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Mirror-Polished Granite Caves -Barabar Hills,South India

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Mirror- Polished Granite Caves -Barabar Hills,South India
Dr Uday Dokras Ph D Stockholm,SWEDEN’
Srishti Dokras, ARCHITECT-Fellow contributor, The Indo Nordic Author’s Collective, Tampere,
FINLAND

Lājinā Piyadasinā duvāḍasa-[vasābhisitenā] / [iyaṁ Nigoha]-kubhā di[nā ājivikehi]

"By King Priyadarsin, in the 12th year of his reign, this cave of Banyans was offered to the
Ajivikas."
— Ashoka inscription of the cave of Sudama

What is Reflection of Light?

When a ray of light approaches a smooth polished surface and the light ray bounces back, it is
called the reflection of light. The incident light ray which lands upon the surface is said to be
reflected off the surface. The ray that bounces back is called the reflected ray. If a perpendicular
were to be drawn on reflecting surface, it would be called normal. The figure below shows the
reflection of an incident beam on a plane mirror.
Here, the angle of incidence and angle of reflection are with respect to normal and the reflective
surface.

1
Laws of Reflection
The laws of reflection determine the reflection of incident light rays on reflecting surfaces, like
mirrors, smooth metal surfaces, and clear water. Let’s consider a plane mirror as shown in the
figure above. The law of reflection states that

 The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane
 The angle of incidence = Angle of reflection

The Caves at Barabar were constructed,carved into rocks following the laws of reflection and
were a message to the outside world that even rock could nbe made a mirror. What's a mirror
finish? A mirror finish on granited is a highly reflective, smooth finish with a scratch free
appearance, achieved through polishing.. Also known as a #8 finish, a mirror finish can be
achieved mechanically, using a progressive series of abrasives and polishing compounds yet in
those days of 300-400 BC this was achieved by hand polishing.
The Barabar Hill Caves are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India, dating from
the Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE), some with Ashokan inscriptions, located in
the Makhdumpur region of Jehanabad district, Bihar, India, 24 km (15 mi) north of Gaya. Carved
way before Ajanta, Ellora or Kanheri caves. Built during the Mauryan empire, at least 2300 years
back, these caves host the first known surface coated with a polish that gave mirror finish with
great flatnes
These caves are situated in the twin hills of Barabar (four caves) and Nagarjuni (three caves);
caves of the 1.6 km (0.99 mi)-distant Nagarjuni Hill are sometimes singled out as the Nagarjuni
Caves. These rock-cut chambers bear dedicatory inscriptions in the name of "King Piyadasi" for
the Barabar group, and "Devanampiya Dasaratha" for the Nagarjuni group, thought to date back
to the 3rd century BCE during the Maurya period, and to correspond respectively
to Ashoka (reigned 273–232 BCE) and his grandson, Dasharatha Maurya.
The sculptured surround to the entrance to the Lomas Rishi Cave is the earliest survival of
the ogee shaped "chaitra arch" or chandrashala that was to be an important feature of Indian
rock-cut architecture and sculptural decoration for centuries. The form was clearly a
reproduction in stone of buildings in wood and other plant materials.
The caves were used by ascetics from the Ajivika sect, founded by Makkhali Gosala, a
contemporary of Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, and of Mahavira, the last and
24th Tirthankara of Jainism. The Ajivikas had many similarities with Buddhism as well as
Jainism. Also present at the site are several rock-cut Buddhist and Hindu sculptures and
inscriptions from later periods.
Most caves at Barabar consist of two chambers, carved entirely out of granite, with a highly
polished internal surface, the "Mauryan polish" also found on sculptures, and exciting echo
effects.
The caves were featured – located in a fictitious Marabar – in the book A Passage to India by
English author E. M. Forster. These were also shown in the book The Mahabharata Secret by
Indian author Christopher C. Doyle.

2
Photograph and volume plan of Sudama cave (9.98x5.94m). The cave consists of a large vaulted room and a semi-
hemispherical sanctum (here, in the back of the photographer), all with a polished granite finish. The cracks correspond to
a slip in the rock, probably after the creation of the cave.

Beautiful Polished granite Stone looks beautiful because of it’s nice smoothness and shine.
Natural Like Marble.It is a natural stone and is bio-degradable and a green option.Finish stone
can be finished according to requirement such as one-side honed, both-sides honed, hand cut,
polished, mirror finish and calibrated etc.
It is Hygienic being non-porous and moisture resistant, is a hygienic flooring option in humid
regions.
Cool – it reflects heat and is always cool and comfortable underfoot and as walls
Stone Surface Finishes

1- Polished

3
The surface is brilliant and shiny with a mirror effect. It cause the most refined edge for tiles.
The process of polishing is by repeated application of abrasive treatments. This type of finishing
is suitable for almost all kinds of stones. This is very regular finishing especially in Iranian stone
factories. Polished tiles are used for interiors as well as bench top and counter top, but it is not
suggested for outdoor since it reduces slip resistance.

2- Honed

Honed finishing is the most common process for Limestone. (Many of which will not take a
polish) A honed finish refers to any level that is less than polished and therefore the surface is
smooth but dull or slightly reflective. In areas with a lot of foot traffic, floor tiles are often honed
and not polished.

