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Kphakt kt Offpîrhtnfa

Ofaokptnfa kt cnjkasnfaakjkat ck rîskhux

c„khu pfthglk phr frcnahtkur.

Yrkjnårk îcntnfa hotuhlnsîk

Hvrnl 7982

_hatnhdf Hrahlnoe

Kphakt kt Offpîrhtnfa

Ofaokptnfa kt cnjkasnfaakjkat ck rîskhux

c„khu pfthglk phr frcnahtkur.

Yrkjnårk îcntnfa hotuhlnsîk

Hvrnl 7982

© Hrahlnoe, Thtkr hac Ehgntht

Sfus crfnts rîskrvîs. Lh peftfofpnk ck ok jhaukl pfur vftrk utnlnshtnfa pkrsfaakllk kst hutfrnsîk
sn vftrk sntuhtnfa bnahaonårk ak vfus pkrjkt phs ck l„hoektkr. Chas lk ohs ofatrhnrk, pkaskz é
sfutkanr okttk nantnhtnvk ka hoekthat lk lnvrk.

Yfur utnlnskr uak phrtnk cu ofatkau ck ok lnvrk, vkunllkz jk ofathotkr é l„hcrkssk sunvhatk =
puglnohonfaksIhrahlnoe.ofj.

Yeftf ck ofuvkrturk = Cîdçts cu tsuahjn é Jkulhgfe, Nacfaîsnk

Krrhtuj = www.hrahlnoe.ofj/cwal/xlnphofbr.cfo

HRN_ NJYFWSHAS = lks nabfrjhtnfas ofatkauks chas okt fuvrhdk sfat kxtrhntks ck sfuroks cndaks ck bfn kt rkspkotîks
natkrahtnfahlkjkat. Okpkachat, an Hrahlnoe T&E, an lks hutkurs ak pkuvkat dhrhatnr l„kxhotntuck cks nabfrjhtnfas puglnîks non
kt, phr ofasîqukat, ak skrhnkat ítrk tkaus pfur rkspfashglks ka ohs c„krrkur, fjnssnfa fu cfjjhdk ohusîs phr l„utnlnshtnfa
ck oks nabfrjhtnfas. Nl kst prîonsî quk lks nabfrjhtnfas sfat puglnîks shas huouak natkatnfa phrtnoulnårk kt ak oekroekat ka
huoua ohs é sk sugstntukr hux skrvnoks ck prfbkssnfaakls ck l„nadîankrnk. Ka ohs ck gksfna, vkunllkz rkofurnr é l„hssnsthaok ck
rfbkssnfaakls s îonhlnsîs.

H tfutk l„îqunpk ck Shazhank,

ka phrtnoulnkr é Sklkspefry kt Rnaokat.

H Mulnhah Bkrahackz, pfur sfa

rkjhrquhglk trhvhnl ck trhcuotnfa.

Wkjkronkjkats ck Mulnhah

Hprås lks okathnaks ck jnllnkrs ck ofasulthtnfas cks vkrsnfas ksphdaflk kt hadlhnsk, lh

trhcuotnfa ka brhaähns ck ok lnvrk kst ckvkauk naofatfurahglk.

_klfa l„FJ_, ka 798;, 22? jnllnfas ck pkrsfaaks a„hvhnkat tfumfurs phs hooås é ua
pfnat c„khu hjîlnfrî. Dhrhatnr, c„non 79?9, ua hooås uanvkrskl kt îqunthglk é l„khu chas
lk jfack kst ua cîbn qun ak pfurrh ítrk rklkvî shas lk ofaofurs ck tfus.

Mk suns ekurkusk c'hvfnr pu ofatrngukr é httknacrk okt fgmkotnb ka trhcunshat ok lnvrk. Mk

tnkas ka phrtnoulnkr é rkjkronkr lks pkrsfaaks qun j'fat hncî chas ok trhvhnl.

Mk rkjkronk _hatnhdf Hrahlnoe pfur j„hvfnr bhnt ofabnhaok kt ofabnî lh trhcuotnfa ck sfa
lnvrk.

Mk rkjkronk îdhlkjkat Jndukl Bkrahackz Grhvf pfur sks prîonkux ofasknls ck

trhcuotnfa kt Eîlfæsk Bkrahackz pfur sh rklkoturk kt sks suddkstnfas tfumfurs
pkrtnakatks.

