Zulkifli, R. M., Hidayat, T., & Yaakob, H. (2014). Bioactive compounds and
antioxidant activity analysis of Malaysian pineapple cultivars. AIP Conference
Proceedings, 1589, 398–399. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4868827.
Dembitsky, V. M., Poovarodom, S., Leontowicz, H., Leontowicz, M., Vearasilp, S.,
Trakhtenberg, S., & Gorinstein, S. (2011). The multiple nutrition properties of some
exotic fruits: Biological activity and active metabolites. Food Research International,
44(7), 1671–1701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.03.003.
Dittakan, K., Theera-Ampornpunt, N., & Boodliam, P. (2018). Non-destructive Grading of
Pattavia Pineapple using Texture Analysis. International Symposium on Wireless
Personal Multimedia Communications, 144–149. https://doi.org/10.1109/
WPMC.2018.8713088.
Dolhaji, N. H., Muhamad, I. I., Ya’akub, H., & Abd Aziz, A. (2019). Evaluation of chilling
injury and internal browning condition on quality attributes, phenolic content, and
antioxidant capacity during sub-optimal cold storage of Malaysian cultivar
pineapples. Malaysian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, 14(4),
456–461. 10.11113/mjfas.v14n4.1072.
Elizabeth, A. O., & Tijesuni, T. O. (2020). Physiochemical and Organoleptic Evaluation of
Drink Produced from Pineapple (Ananas comosus) and Tigernut (Cyperus
esculentus). Asian Food Science Journal, 14(2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.9734/afsj/
2020/v14i230123.
George, D. S., Razali, Z., & Somasundram, C. (2016). Physiochemical Changes during
Growth and Development of Pineapple (Ananas comosus L Merr. cv. Sarawak).
Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology, 18(2), 491–503.
Guimarães, G. H. C., Silva, R. S., Madruga, M. S., Sousa, A. S. B., Brito, A. L., Lima, R. P.,
Mendonça, R. M. N., Beaudry, R. M., & Silva, S. M. (2018). Effect of plant-based
M. Mohd Ali et al.
coatings on the volatile profile of “Pérola” pineapple. Acta Horticulturae, 1194,
1519–1526. 10.17660/ActaHortic.2018.1194.212.
Hossain, M. A., & Rahman, S. M. M. (2011). Total phenolics, flavonoids and antioxidant
activity of tropical fruit pineapple. Food Research International, 44(3), 672–676.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2010.11.036.
Hossain, M. F. (2016). World pineapple production: An overview. African Journal of
Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 16(4), 11443–11456. 10.18697/
ajfand.76.15620.
Ikram, M. M. M., Ridwani, S., Putri, S. P., & Fukusaki, E. (2020). GC-MS based metabolite
profiling to monitor ripening-specific metabolites in pineapple (Ananas comosus).
Metabolites, 10(4), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo10040134.
Ismail, N. A. M., Abdullah, N., & Muhammad, N. (2018). Effect of microwave-assisted
processing on quality characteristics of pineapple jam. Journal of Advanced Research
in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences, 42(1), 24–30.
Kaewtathip, T., & Charoenrein, S. (2012). Changes in volatile aroma compounds of
pineapple (Ananas comosus) during freezing and thawing. International Journal of
Food Science and Technology, 47(5), 985–990. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-
2621.2011.02931.x.
Kargutkar, S., & Brijesh, S. (2018). Anti-inflammatory evaluation and characterization of
leaf extract of Ananas comosus. Inflammopharmacology, 26(2), 469–477. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10787-017-0379-3.
Khalid, N., Suleria, H. A. R., & Ahmed, I. (2016). Pineapple Juice. In F. Shahidi & C.
Alasalvar (Eds.), Handbook of Functional Beverages and Human Health (1st Editio,
pp. 489–500). CRC Press. 10.1201/b19490-43.
Khatiwada, B. P., Walsh, K. B., & Subedi, P. P. (2016). Internal defect detection in fruit by
using NIR Spectroscopy. Acta Horticulturae, 1120, 337–342. 10.17660/
ActaHortic.2016.1120.51.
Lasekan, O., & Abbas, K. A. (2012). Distinctive Exotic Flavor and Aroma Compounds of
some Exotic Tropical Fruits and Berries: A Review. Critical Reviews in Food Science
and Nutrition, 52(8), 726–735. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2010.507910.
Lasekan, O., & Hussein, F. K. (2018). Classification of different pineapple varieties grown
in Malaysia based on volatile fingerprinting and sensory analysis. Chemistry Central
Journal, 12(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13065-018-0505-3.
Leneveu-jenvrin, C., Quentin, B., Assemat, S., Hoarau, M., Meile, J. C., & Remize, F.