3- Leathered

"Leathering" is the process of texturing granite or marble to appear less glossy. A leather finish is
obtained by a process of brushing the slab with a range of brushes. The result is a slightly
undulating surface, very soft, warm and smooth to the touch. Leathering starts with a honed
surface and adds texture. Additionally, it closes the pores of the stone (compared to honing) and
retains the color better than honing.

4- Sandblasted

This treatment removes saw marks and achieves a smooth surface with fine, sometimes almost
invisible circular marks. The tile looks slightly scratched but feels nice when touched. The colors
are a bit dull. This type of finish is usually applied to sandstone and is one of the finishes you can
choose for exterior. This finish can also be found under the name grit blasted finish.

5- Tumbled

Using sand, pebbles and water to tumble the surface of the stone in order to create an aged
appearance. A finish can be applied to variety of stones to give them the impression that they
have been walked on for centuries. This is an aging process similar to the one applied to achieve

4
an antique finish. In this case, natural stone is introduced in a vibrating drum-like machine with
smaller, more resistant stones that wear the tile completely.

6- Flamed

This finish is achieved by exposing the surface of the stone directly to a high temperature flame.
he heat acts by blowing the crystals out as they suffer thermal shock, with an effect that is
particularly evident in materials composed of minerals with various degrees of expansion, (such
as the vast majority of granites). The resulting surface is rough, non-slip and generally faded in
color, thereby hiding defects and tone variations. Because of oxidation, yellow materials become
orange or red.

7- Brushed

By brushing, the original surface (honed, sandblasted, flamed or sanded) is made smoother by
using abrasive brushes under high pressure. After this treatment, the colours of the natural stone
become more vivid once again. The surface looks slightly rough, depending on the original
finish.

8- Bush-Hammered

A highly textured finish best used for external applications such as paving or walkways. A
mechanical hammer hits the stone and leaves small indentations on the surface. The result
depends on the size of the hammer and the number of points on the hammer. The result leaves
the surface of the stone smooth with small indentations.

5
9- Split Face

The split face finish is a result of the stone being cut by a guillotine that fractures the face and
turns it to a rocky finish.

10- Antiqued

This surface can be achieved by machines that resemble commercial washing machines for
smaller items or by first flaming and then using abrasives to brush the surface of larger items. It
gives a worn look to the stone and also stimulates its further aging over time.

11- Sawn

This finish is created by “sawing” the stone with diamond disc teeth. It produces a somewhat
rough and irregular surface with small furrows and undulations. Sawn finish makes the stone
lighter and gives it a matte tone. Sawn finish is available for external paving, steps, pathways,
driveways and patios. This surface is a result of sawing, when the granite, marble, sandstone &
Travertine block is sawn into slabs by diamond gang saw or by diamond wire saw or by block
cutter. The sawn surface is generally smooth but probably some “blade / saw markings” can be
seen on the surface of the material.

6
 12- Chiseled

A diamond teeth mill grinder is applied perpendicularly to the surface, to achieve the typical flat
profile. The grooves always run parallel, the distance between them remains constant. A chiseled
finish is created, as the name implies, by breaking a stone with a hammer and chisel. Depending
on the type of chisel used and skill level of the person using it, this can provide a very rough
surface or a slightly irregular finish. A chiseled finish can be applied to any stone.

13- Acid-Washed

acids can be used to simply clean the surface of natural stone or to change its appearance,
depending on the type of acid and the length of its application. Acid wash is an alternative way
to achieve antiqued look and it also can have similar results as the water finishing. The good
news is it can be applied retrospectively, meaning that you can change the look of an already
installed countertop, for example.

 Epoxy treated – it is a multi-step method that combines several techniques. First the stone is
honed so that it has a smooth surface to which the resin can be applied. Then it is dried in a
special oven and the process of applying resin and drying is done one more time. At the end, the
stone is polished. The process improves the visual characteristics and the resistance of the stone
tiles.

7
 Meshed – this is mainly an additional step to make the stone stronger, used mostly for defective
marble or stone slabs. During the epoxy treatment of the stone a thin net of fiberglass or plastic is
applied to the back side of the tile. It has no decorative functions.

 Protective treatment – this is not an actual surface finishing, but rather the final step to protect
the stone tiles by applying oil-repellents or anti-graffiti treating substances. In a nutshell, this is
the process of protecting already installed tiles by treating them with the respective substance.

14- Natural

The natural finish is basically the absence of treatment. The stone is sold as extracted from the
quarry, once cut into the desired format. The final look depends entirely on the characteristics of
the stone and its exploitation. This finish is appropriated for cladding and cobblestones.

Built by the Great king-Ashoka also known as Ashoka the Great; Ashoka was an Indian
emperor of the Maurya Dynasty, who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from c. 268 to
232 BCE. The grandson of the founder of the Maurya Dynasty, Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka
promoted the spread of Buddhism across ancient Asia. Considered by many to be one of India's
greatest emperors, Ashoka expanded Chandragupta's empire to reign over a realm stretching
from present-day Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east. It covered the entire Indian
subcontinent except for parts of present-day Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. The empire's
capital was Pataliputra (in Magadha, present-day Patna), with provincial capitals
at Taxila and Ujjain. In The Outline of History (1920), H.G. Wells says that, "Amidst the tens of
thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and
graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines, and
shines, almost alone, a star."