Mulnhah Bkrahackz
www.lna`kcna.ofj/na/bkrahackzmulnhah

_fjjhnrk
8. Hvhat ck ofjjkaokr 8

Xuklquks îlîjkats njpfrthats hvhat ck ofjjkaokr ………………………….. 7

Ofaokptnfa ck rîskhux kt hahlysk ck rîskhux kxnsthats ……………………….. ?
Yfurqufn cks prfmkts chas lk cfjhnak ck l„khu 6 ……………………………….. 3
Lks ofasîqukaoks cu jhaquk c„hooås é l„khu ………………………………….. ;
Ykaskr lk « skrvnok ° ……………………………………………………...………… 4
Xuhac kst-nl pkrtnakat ck ofastrunrk ua rîskhu c'khu 6 …………….…………… >
Yfurqufn jfcîlnskr ua rîskhu 6 ……………………………………………..…… 88
_„hchptkr hu ofatkxtk ……………………………………………………..…….… 8?
Natrfcuotnfa é lh ofaokptnfa ck rîskhux …………………….…………………… 83

7. Kphakt kt lh jfcîlnshtnfa ck rîskhux 82

Natrfcuotnfa ..................................................................................................... 84
Yrîskathtnfa c„Kphakt ......................................................................................8>
Xuklquks nabfrjhtnfas prhtnquks ....…………………………………………....... 79
Ok quk pkut bhnrk kt ak pkut phs bhnrk Kphakt ....................………………….... 77
Lks fgmkts ..............…………………………………………………...………....... 73
Kvntkr ck pkrcrk cu tkjps hvko Kphakt ...............……….…………..……......... 7;
Îvntkr jhlkatkacus c'uantîs ............………………………………..……............ 75
Futnls ck ghsk .................……………………………………………..…..……..... 7>

?. L„hsskjglhdk ??

Natrfcuotnfa ..................................................................................................... ?3
Ofavkrsnfa c„uantîs ......................................................................................... ?;
Hmfutkr ck lh ohrtfdrhpenk ................................................................................ ?2
Ckssnakr ua rîskhu ......................................................................................... 3?
_hnsnr lks prfprnîtîs cks aşucs ...................................................................... 3>
_hnsnr lks prfprnîtîs cks tuyhux ....................................................................... ;2
_hnsnr lks prfprnîtîs cks gçoeks nabnanks .......................................................... 28

_hnsnr lks prfprnîtîs cks rîskrvfnrs .................................................................. 27

Lks vhaaks ...................................................................................................... 23
Lks pfjpks ..................................................................................................... 2;
Jfcîlnskr uak pfjpk ...................................................................................... 25
Jfcîlnskr ua bfrhdk ......................................................................................... 4?
Jfcîlnskr uak sfurok ...................................................................................... 4;
Jfcîlnskr ua ghssna grnsk-oehrdk ................................................................... 42
_quklkttnshtnfa ................................................................................................ 45

3. Oehrdkr lk jfcålk 4>

Natrfcuotnfa ..................................................................................................... 59
Yfpulhtnfa hotukllk kt pfpulhtnfa buturk… Hæk ! ............................................... 58
Ohloul ck lh ckjhack tfthlk mfurahlnårk ........................................................... 53
Lks jultnplnohtkurs .......................................................................................... 57
Lk jfcålk ck ofasfjjhtnfa mfurahlnkr ........................................................... 54
_hnsnr cnbbîrkats typks ck ckjhack .................................................................. >?
Lk jfcålk ck ofasfjjhtnfa ekgcfjhchnrk ................................................... >;
Lk jfcålk ck ofasfjjhtnfa jkasukl ............................................................ >2
Kstnjkr lks ofasfjjhtnfas afa jksurîks ..................................................... >5
Lk ofkbbnonkat tfthl ............................................................................................ >>
Wîohpntulhtnb .................................................................................................. 898
Lks cnbbîrkatks hpprfoeks ck ohloul ck lh ckjhack ...................................... 89?
Hbbkotkr lh ckjhack hux aşucs .................................................................... 892

;. Jfcîlnskr lh quhlntî ck l„khu 89>

Natrfcuotnfa ................................................................................................... 889

Xukls phrhjåtrks ck quhlntî îvhlukr hvko Kphakt 6 ...................................... 887
Jfcîlnskr lh quhlntî ........................................................................................ 883
Lks ofkbbnonkats ck vntkssk ck rîhotnfa cu oelfrk ........................................... 884
Cîbnanr lks katrîks ka oelfrk ......................................................................... 879