(2020). Changes of quality of minimally-processed pineapple (Ananas comosus, var.
‘queen victoria’) during cold storage: Fungi in the leading role. Microorganisms, 8
(185), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8020185.
Lobo, M. G., & Yahia, E. (2016). Biology and postharvest physiology of pineapple. In
Handbook of Pineapple Technology: Postharvest Science, Processing and Nutrition
(pp. 39–61). 10.1002/9781118967355.ch3.
Lorenzoni, A. S. G., Graebin, N. G., Martins, A. B., Fernandez-Lafuente, R., Záchia
Ayub, M. A., & Rodrigues, R. C. (2012). Optimization of pineapple flavour synthesis
by esterification catalysed by immobilized lipase from Rhizomucor miehei. Flavour
and Fragrance Journal, 27(2), 196–200. https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.3088.
Luengwilai, K., Beckles, D. M., Roessner, U., Dias, D. A., Lui, V., & Siriphanich, J. (2018).
Identification of physiological changes and key metabolites coincident with
postharvest internal browning of pineapple (Ananas comosus L.) fruit. Postharvest
Biology and Technology, 137, 56–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
postharvbio.2017.11.013.
Mahmud, M. M. C., Shellie, R. A., & Keast, R. (2020). Unravelling the relationship
between aroma compounds and consumer acceptance: Coffee as an example.
Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 1–41. https://doi.org/
10.1111/1541-4337.12595.
Martínez, R., Torres, P., Meneses, M. A., Figueroa, J. G., Pérez-Álvarez, J. A., & Viuda-
Martos, M. (2012). Chemical, technological and in vitro antioxidant properties of
mango, guava, pineapple and passion fruit dietary fibre concentrate. Food Chemistry,
135(3), 1520–1526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.05.057.
Montero-Calderón, M., Rojas-Graü, M. A., Aguiló-Aguayo, I., Soliva-Fortuny, R., &
Martín-Belloso, O. (2010). Influence of modified atmosphere packaging on volatile
compounds and physicochemical and antioxidant attributes of fresh-cut pineapple
(Ananas comosus). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58(8), 5042–5049.
https://doi.org/10.1021/jf904585h.
Montero-Calderón, M., Rojas-Graü, M. A., & Martín-Belloso, O. (2010). Aroma profile
and volatiles odor activity along gold cultivar pineapple flesh. Journal of Food
Science, 75(9), 506–512. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01831.x.
MPIB. (2020). Jenis nanas-Lembaga Perindustrian Nanas Malaysia. 10.1017/
CBO9781107415324.004.
Nadzirah, K. Z., Zainal, S., Noriham, A., Normah, I., Siti Roha, A. M., & Nadya, H. (2013).
Physico- chemical properties of pineapple variety N36 harvested and stored at
different maturity stages. International Food Research Journal, 20(1), 225–231.
Najeeb, M. I., Sultan, M. T. H., Andou, Y., Shah, A. U. M., Eksiler, K., Jawaid, M., &
Ariffin, A. H. (2020). Characterization of Lignocellulosic Biomass from Malaysian’s
Yankee Pineapple AC6 Toward Composite Application. Journal of Natural Fibers, 00
(00), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2019.1710655.
Nouri, F. G., Chen, Z., & Maqbool, M. (2014). Monitoring Mango Fruit Ripening after
Harvest using Electronic Nose (zNoseTM) Technique. 2014 5th International
Conference on Food Engineering and Biotechnology, 65(8), 36–40. 10.7763/IPCBEE.
Othman, M. H., Buang, L., & Mohd Khairuzamri, M. S. (2011). Rejuvenating the
Malaysian pineapple industry. Acta Horticulturae, 902, 39–52. https://doi.org/
10.17660/actahortic.2011.902.1.
Phoophuangpairoj, R., & Srikun, N. (2014). Computerized recognition of pineapple
grades using physicochemical properties and flicking sounds. International Journal of
Agricultural and Biological Engineering, 7(3), 93–101. https://doi.org/10.3965/j.
ijabe.20140703.011.
12
Food Research International 137 (2020) 109675
Pino, J. A. (2013). Odour-active compounds in pineapple (Ananas comosus [L.] Merril
cv. Red Spanish). International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 48(3),
564–570. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03222.x.
Porto-Figueira, P., Freitas, A., Cruz, C. J., Figueira, J., & Câmara, J. S. (2015). Profiling of
passion fruit volatiles: An effective tool to discriminate between species and
varieties. Food Research International, 77, 408–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodres.2015.09.007.