8
Ashoka waged a destructive war against the state of Kalinga (modern Odisha), which he
conquered in about 260 BCE. He converted to Buddhism after witnessing the mass deaths of
the Kalinga War, which he had waged out of a desire for conquest and which reportedly directly
resulted in more than 100,000 deaths and 150,000 deportations. He is remembered for the
Ashoka pillars and edicts, for sending Buddhist monks to Sri Lanka and Central Asia, and for
establishing monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha.
Beyond the Edicts of Ashoka, biographical information about him relies on legends written centuries
later, such as the 2nd-century CE Ashokavadana ("Narrative of Ashoka", a part of the Divyavadana), and
in the Sri Lankan text Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle"). The emblem of the modern Republic of India is an
adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka. His Sanskrit name "Aśoka" means "painless, without sorrow"
(the a privativum and śoka, "pain, distress"). In his edicts, he is referred to
as Devānāmpriya (Pali Devānaṃpiya or "the Beloved of the Gods"), and Priyadarśin or Priyadarshi
(Pali Piyadasī or "He who regards everyone with affection"). His fondness for a tree is the reason for his
name being connected to the "Ashoka tree" or Polyalthia longifolia, and this is referenced in
the Ashokavadana.

Ashoka and the construction of the caves

In addition to the inscriptions indicating that they were made in the 12th year of Ashoka's reign
(250 BC), it is generally considered that the construction of the Barabar caves itself also dates
from his reign. The fact that the cave of Vivaskarma was not consecrated by Ashoka during the
12th year of his reign, but only seven years later, argues for the hypothesis of a gradual
construction of the caves under Ashoka. Similarly, the fact that the caves on Nagarjuni Hill were
not consecrated by Ashoka but by his successor Dasaratha, suggests that these caves were only
built after the reign of Ashoka.

Dedicatory inscription of Dasaratha Maurya above the entrance of the Vadathika cave.
Dasaratha Maurya, Ashoka's grandson and regnal successor, wrote dedicatory inscriptions in the
three other caves, forming the Nagarjuni group (Gopika, Vadathi and Vapiya caves) of the
Barabar hills.[8] It is generally considered that their construction dates from his reign. [8]
The three caves were offered to the Ajivikas upon the accession to the throne of Dasaratha,
confirming that these were still active around 230 BCE, and that Buddhism was not the exclusive
religion of the Mauryas at that time.

9
Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in
texture. Granites can be predominantly white, pink, or gray in color, depending on
their mineralogy. The word "granite" comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the
coarse-grained structure of such a completely crystalline rock. Strictly speaking, granite is an
igneous rock with between 20% and 60% quartz by volume, and at least 35% of the total feldspar
consisting of alkali feldspar, although commonly the term "granite" is used to refer to a wider
range of coarse-grained igneous rocks containing quartz and feldspar.

10
The term "granitic" means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of intrusive igneous
rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition and origin. These rocks mainly
consist of feldspar, quartz, mica, and amphibole minerals, which form an interlocking,
somewhat equigranular matrix of feldspar and quartz with scattered darker biotite mica and
amphibole (often hornblende) peppering the lighter color minerals. Occasionally some individual
crystals (phenocrysts) are larger than the groundmass, in which case the texture is known
as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a porphyritic texture is known as a
granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained
igneous rocks. Petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of
granitoids.[1] The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite.

Cleopatra's Needle, London

A microscopic picture of granite

Granite is nearly always massive (i.e., lacking any internal structures), hard, and tough. These
properties have made granite a widespread construction stone throughout human history. The
average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3 (165 and 172 lb/cu ft),[
its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6·1019 Pa·s.
The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C (2219–2300 °F); it
is strongly reduced in the presence of water, down to 650 °C at a few kBar pressure.
Granite has poor primary permeability overall, but strong secondary permeability through
cracks and fractures if they are present.
Antiquity

The Red Pyramid of Egypt (circa 2590 BC), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed
limestone surfaces, is the third largest of Egyptian pyramids. Pyramid of Menkaure, likely dating
2510 BC, was constructed of limestone and granite blocks. The Great Pyramid of Giza (c. 2580
BC) contains a huge granite sarcophagus fashioned of "Red Aswan Granite". The mostly
ruined Black Pyramid dating from the reign of Amenemhat III once had a polished
granite pyramidion or capstone, which is now on display in the main hall of the Egyptian
Museum in Cairo (see Dahshur). Other uses in Ancient Egypt include columns,

11
door lintels, sills, jambs, and wall and floor veneer. How the ancient artisans worked the solid
granite is still a matter of debate.Rajaraja Chola I of the Chola Dynasty in South India built the
world's first temple entirely of granite in the 11th century AD in Tanjore, India.
The Brihadeeswarar Temple dedicated to Lord Shiva was built in 1010. The massive Gopuram
(ornate, upper section of shrine) is believed to have a mass of around 81 tonnes. It was the tallest
temple in south India.
In some areas, granite is used for gravestones and memorials. Granite is a hard stone and requires
skill to carve by hand. Until the early 18th century, in the Western world, granite could be carved
only by hand tools with generally poor results.
A key breakthrough was the invention of steam-powered cutting and dressing tools by Alexander
MacDonald of Aberdeen, inspired by seeing ancient Egyptian granite carvings
Buildings
Granite has been extensively used as a dimension stone and as flooring tiles in public and
commercial buildings and monuments. Aberdeen in Scotland, which is constructed principally
from local granite, is known as "The Granite City". Because of its abundance in New England,
granite was commonly used to build foundations for homes there. The Granite Railway,
America's first railroad, was built to haul granite from the quarries in Quincy, Massachusetts, to
the Neponset River in the 1820

 Granite is a natural source of radiation, like most natural stones.