2. Srhvhnllkr lk jfcålk 87;

Cîphsskr lk « _yacrfjk ck lh Yhrkssk Yfst-hsskjglhdk ° ……......…..….. 872

Hahlysk sthtnquk kt hahlysk sur uak pîrnfck îtkacuk ………………………… 874
Lks orntårks ck ohloul …………………………………………………………….. 87>

© _hatnhdf Hrahlnoe . Thtkr hac ehgntht www.hrahlnoe.ofj

Lks cnbbîrkats typks c„hahlysk …………………………………………………... 8?7

[a hxk ck trhvhnl ……………………………………….…………………………. 8??
_flutnfaakr lks krrkurs …………………………………………………………… 8?3
_flutnfaakr lks krrkurs navnsnglks ……………………………………………….. 8?>
Rnsuhlnskr lks rîsulthts c„uak snjulhtnfa ……………………………………….. 837
Xuklquks rkokttks pfur rkjplnr lks orntårks ck ohloul …………………………. 833
Fgskrvkr ua jfcålk sur uak pîrnfck îtkacuk ………………………………… 835
Yrftkotnfa ofatrk lks naokacnks …………………………………………………. 8;9

4. Hspkots îofafjnquks

Natrfcuotnfa é l„îvhluhtnfa îofafjnquk ............................................................ 8;7

Cîtkrjnakr ofjgnka lh pfpulhtnfa kst prítk é phykr ........................................ 8;3
Ohloulkr lh bhoturk c„navkstnsskjkat ................................................................. 8;;
Ohloulkr lh bhoturk ck bfaotnfaakjkat .............................................................. 8;5
Whpprfoekjkat cks bhoturks ........................................................................... 829
Lnjntks kt sfuroks c„naokrtntuck ........................................................................ 827
[tnlnskr Kphakt pfur bhnrk vftrk gucdkt ............................................................. 82?
[tnlnskr Kphakt pfur ohloulkr lh ofasfjjhtnfa c„îakrdnk ................................. 822
L„îoekllk cks ofðts .......................................................................................... 825
Lh « cnhjîtrfsk såoek ° .................................................................................. 82>
Ofðts kt cnhjåtrk ............................................................................................. 847
Krrkurs brîqukatks hgfutnsshat é cks dhspnllhdks ............................................ 843

H prfpfs ck l„hutkur 844

Gnglnfdrhpenk 84>

www.hrahlnoe.ofj Bfrjhtnfa kt Ofasknl pfur lh Offpîrhtnfa hu Cîvklfppkjkat

8
Hvhat ck ofjjkaokr

Xuklquks îlîjkats njpfrthats hvhat ck ofjjkaokr

Ofaokptnfa ck rîskhux kt hahlysk ck rîskhux kxnsthats
Yfurqufn cks prfmkts chas lk cfjhnak ck l„khu 6
Lks ofasîqukaoks cu jhaquk c„hooås é l„khu
Ykaskr lk "skrvnok"
Xuhac kst-nl pkrtnakat ck ofastrunrk ua rîskhu c„khu 6
Yfurqufn jfcîlnskr ua rîskhu 6
_„hchptkr hu ofatkxtk
Natrfcuotnfa é lh ofaokptnfa ck rîskhux

! Ylhanbnkr ua rîskhu é vuk ck akz rkvnkat é sfujkttrk lh shatî, lk gnka-ítrk

kt lk cîvklfppkjkat îofafj nquk hux ohprnoks c u ehshrc.

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7 Kphakt kt Offpîrhtnfa. Ofaokptnfa kt cnjkasnfaakjkat ck rîskhux c„khu phr frcnahtkur.

Xuklquks îlîjkats njpfrthats hvhat ck ofjjkaokr

◆ Ok jhaukl kst lk rîsultht c„uak vnsnfa pkrsfaakllk. Wnka a„kst hgsflu. Gkhuofup ck
cîonsnfas curhat lh ofaokptnfa c„ua rîskhu îoehppk é uak pkrspkotnvk strnotkjkat
rhtnfaakllk. Ofaskrvkz uak vnsnfa orntnquk kt dhrckz é l„ksprnt quk ok quk mk vfus prîskatk
non a„kst phs « lh jhanårk ° ck ofaokvfnr ua rîskhu, jhns uak hpprfoek ck plus.