Prado, K. S., & Spinacé, M. A. S. (2019). Isolation and characterization of cellulose
nanocrystals from pineapple crown waste and their potential uses. International
Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 122, 410–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijbiomac.2018.10.187.
Priyadarshani, S. V. G. N., Cai, H., Zhou, Q., Liu, Y., Cheng, Y., Xiong, J., … Qin, Y.
(2019). An efficient Agrobacterium mediated transformation of pineapple with GFP-
tagged protein allows easy, non-destructive screening of transgenic pineapple plants.
Biomolecules, 9(10), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom9100617.
Rahim, H. A., Seng, C. K., & Rahim, R. A. (2014). Analysis for soluble solid contents in
pineapples using NIR spectroscopy. Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences and Engineering), 69
(8), 7–11. 10.11113/jt.v69.3288.
Rahma, A., Adriani, M., Rahayu, P., Tjandrawinata, R. R., & Rachmawati, H. (2019).
Green isolation and physical modification of pineapple stem waste starch as
pharmaceutical excipient. Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy, 45(6),
1029–1037. https://doi.org/10.1080/03639045.2019.1593438.
Ramallo, L. A., & Mascheroni, R. H. (2010). Dehydrofreezing of pineapple. Journal of
Food Engineering, 99(3), 269–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2010.02.026.
Reinhardt, D. H. R. C., Bartholomew, D. P., Souza, F. V. D., de Carvalho, A. C. P. P., de
Pádua, T. R. P., Junghans, D. T., & de Matos, A. P. (2018). Advances in pineapple
plant propagation. Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura, 40(6), 1–22. https://doi.org/
10.1590/0100-29452018302.
Sánchez-Zapata, E., Fernández-López, J., & Angel Pérez-Alvarez, J. (2012). Tiger Nut
(Cyperus esculentus) Commercialization: Health Aspects, Composition, Properties,
and Food Applications. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 11(4),
366–377. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2012.00190.x.
Sena Neto, A. R., Araujo, M. A. M., Souza, F. V. D., Mattoso, L. H. C., & Marconcini, J. M.
(2013). Characterization and comparative evaluation of thermal, structural,
chemical, mechanical and morphological properties of six pineapple leaf fiber
varieties for use in composites. Industrial Crops and Products, 43(1), 529–537.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.08.001.
Shamsudin, R., Zulkifli, N. A., & Kamarul Zaman, A. A. (2020). Quality attributes of fresh
pineapple-mango juice blend during storage. International Food Research Journal, 27
(1), 141–149.
Sharma, P., Ramchiary, M., Samyor, D., & Das, A. B. (2016). Study on the phytochemical
properties of pineapple fruit leather processed by extrusion cooking. LWT – Food
Science and Technology, 72, 534–543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2016.05.001.
Shui, M., Feng, T., Tong, Y., Zhuang, H., Lo, C., Sun, H., … Song, S. (2019).
Characterization of key aroma compounds and construction of flavor base module of
Chinese sweet oranges. Molecules, 24, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/
molecules24132384.
Siow, L.-F., & Lee, K.-H. (2012). Determination of physicochemical properties of osmo-
dehydrofrozen pineapples. Borneo Science, 31, 71–84.
Sipes, B., & Wang, K. H. (2016). Pests, diseases and weeds. In Handbook of Pineapple
Technology: Postharvest Science, Processing and Nutrition (pp. 62–88). Wiley
Blackwell. 10.1002/9781118967355.ch4.
Siti Rashima, R., Maizura, M., Wan Nur Hafzan, W. M., & Hazzeman, H. (2019).
Physicochemical properties and sensory acceptability of pineapples of different
varieties and stages of maturity. Food Research, 3(5), 491–500. 10.26656/fr.2017.3
(5).060.
Siti Roha, A. M., Zainal, S., Noriham, A., & Nadzirah, K. Z. (2013). Determination of
sugar content in pineapple waste variety N36. International Food Research Journal, 20
(4), 1941–1943.
Statista. (2020). Leading countries in pineapple production worldwide in 2017. https://
www.statista.com/statistics/298517/global-pineapple-production-by-leading-
countries/.
Steingass, Christof B., Dell, C., Lieb, V., Mayer-Ullmann, B., Czerny, M., & Carle, R.
(2016). Assignment of distinctive volatiles, descriptive sensory analysis and
consumer preference of differently ripened and post-harvest handled pineapple
(Ananas comosus [L.] Merr.) fruits. European Food Research and Technology, 242(1),
33–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-015-2515-x.
Steingass, Christof B., Grauwet, T., & Carle, R. (2014). Influence of harvest maturity and
fruit logistics on pineapple (Ananas comosus [L.] Merr.) volatiles assessed by
headspace solid phase microextraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
(HS-SPME-GC/MS). Food Chemistry, 150, 382–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodchem.2013.10.092.