 Potassium-40 is a radioactive isotope of weak emission, and a constituent of alkali
feldspar, which in turn is a common component of granitic rocks, more abundant in alkali
feldspar granite and syenites.
 Some granites contain around 10 to 20 parts per million (ppm) of uranium. By contrast,
more mafic rocks, such as tonalite, gabbro and diorite, have 1 to 5 ppm uranium,
and limestones and sedimentary rocks usually have equally low amounts. Many large
granite plutons are sources for palaeochannel-hosted or roll front uranium ore deposits,
where the uranium washes into the sediments from the granite uplands and associated,
often highly radioactive pegmatites. Cellars and basements built into soils over granite
can become a trap for radon gas,which is formed by the decay of uranium. Radon gas
poses significant health concerns and is the number two cause of lung cancer in the US
behind smoking.
 Thorium occurs in all granites. Conway granite has been noted for its relatively high
thorium concentration of 56±6 ppm.
 There is some concern that some granite sold as countertops or building material may be
hazardous to health.[23] Dan Steck of St. Johns University has stated[24] that approximately
5% of all granite is of concern, with the caveat that only a tiny percentage of the tens of
thousands of granite slab types have been tested. Various resources from national
geological survey organizations are accessible online to assist in assessing the risk factors
in granite country and design rules relating, in particular, to preventing accumulation of
radon gas in enclosed basements and dwellings.

12
  A study of granite countertops was done (initiated and paid for by the Marble Institute of
America) in November 2008 by National Health and Engineering Inc. of USA. In this
test, all of the 39 full-size granite slabs that were measured for the study showed radiation
levels well below the European Union safety standards (section 4.1.1.1 of the National
Health and Engineering study) and radon emission levels well below the average outdoor
radon concentrations in the US
Panorama of Barabar hill, with entrances to Sudama and Lomas Rishi caves.Map of the caves
in Barabar and Nagarjuni hills.

Barabar Hill contains four caves:

1.Karan Chaupar, Karan Chaupar (Karna Chaupar) consists of single rectangular room with
polished surfaces, contains inscription which could be dated to 245 BCE.
2.Lomas Rishi, Lomas Rishi cave has an arch-like shape facade that imitates contemporary
timber architecture. On the doorway, a row of elephants proceed towards stupa emblems, along
the curved architrave

3. Sudama Sudama and Lomas Rishi are the earliest examples of rock-cut architecture in India,
with architectural detailing made in the Mauryan period. Similar examples include the larger
Buddhist Chaitya, found in Maharashtra, such as in Ajanta and Karla Caves. The Barabar caves
greatly influenced the tradition of rock-cut architecture in the Indian subcontinent.These was
dedicated by Mauryan Emperor, Ashoka in 261 BCE. The arches of Sudama cave have bow
shape. The caves consist of a circular vaulted chamber with a rectangular mandapa.
4. Visvakarma. : These and Sudama cave reachable by Ashoka steps hewn in the cliff,
consists of two rectangular rooms.
1. Karan Chaupar cave

Photograph and volume plan of the Karan Chaupar cave (10.2x4.27m).

Karan Chaupar, also known as Karna Chaupar, is on the northern side of the Barabar granite
hill. It consists of a single rectangular room with polished surfaces, 10.2x4.27m in dimensions. It
contains an inscription of Ashoka dating from the 19th year of his reign, about 250 BCE, located
outside, immediately to the right of the entrance. [19] Initially, it was thought from E. Hultzsch's
1925 translation, that Ashoka's inscription from Karna Chopar Cave does not mention the

13
Ajivikas, and seems rather to refer to the Buddhist practice of retirement (vassavasa) during the
rainy season. In addition, the inverted swastika with upward arrow at the end of the inscription (
) would be more of a Buddhist character. All this suggested that this cave was planned for
Buddhist monks.[8] However, Harry Falk has recently shown with a new reading that the cave
was indeed dedicated to the Ajivikas.
Traditional reading of the inscription:
"In my 19th year of reign, I, King Priyadarsin,
offered this cave of the very pleasant mountain of
Khalatika, to serve as shelter during the rainy
season."

— Ashoka inscription from Karan Chaupar cave. Translation by E. Hultzsch, 1925

This reading of the inscription has been corrected by Harry Falk in 2007, who after cleaning the
stone and inspecting it read:
"When King Priyadarsin had been annointed 19 years,
he went to Jalūṭha and then this cave (called) Supriyekṣā,
was given to the Ajivikas."

— Ashoka inscription from Karan Chaupar cave. Translation by Harry Falk, 2007.
In particular, Falk reconstructs the last line (Su[p]i[y]ekha (Ajivikehi) dinā), which means
"Supriyekṣā was given to the Ājivikas"
The cave has a rock-cut bench at one end, probably to sit or sleep.
In the entrance hall an inscription from the Gupta period mentions "Daridra Kantara" ("The Cave
of the Beggars"). A mound decorated with later Buddhist sculptures is also near the entrance,
another element which suggested the belonging of this cave to the Buddhists.
2. Lomas Rishi cave

Photograph and volume representation of Lomas Rishi Cave. The digging of the vault has never
been finished.