◆ Nl sk vkut hutfafjk. Rfus y trfuvkrkz prksquk tfut ok cfat vfus hvkz gksfna kt nl
jhaquk gkhuofup ck oefsks cfat vfus a„hurkz phs gksfna, ofjjk cks kxplnohtnfas
trfp jîtnoulkusks fu uak rndukur supkrbluk.

◆ Nl h îtî pkasî pfur ítrk hpplnquî chas cks prfmkts ck Offpîrhtnfa hu Cîvklfppkjkat.
Ck phr lks spîonbnontîs naeîrkatks é ok ofatkxtk, gkhuofup cks ofjpfshatks kt
prfoîcurks ksskatnkllks chas lks prfmkts cks phys cîvklfppîs pkrckat non lkur skas.

◆ Nl sk lnjntk é lh ofaokptnfa c„ua rîskhu. L„hahlysk cks rîskhux kxnsthats kst pfur sh
phrt plus ofjplkxk kt rkqunkrt dîaîrhlkjkat cks tkoeanquks kt cks hpprfoeks plus
îlhgfrîks. Yhr kxkjplk, lks jfcålks uak bfns ofastrunts cfnvkat ítrk ohlîs.

◆ Yfur ua lfdnonkl, 2 jfns kst uak îtkrantî. Okrthnaks cks prfoîcurks cîorntks non hurfat
îtî hjîlnfrîks kt ck afuvkhux lfdnonkls kt futnls pkrjktthat ck bhnrk lh jíjk oefsk plus
bhonlkjkat hpphrhátrfat. Okpkachat, Kphakt s„hpprkac kt sk rîhpprkac hu bur kt é
jksurk cks gksfnas ck oehoua. Nl kst rhrk ka Offpîrhtnfa qu„uak pkrsfaak trhvhnllk sur
Kphakt é tkjps plkna kt curhat uak lhrdk pîrnfck. Ok jhaukl ak sk prîtkac cfao phs
ck ckranårk dîaîrhtnfa jhns ua futnl huqukl vfus pfurrkz vfus rîbîrkr é oehquk bfns quk
vfus ka rksskatkz lk gksfna.

◆ Ok lnvrk kst frnkatî vkrs lks rîskhux c„uak thnllk jnanjuj fu gnka okux îthat ckstnaî
é bfaotnfaakr tfus rfgnakts fuvkrts ofjjk o„kst lk ohs, phr kxkjplk, c„ua ohjp ck
rîbudnîs fu oklun c„ua pktnt rîskhu rurhl. L„hpprfoek ck ofkbbnonkat utnlnsîk non a„kst phs
hchptîk pfur lks rîskhux ck trås pktntk thnllk fu lks nasthllhtnfas natîrnkurks. Yfur îvntkr
okrthnas prfglåjks (kxtkasnfas buturks, naokacnks, kto.), nl kst prîbîrhglk ck ak phs
nasthllkr ck tuyhux nabîrnkurs é 4;-899 jj, kxokptnfa bhntk cks rhoofrckjkats ck
jhnsfa. _hoekz qu„Kphakt ak pkut phs hpplnqukr cnrkotkjkat lks ofkbbnonkats ck
snjulthaîntî snafa l„îqunlngrk cks jhssks ak skrhnt phs httknat.

◆ Ykrsfaak a„îthat phrbhnt, sn vfus rklkvkz cks krrkurs, mk vfus skrhns trås rkofaahnsshat
ck j„ka nabfrjkr é l„hcrkssk sunvhatk = puglnohonfaksIhrahlnoe.ofj

© _hatnhdf Hrahlnoe Hrahlnoe. Thtkr hac ehgntht

www.hrahlnoe.ofj

OEHYNSWK 8. Hvhat ck ofjjkaokr ?