Steingass, Christof B., Vollmer, K., Lux, P. E., Dell, C., Carle, R., & Schweiggert, R. M.
(2020). HPLC-DAD-APCI-MSn analysis of the genuine carotenoid pattern of
pineapple (Ananas comosus [L.] Merr.) infructescence. Food Research International,
127, Article 108709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.108709.
Steingass, Christof Björn, Carle, R., & Schmarr, H. G. (2015). Ripening-dependent
metabolic changes in the volatiles of pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.) fruit: I.
Characterization of pineapple aroma compounds by comprehensive two-dimensional
gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 407
(9), 2591–2608. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-015-8474-z.
Sung, J., Suh, J. H., Chambers, A. H., Crane, J., & Wang, Y. (2019). Relationship between
sensory attributes and chemical composition of different mango cultivars [Research-
article]. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 67(18), 5177–5188. https://doi.
org/10.1021/acs.jafc.9b01018.
M. Mohd Ali et al.
Torri, L., Sinelli, N., & Limbo, S. (2010). Shelf life evaluation of fresh-cut pineapple by
using an electronic nose. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 56(3), 239–245. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2010.01.012.
Villacís-Chiriboga, J., Elst, K., Van Camp, J., Vera, E., & Ruales, J. (2020). Valorization of
byproducts from tropical fruits: Extraction methodologies, applications,
environmental, and economic assessment: A review (Part 1: General overview of the
byproducts, traditional biorefinery practices, and possible applications).
Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 19(2), 405–447. https://doi.
org/10.1111/1541-4337.12542.
Vollmer, K., Chakraborty, S., Bhalerao, P. P., Carle, R., Frank, J., & Steingass, C. B.
(2020). Effect of Pulsed Light Treatment on Natural Microbiota, Enzyme Activity,
and Phytochemical Composition of Pineapple (Ananas comosus [L.] Merr.) juice.
Food and Bioprocess Technology, 13(7), 1095–1109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-
020-02460-7.
Wei, C. Bin, Ding, X. D., Liu, Y. G., Zhao, W. F., & Sun, G. M. (2014). Application of solid-
phase microextraction for the analysis of aroma compounds from pineapple fruit.
Advanced Materials Research, 988, 397–406. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.
scientific.net/AMR.988.397.
Wei, C. Bin, Liu, S. H., Liu, Y. G., Lv, L. L., Yang, W. X., & Sun, G. M. (2011).
Characteristic aroma compounds from different pineapple parts. Molecules, 16(6),
5104–5112. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules16065104.
Wei, C. B., Liu, S. H., Liu, Y. G., Zang, X. P., Lu, L. L., & Sun, G. M. (2011). Changes and
distribution of aroma volatile compounds from pineapple fruit during postharvest
storage. Acta Horticulturae, 902, 431–436. 10.17660/ActaHortic.2011.902.53.
13
Food Research International 137 (2020) 109675
Yoyponsan, P., Thuengtung, S., Ogawa, Y., Naradisorn, M., & Setha, S. (2019). Influence
of harvest maturity and storage condition on changes on volatile compounds of
‘Phulae’ pineapple fruit. Journal of Food Science and Agricultural Technology, 5,
128–139.
Zainuddin, S. F., Zakaria, S. R., Saim, N., Hamid, R. D., & Osman, R. (2020).
Optimization of Headspace Solid Phase Microextraction (HS-SPME) for the
Extraction of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in MD2 Pineapple. Science
Letters, 14(2), 58–70. 10.24191/sl.v14i2.9543.
Zdrojewicz, Z., Chorbińska, J., Biezyński, B., & Krajewski, P. (2018). Health-promoting
properties of pineapple. Pediatria i Medycyna Rodzinna, 14(2), 133–142. https://doi.
org/10.15557/PiMR.2018.0013.
Zhang, W., Cao, X., & Liu, S. Q. (2019). Aroma modulation of vegetable oils—A review.
Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/
10408398.2019.1579703.
Zhang, X., Shen, Y., Prinyawiwatkul, W., & Xu, Z. (2012). Volatile Compounds in Fresh-
Cut Pineapple Heated at Different Temperatures. Journal of Food Processing and
Preservation, 36(6), 567–573. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.12009.
Zheng, L. Y., Sun, G. M., Liu, Y. G., Lv, L. L., Yang, W. X., Zhao, W. F., & Wei, C. Bin
(2012). Aroma volatile compounds from two fresh pineapple varieties in China.
International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 13(6), 7383–7392. https://doi.org/
10.3390/ijms13067383.