14
The cave of Lomas Rishi is probably the most famous of the caves of Barabar, because of its
beautifully carved door. It is on the southern side of Barabar granite hill, and is adjacent to
Sudama cave, which is on the left. Lomas Rishi consists of two rooms: a rectangular room
measuring 9.86x5.18m, and a circular, semi-hemispherical room 5m in diameter, which is
accessed from the rectangular room by a narrow rectangular passage.
This cave has an arched facade that probably imitates contemporary wooden architecture. On the
periphery of the door, along the curve of the architrave, a line of elephants advances in the
direction of stupa emblems. This is the characteristic form of the "Chaitya arch" or chandrashala,
to be an important feature of architecture and sculpture in the rock for many centuries. It is
clearly a stone reproduction of wooden buildings and other plant materials. According to Gupta,
Lomas Rishi's immediate successors are the Kondivite and Guntupalli caves.
Lomas Rishi has no Ashoka inscription, perhaps because it has never been completed due to
structural rock slide problems. It is generally considered, however, that it was also created
around 260 BCE, like the other caves, because of the similarity of the internal structure and the
degree of finish of the rock, the walls being perfectly polished, with the exception of the vault
whose digging was interrupted. It has a much later inscription of Anantavarman above the
entrance, from the 5th century CE.

Entrances of Sudama Cave, and further, Lomas Rishi Cave, Barabar Hill.Unfinished
interior (floor and ceiling) of Lomas Rishi cave. The rocky bumps left in the state on
the ground appear in the farther left corner.

15
 Development of the Chaitya Arch from Lomas Rishi Cave on, from a book by Percy Brown.

Most of the Barabar caves were explicitly dedicated by Mauryan rulers to the sect of
the Ājīvikas through inscriptions. Depiction of an Ājīvika ascetic in a Gandhara sculpture of
the Mahaparinirvana, circa 2nd-3rd century CE.

3. Sudama cave

Photograph and volume plan of Sudama cave (9.98x5.94m). The cave consists of a large vaulted
room and a semi-hemispherical sanctum (here, in the back of the photographer), all with a
polished granite finish. The cracks correspond to a slip in the rock, probably after the creation of
the cave. Photos.
The Sudama cave is located on the southern side of Barabar granite hill. It is close to Lomas
Rishi, and on its left. It consists of two rooms: a rectangular room measuring 9.98x5.94m, and a
semi-hemispherical room 6m in diameter, which is accessed from the rectangular room by a
narrow rectangular passage. This is probably the first cave in the group to have been dug. This
cave was dedicated by Emperor Ashoka in 257 BCE (12th year of his reign) as evidenced by an
inscription in Brahmi using his protocol name (Priyadarsin, "He who brings joy") found in the
entrance of the cave, whereas the cave of Lomas Rishi did not receive a dedicatory inscription.

The ceiling of the Sudama cave is arched. The cave is composed of a circular vaulted chamber
and a vaulted room with the rectangular form of mandapa. The interior walls of the cave
represent a technical feat: they are perfectly flat and polished granite surfaces, creating a mirror
effect.[8] On the other hand, the plane surfaces reverberate the sound, creating a very pronounced
echo phenomenon. This characteristic is common to all the caves of Barabar, and, by amplifying
the vibrations and the harmonies, seems to be favorable to the songs of the monks.

All of Barabar's caves share this interior polished appearance to a greater or lesser extent, with
the exception of Lomas Rishi Cave, which, although designed on the same model, is only half-
finished for its interior.

16
 Entrance corridor of the Sudama cave.MIRROR reflections/The interior wall consist in
perfectly polished granite surfaces (visible reflection).
4. Visvakarma cave

Photograph and volume plan of the Barabar Vivaskarma cave (4.27x2.54m).

The Visvakarma cave, also called Viswa Mitra, is accessible by the "steps of Ashoka" carved
into the cliff. It is a hundred meters and a little east of the main granite
hill 25°00′22″N 85°03′53″E. It consists of a rectangular room entirely open to the outside, a sort
of elongated porch, and an unfinished semi-hemispherical room: the rectangular space measures
4.27x2.54m, and the circular room is 2.8m in diameter . One goes from the rectangular room to
the half-hemispherical room by a narrow trapezoidal passage. On the floor of the porch, four
holes were made, which are thought to allow the cave to be closed with a wooden picket fence. [7]
The cave of Visvakarma was offered by Ashoka to the Ajivikas in the year 12 of his reign, about
261 BCE:
"By King Priyadarsin, in the 12th year of his reign, this cave of Khalatika Mountain was offered
to the Ajivikas. "

17
— - Ashoka inscription from Visvakarma Cave
Visvakarma cave, despite the fact that it is not finished, was nonetheless consecrated by Ashoka.
This somewhat questions the theory that Lomas Rishi's cave would not have received Ashoka's
inscription because it was in a state of incompletion. This could justify that Lomas Rishi, with
his bas-reliefs, is actually posterior to Ashoka, as late as 185 BCE. This does not explain,
however, why Visvakarma, consecrated in 260 BCE, has been interrupted, in the absence of a
significant problem in the rock, whereas 7 years later Ashoka dedicated Karan Chaupar cave,
perfectly finished, a short distance from there. Visvakarma is also the only cave that does not
have "historical" inscriptions after Ashoka.