Ofaokptnfa ck rîskhux kt hahlysk ck rîskhux kxnsthats

Ok jhaukl a„hgfrck quk lh ofaokptnfa ck afuvkhux rîskhux nsflîs. O„kst ua prkjnkr
phs vkrs l„hahlysk ck rîskhux kxnsthats, plus ofjplkxk. Gnka qu„h prnfrn, lh ofaokptnfa
punssk phrhátrk plus natnjnchatk, lks rîskhux prîkxnsthats prîskatkat lks cnbbnoultîs
supplîjkathnrks sunvhatks =

8. Cks prfglåjks ck bnhgnlntî cks cfaaîks. Chas lks ofatkxtks ck Offpîrhtnfa,

nl kst cnbbnonlk ck trfuvkr cks plhas cks rîskhux kxnsthats, lks nabfrjhtnfas ak
sfat dîaîrhlkjkat phs hotuhlnsîks kt lks oehadkjkats rîhlnsîs ak sfat
ofasndaîs quk chas lh jîjfnrk ck okrthnas fuvrnkrs. Chas ua afuvkhu rîskhu,
lks cfaaîks sfat bnhglks é 899 %.

7. Lh lfohlnshtnfa kt l„njpfrthaok ck oehquk buntk kst jîofaauk. Lk afuvkhu

rîskhu skrh lun tkstî sfus prkssnfa quhac nl skrh skjn-katkrrî, rîvîlhat hnasn lh
prîskaok cks buntks.

?. Lk cnhjåtrk kt lh rudfsntî cks tuyhux fat îtî hltîrîs phr lk cîpót ck skls,
ohlohnrks kt fxycks, qun pkuvkat hudjkatkr bfrtkjkat lh rîsnsthaok hu blux.

3. Dîaîrhlkjkat, l„îtht ck bfaotnfaakjkat c„ua rîskhu (vhlvk cîtîrnfrîk fu

ofljhtîk ka pfsntnfa natkrjîcnhnrk) kst lun hussn jîofaau.

Ck ok bhnt, hprås lh ofastruotnfa c„ua prkjnkr jfcålk hvko Kphakt, nl kst

aîoksshnrk ck lk ohlkr, o„kst-é-cnrk, ck ofjphrkr lks jksurks prnsks sur lk
tkrrhna hvko lks vhlkurs cu lfdnonkl, kt ok, musqu„é ok quk l„fa punssk rkprfcunrk
ofrrkotkjkat lh rîhlntî.

Ok prfokssus kst ofðtkux, lhgfrnkux, ofjplnquî, kt brîqukjjkat, nl ckjhack ua

jhtîrnkl oekr kt spîonhlnsî. Ka Offpîrhtnfa, bhutk ck jfykas, nl kst rhrk quk lks jfcålks
sfnkat ohlîs. Ykut-ítrk quk l„hpprfoek lh plus hchptîk kst, chas ok ofatkxtk, ck lfohlnskr
kt nckatnbnkr lks prfglåjks lks plus ofurhats sur lk tkrrhna, ofjjk lks vhaaks bkrjîks
fu lks tuyhux cîgrhaoeîs.

www.hrahlnoe.ofj Bfrjhtnfas kt Ofasknls pfur lh Offpîrhtnfa hu Cîvklfppkjkat

3 Kphakt kt Offpîrhtnfa. Ofaokptnfa kt cnjkasnfaakjkat ck rîskhux c„khu phr frcnahtkur.

Yfurqufn cks prfmkts chas lk cfjhnak ck l„khu 6

Lh rîpfask kst îvnckatk = pfur hjîlnfrkr lks ofacntnfas ck vnk cks pkrsfaaks.

Cîäu(k)s 6 Ykut-ítrk kspîrnkz-vfus uak rîpfask cu typk « pfur cnjnaukr lks thux ck
Rngrnf oeflkrhk ck 25.?3 % oekz lks kabhats ck jfnas ck ; has ° fu « pfur httknacrk ua
cîgnt ck pfnatk ck 9.75j ?/s é ?4.77 jåtrks ck ehutkur ° …

Khux sthdahatks prfvkahat ck lh buntk c'ua rfgnakt, @hgful. Hbdehanstha

Oks 9.75 j?/s pkuvkat ítrk ua fgmkotnb trås afglk, kt okpkachat ofacunrk é cîvkrskr cks
blhquks c„khu quk l„fa a„hrrnvk phs é îvhoukr é uak vntkssk subbnshatk. Lk rîsultht fgtkau
kst uak cîdrhchtnfa cks ofacntnfas ck vnk tkllkjkat îvnckatk quk jíjk lks kabhats
skofukat lkur títk ka sk ckjhachat ok qun h gnka pu sk phsskr. Lk quftncnka ck lh
Offpîrhtnfa afus bhnt sfuvkat pkrcrk ck vuk okt fgmkotnb kt afus bnanssfas phr rîhlnskr
cks prfmkts pfur mustnbnkr c„hotnvntîs, rkspkotkr cks îoeîhaoks fu ak phs pkrcrk uak
sugvkatnfa.