The "Ashoka stairs" leading to Visvakarma.The entrance and internal passage./Dedicatory

inscription by Ashoka./"Piyadasi", honorific name of Ashoka, in Brahmi script.

Nagarjuna Caves: Gopika cave

Photograph of the stairs to Gopika cave, and entrance of the cave, in Nagarjuni hill. Volume plan of
Gopika cave (13.95x5.84m).

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 LATER CAVES
The nearby caves of Nagarjuni hill were built few decades later than the Barabar caves, and
consecrated by Dasaratha Maurya, Ashoka's grandson and successor, each for the Ajivikas sect.
They are 1.6 kilometers east of the Barabar Caves. The three caves are:

A. Gopika (Gopi-ka-Kubha), on the southside of the hill, excavated by the king Dasharatha
grandson of Ashoka, according to an inscription.

B.Vadithi-ka-Kubha cave, on the northside of the hill, located in a crevice, and devoted to
Ajivika followers by Dasharatha.

C. Vapiya-ka-Kubha cave, on the northside of the hill, also devoted to Ajivika followers by
Dasharatha.

A. Gopika cave
Also called Gopi or Gopi-ka-Kubha or simply Nagarjuni, Gopika cave is the largest of all the
caves of the Barabar complex (25.009116°N 85.078427°E). It consists of a single large oblong
room of 13.95x5.84m. The two ends of the room have the particularity of being circular, contrary
to the other caves. The cave lies on the south bank of the hill, dug by King Dasharatha grandson
of Emperor Ashoka, according to the inscription that was engraved above the front door:
"The cave of Gopika, a refuge that will last as long as the sun and the moon, was dug by
Devanampiya (beloved of the gods) Dasaratha during his elevation to the throne, to make a
hermitage for the most pious Ajivikas "

— Inscription of Dasaratha Maurya on the cave of Gopika. About 230 BCE. [8]
The cave also has the "Gopika Cave Inscription" in the entrance corridor, dated to the 5-6th
century CE.

B. Vadathika and Vapiyaka caves

Vadathika cave (left) and Vapiyaka cave (right), and plan of the two caves Photos
These two caves are a little higher on the north side of the hill, 300m as the crow flies
(25.011261°N 85.076963°E). Although small, they are very beautiful, perfectly carved, caves.

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This cave is located in a crevasse in the rock. It consists of a single rectangular room sized
5.11x3.43m, with a porch at the entrance of 1.83x1.68m. This cave was consecrated
by Dasharatha Maurya, the grandson and successor of Ashoka, for the sect of Ajivikas.
The cave of Vadathika, a refuge that will last as long as the sun and the moon, was dug by
Devanampiya (beloved of the gods) Dasaratha during his elevation to the throne, to make it a
hermitage for the most pious Ajivikas

— Inscription of Dasharatha Maurya on the cave of Vadathika. About 230 BCE. [8]
The cave also has a much later Hindu inscription, the Vadathika Cave Inscription.

Vapiyaka Cave, also called "Well Cave" from the meaning of its name . It consists of a single
rectangular room of dimensions 5.10x3.43m. This cave was also dedicated to the Ajivikas sect
by Dasharatha, with an inscription equivalent to that of the cave of Gopika. This cave also has a
beautiful vaulted hall, entirely made of perfectly polished granite. It has an inscription identical
to its neighbor, except for the name of the cave, as well as a number of short inscriptions of the
Gupta era.

Dasaratha dedicatory inscription on top of the entrance of Vadathika cave. 3rd century
BCE.///Entrance of Vapiyaka cave.

Who were the Ajivika to whom these caves were dedicated?

Ashoka dedicated the caves of Sudama and Visvakarma to the ascetics called "Ajivikas" in the
12th year of his reign, when his religious evolution towards Buddhism was not yet fully
completed. The precise identity of the Ajivikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they
were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.
This is the first time that neither Hindu nor Buddhist nor Jain were so honored The Ajivikais one
of the nāstika or "heterodox" schools of Indian philosophy. Purportedly founded in the 5th
century BCE by Makkhali Gosala, it was a śramaṇa movement and a major rival of Vedic
religion, early Buddhism and Jainism. Ājīvikas were organised renunciates who formed discrete
communities. The precise identity of the Ajivikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if
they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.
Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are
currently unavailable and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ajivikas in
the secondary sources of ancient Indian literature. [12] Scholars question whether Ājīvika