Nl ak bhut phs fuglnkr quk, ck lh jíjk jhanårk quk lks ofacntnfas ck vnk
pkuvkat s„hjîlnfrkr sugsthatnkllkjkat, lks prfmkts chas lk skotkur ck l„khu
pkuvkat bnahlkjkat pfrtkr httknatk hux ofjjuahutîs. Ok a„kst an uak
ofursk, an ua trhvhnl é rîhlnskr é vuk akz.

© _hatnhdf Hrahlnoe Hrahlnoe. Thtkr hac ehgntht

www.hrahlnoe.ofj

OEHYNSWK 8. Hvhat ck ofjjkaokr ;

Lks ofasîqukaoks cu jhaquk c„hooås é l„khu

L„ncîk a„kst phs afuvkllk. Cîmé, ka 854;, lk jhnrk ck Gnrjnadehj, Mfskpe Oehjgkrlhna,
hbbnrjhnt quk lh pkrtk ck shlhnrks, ck vnk fu ck shatî ofðthnkat oehquk haaîk ;3 999
lnvrks é lh vnllk.

Okrthnaks frdhanshtnfas fat ksshyî ck cfaakr cks oenbbrks é quklquk oefsk c„hussn
hlîhtfnrk quk lk jhaquk c„hooås é l„khu kt é l„hsshnansskjkat. Oks oenbbrks sfat trås
cnsouthglks jhns lks tkachaoks sfat olhnrks. Ka vfnon quklquks-uaks=

◆_HASK = « L„khu kst lh ohusk ck 59 % cks jfrts kt cks jhlhcnks chas lks
phys cu Snkrs-Jfack °8.

◆ KOFAFJNK = « Lks gîaîbnoks cks prfdrhjjks c„khu kt c„hsshnansskjkat

rkstntukat katrk ? kt ?3 cfllhrs pfur oehquk cfllhr navkstn °7.

◆ SKJY_ = « Lk tkjps îofafjnsî ka Shazhank suppfsk uak hudjkathtnfa ck

lh prfcuotnfa hdrnoflk ck 89 % °?.

Okttk ckranårk rîbîrkaok, « Kvkryfak„s h wnaakr6 Kofafjno vhluhtnfa fb whtkr

prfmkots °, ck Thtkrhnc, kst phrtnoulnårkjkat natîrksshatk kt pkut ítrk tîlîoehrdîk é
l„hcrkssk sunvhatk =
ettp=//www.whtkrhnc.frd/~/jkcnh/Yuglnohtnfas/kofafjno-vhluhtnfa-whtkr-prfmkots.pcb

Lh shatî
L„ua cks njphots lks plus njpfrthats sk sntuk hu anvkhu ck lh shatî cks pkrsfaaks. Lh
shatî pfssåck lh phrtnoulhrntî c„ítrk bhonlkjkat jksurhglk punsquk lh jhmfrntî cks
struoturks jîcnohlks pfssåckat cks sthtnstnquks, hussn ghsnquks sfnkat-kllks. O„kst pfur
okttk rhnsfa, kt pfur îvntkr cks tfuraurks vhduks tkllks qu„« hjîlnfrkr lh shatî cks
pkrsfaaks °, quk lks prfmkts chas lk cfjhnak ck l„khu sk prîskatkat sfuvkat hux
ghnllkurs ck bfacs hvko cks fgmkotnbs kxprnjîs ka tkrjks ck shatî, ofjjk phr
kxkjplk = « Wîcuotnfa cks cnhrreîks ck 79 % °. Ournkuskjkat, o„kst ua phrhjåtrk
cnbbnonlk é prîvfnr kt qun, sklfa jh jfckstk fpnanfa, a„h phs gkhuofup ck skas = oklh
rkstk sfuvkat ua vşu pnkux.