20
philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were
written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the
philosophy and religious practices of the Ajivikas. It is therefore likely that much of the
information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterisations of
them should be regarded carefully and critically.
The Ājīvika school is known for its Niyati ("Fate") doctrine of absolute determinism,[8] the
premise that there is no free will, that everything that has happened, is happening and will
happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles. [8][12] Ājīvikas considered
the karma doctrine as a fallacy. Ajivika metaphysics included a theory of atoms which was later
adapted in Vaisheshika school, where everything was composed of atoms, qualities emerged
from aggregates of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of these atoms was predetermined by
cosmic forces. Ājīvikas were mostly considered as atheists. They believed that in every living
being is an ātman – a central premise of Hinduism and Jainism.
Ājīvika philosophy reached the height of its popularity during the rule of
the Mauryan emperor Bindusara, around the 4th century BCE. This school of thought thereafter
declined, but survived for nearly 2,000 years through the 14th century CE in the southern Indian
states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The Ājīvika philosophy, along with the Cārvāka philosophy,
appealed most to the warrior, industrial and mercantile classes of ancient Indian society
According to Gupta, the theory that Lomas Rishi would not have received Ashoka's inscription
because it was in a state of incompleteness, is undermined by the fact that the cave of
Vivaskarma, another cave of Barabar, although it is not finished, was nevertheless consecrated
by Ashoka. The consecration of a cave could therefore be done in the course of work. This could
induce that Lomas Rishi, with its bas-reliefs, is actually posterior to Ashoka. Gupta actually
believes that Lomas Rishi is posterior to both Ashoka and his grandson Dasaratha, and would
have been built at the end of the Maurya Empire, under the reign of his last Emperor
Brihadratha, and abruptly halted in 185 BC with the assassination of Brihadratha and the coup
d'état of Pushyamitra Sunga, founder of the Sunga dynasty. Pushyamitra Sunga is also known to
have persecuted Buddhists and Ajivikas, which would explain the immediate cessation of work.
According to Gupta, the abrupt interruption of the works is suggested by the lack of finishing,
even approximate, of the ground, with for example the abandonment in the state of some pikes of
the rocks which would have required only a few minutes of chipping to be removed in order to
obtain a fairly regular floor.
Questions of date and religious affiliation
Later, Ashoka built the caves of Lomas Rishi (without dated inscription, but posterior to Sudama
on architectural grounds) and Karna Chopar (19th year of his reign), at a time when he had
become a firm advocate of Buddhism, as known from the Edicts of Ashoka. It was initially
thought that Karna Chopar may have been dedicated to the Buddhists, based on a former reading
of the inscription at the entrance of the cave, corrected by Harry Falk in 2007: the new reading
shows that Karna Chopar too had been dedicated to the Ajivikas. [17] Since Lomas Rishi has no
dedicatory inscription, it has been suggested that it may had been dedicated to the Buddhists. The
affiliation of Lomas Rishi to Buddhism, although unproven, would be coherent with the fact that
the architecture of the gate of Lomas Rishi became a reference for the development of
the Chaitya arch in Buddhist cave architecture for the following centuries, whereas the Hindus or
the Jains caves essentially did not follow this architectural example. This would also mean that

21
the decorated gate of Lomas Rishi was a Buddhist invention, which was emulated in Buddhist
architecture in the following centuries. After the Barabar caves, the earliest known rock-cut
Buddhist monasteries date to the 1st century BCE in the Western Ghats in western India, such as
the Nasik Caves.

Technology used to polish Cave:

Mirror-like polishing of the granite walls. Left: wall of the entrance corridor to the cave of
Gopika (mirror effect increased by the low shooting angle). Right: interior of the Sudama cave
with reflection of a monk. These quasi-perfect walls were dug into the hard rock and polished
before 261 BCE, date of the rather clumsy inscriptions of Ashoka.
The caves were carved out of granite, an extremely hard rock, then finished with a very
nice polishing of the inner surface, giving a mirror effect of a great regularity, as well as an echo
effect. This large-scale polish is reminiscent of polishing on smaller surfaces of the Maurya
statuary, particularly visible on the pillars and capitals of the Ashoka pillars.
Commenting of Mauryan sculpture, John Marshall once wrote about the "extraordinary precision
and accuracy which characterizes all Mauryan works, and which has never, we venture to say,
been surpassed even by the finest workmanship on Athenian buildings".
Import

Monumental Achaemenid polish, 5th century BCE. Polished stone ax, India, 2800-1500 BCE.

22
This remarkable and large-scale polishing technique, and in many ways without parallel, seems
nevertheless to have been derived from polishing techniques in Achaemenid statuary, the stone-
working techniques having spread in India after the destruction of the empire by Alexander the
Great in 330 BC and the displacement of Persian and Perso-Greek artists and technicians. This
know-how seems to have disappeared again after the Maurya period, none of the later caves such
as the Ajanta caves having this characteristic of polished surfaces.
The very act of digging artificial caves in the rock, of which the Barabar caves represent the
oldest case in India, was probably inspired by the caves dug in the rock of the Achaemenids, as is
the case in Naqsh-e Rostam. It seems, however, that in India there had been an ancient tradition
of ascetics using caves.
Local development

According to Gupta, the polishing of rocks could have a local origin, citing the existence of
polishing technologies of the neolithic, as visible in various stone tools such as axes. There is,
however, no trace of evolution from these neolitical tools to polished stone architecture, and the
Barabar caves are essentially a sudden technological break with no local history, suggesting the
import of these techniques from another culture. Nor are there any known examples of stone
architecture in India before the Maurya period. According to Gupta, the Son Bhandar
Caves could be such an intermediate step, although relatively unique, and subject to questioning
its chronology, since it is generally dated to the 2nd-4th centuries of our era.[
Visvakarma cave, Ashoka inscription (c.258 BCE)

Dedicatory inscription of Ashoka in Visvakarma/Viswamitra cave, Barabar. The word

"Ajivikas" at the end of the inscription was later attacked with the burin, at a time when the
Brahmi script was still understood, i.e. before the 5th century, but is still readable. The Brahmi
script inscription reads: "By King Priyadarsin, in the 12th year of his reign, this cave of
Khalatika Mountain was offered to the Ajivikas."
The Ashoka inscriptions of the Barabar Caves were engraved during the 12th year and the 19th
year of Ashoka's reign (about 258 BCE and 251 BCE respectively, based on a coronation date of
269 BCE), for the dedication of several caves to the sect of the Ajivikas, a sect of ascetics, which
flourished at the same time as Buddhism and Jainism. The words "Ajivikas" were later attacked
by the chisel, probably by religious rivals, at a time when the Brahmi script was still understood
(probably before the 5th century CE). However, the original inscriptions being deep, they remain
easily decipherable.

23
The Ashoka inscriptions in the Barabar Caves are part of Ashoka's "Minor Rock Edicts", and
appear in the three caves named Sudama, Visvakarma and Karna Chopar. Lomas Rishi,
meanwhile, has no Ashoka inscription (only an inscription of Anantavarman above the entrance,
5-6th century CE), perhaps because she did not never been completed due to structural rock slide
problems.
The three caves are also characterized by an extremely advanced finish of the granite walls
inside, which again confirms that the technique of "Mauryan polish" did not die out with the
reign of Ashoka.
Mauryan polish describes one of the frequent characteristics of architecture and sculptures of
the Maurya Empire in India (325 to 185 BCE), which gives a very smooth and shiny surface to
the stone material, generally of sandstone or granite. Mauryan polish is found especially in
the Ashoka Pillars as well as in some constructions like the Barabar Caves. The technique did
not end with the empire, but continued to be "used on occasion up to the first or second century
A.D.", although the presence of the polish sometimes complicates dating, as with the Didarganj
Yakshi. According to the archaeologist John Marshall: the "extraordinary precision and accuracy
which characterizes all Mauryan works, and which has never, we venture to say, been surpassed
even by the finest workmanship on Athenian buildings".

In 244 BC, Indian emperor Ashoka finds a hilly cave with an astonishing secret. Believing it
could destroy the world, he creates a secret brotherhood of Nine Men, who would guard the
cave's contents through the centuries. He also removed the Vimana Parva chapter of the Indian
epic, Mahabharata, from its written transcripts.
In present day, Vikram Singh, an Indian nuclear scientist, is murdered at his fort in Jaungarh.
Before his death he sent four cryptic emails to his nephew Vijay, who with his business partner
Colin, childhood friend Radha and her father, linguist Dr. Shukla, start analyzing it. They are
aided by Bheem Singh, current owner of Rajvirgarh fort and Greg White, an archaeologist
24
 mentioned in Vikram's emails. The group deduce that the emails refer to the Nine Men and their
secret, which can be revealed by using a metal disc, a key, a ball of rock and a riddle. Their
mission is interrupted by a man called Farooq, a Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) militant. The group find
that the metal disc and the key together point to the Edicts of Ashoka. They travel to Bairat and
find a hidden library of the Nine, but are imprisoned inside by Farooq and his men. The group
find an alternate route and the ball of rock.
In the meantime, Intelligence Bureau (IB) official Imran Kidwai gets information about Farooq
and starts investigating. Vijay and his friends travel to the Barabar Caves in Bihar after
interpreting a clue in Bairat. Inside the caves they unearth another such ball with inscriptions on
it. However, Vijay and Radha are kidnapped by Farooq. Imran suspects Bheem Singh and
investigates in his basement, but gets caught. Bheem explains that the Vimana Parva of
the Mahabharata spoke about ancient arsenal which could be made invisible by covering them
with an undisclosed element, thus making them fatal. This was what the Nine tried to protect.
Imran understands that Bheem was allied with Farooq and were trying to discover the secret
location of the weapons. In an ensuing conflict, Bheem's attack on Imran backfires and he
himself is killed.
Farooq had given 48 hours time to Vijay's friends to decipher the meaning of the final clue in the
ball. They unearth the final secret to be at Hazaribagh, atop a hill called Marang Buru. Farooq
and his men escape with Vijay on being notified of Imran's advance, leaving Radha behind. As
the whole group reaches Marang Buru, there it is revealed that Greg was actually an assassin
employed by Farooq called Murphy, impersonating the real Greg White. On Farooq's insistence,
Vijay and Colin enter the hill and through numerous chambers reach the secret vault of the Nine.
There they discover the giant artillery, including the nuclear weapons. Farooq and his henchmen
start collecting the weapons, unaware that Imran and Indian commandos had surrounded them.
Colin, Shukla and Vijay are rescued and reunite with Radha, with Imran driving them away from
Hazaribagh. A mistimed grenade blasts the secret cavern, destroying the hillside and killing off
Farooq and the others, thereby wiping out the Nine's secret.
A few days later, Vijay re-reads his uncle's e-mails and finds another clue, directing him to the
vicinity of Jaungarh fort. There he finds a secret chamber containing the documents belonging to
the Nine, as well as important texts, scriptures and ancient artifacts. A letter from his uncle
reveals him as the last member of the Nine, and a request for Vijay to accept the guardianship of
the documents. Vijay accepts and becomes a member of the Nine Men.

25

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