8
_korîthnrk Dîaîrhl cks Ahtnfas-[anks, @fbn Haaha, Mfuraîk Jfacnhlk ck l„Kavnrfaakjkat, ; Muna 799?.
7
Euttfa D. & Ehllkr L. Sek Ofsts hac Gkakbnts fb Thtkr hac _hanthtnfa Njprfvkjkats ht tek Dlfghl Lkvkl (FJ_
7993).
?
ThtkrHnc (7993) ―Kvkryfak„s h Tnaakr6 Kofafjno vhluhtnfa fb whtkr prfmkots„ ThtkrHnc, Lfacrks.

www.hrahlnoe.ofj Bfrjhtnfas kt Ofasknls pfur lh Offpîrhtnfa hu Cîvklfppkjkat

2 Kphakt kt Offpîrhtnfa. Ofaokptnfa kt cnjkasnfaakjkat ck rîskhux c„khu phr frcnahtkur.

Kphakt a„h phs, hvko lh prkssnfa, lk cîgnt kt lh vntkssk, ua phrhjåtrk qun sfnt « jfrthlntî
pfur oeflîrh ° chas sks gfátks ck cnhlfduk. Ofjjkat prîvfnr hlfrs quk lks ohs ck
cnhrreîks vfat cnjnaukr ck 79 % 6 O„kst pfur oklh qu„nl kst bfachjkathl ck jkttrk ka
rklhtnfa cks phrhjåtrks ohloulhglks hvko lks jhlhcnks qun lkur sfat lnîks.

O„kst lk ohs cu oelfrk qun pkrjkt ck cîtkrjnakr quk l„khu ak ofatnkat phs ck
phtefdåaks sn kllk pfssåck =

! uak ofaokatrhtnfa ck oelfrk rîsncukl supîrnkurk é 9,7 ppj

! kllk jfatrk uak turgncntî nabîrnkurk ; [SA kt
! ua tkjps ck ofathot hvko lk oelfrk supîrnkur é ?9 jnautks kst
dhrhatn.

Ka httkachat lks jîtefcflfdnks afus pkrjktthat ck bhnrk quklquk oefsk ck snjnlhnrk

hvko lh quhatntî c„khu cnspfanglk, lh cnsthaok musqu„hu pfnat c„khu, kto., afus pfuvfas
rkvfnr okrthnaks ofasîqukaoks qun cfaakat é rîblîoenr =

◆ Lh prnaonphlk ohusk ck jfrthlntî nabhatnlk kst lh cnhrreîk8.

◆ Cks ?4 prnaonphlks jhlhcnks chas lks phys ka vfnk ck cîvklfppkjkat, 78 sfat

lnîks é l„khu kt é l„hsshnansskjkat7.

◆ _klfa l„FJ_, 59 % cks jhlhcnks chas lk jfack pkuvkat ítrk httrnguîks é

ua jhuvhns hooås é l„khu kt é l„hsshnansskjkat?.

◆ Chas lk jfack, nl y h 799 jnllnfas ck pkrsfaaks hbbkotîks phr lh Gnlehrznfsk

(_oenstfsfjnhsk), cfat 79 jnllnfas sfubbrkat ck sîqukllks sîvårks. Okttk
jhlhcnk pfurrhnt ítrk rîcuntk ck 44 % phr cks syståjks ck cnstrngutnfa c„khu kt
c„hsshnansskjkat hvko ua rîskhu ofrrkot 3.

◆ _klfa l„FJ_, huouak hutrk jksurk a„h huthat c„njphot sur lk

cîvklfppkjkat ahtnfahl kt lh shatî puglnquk quk okllks ofaokrahat l„khu
kt l„hsshnansskjkat;.

8
Tfrlc Ekhlte Frdhanzhtnfa hac Ehrvhrc [anvkrsnty, 8>>2. “Dlfghl Gurcka fb Cnskhsk."
7
Thtkr hac _hanthtnfa bfr Ekhlte Yrfmkot, [_ Hdkaoy bfr Natkrahtnfahl Ckvklfpjkat, 8>>?. “Lkssfas Lkhrakc
na Thtkr, _hanthtnfa hac Ekhlte."
?
“Ghttlnad Thtkrgfrak Nlls na h _kh fb >;9 Jnllnfa‚, Sek Thsenadtfa Yfst, 84 ck Bkgrkrf ck 8>>4.
3
Ksrky y ofl 8>>8. "Kbbkots fb njprfvkc whtkr supply hac shanthtnfa fa hsohrnhsns, cnhrreîk, crhouaoulnhsns,
eff`wfrj nabkotnfa, soenstfsfjnhsns, hac trhoefjh." TEF 2>(;), pp. 29>-278.
;
FJ_, bhotsekkt 887 Thtkr hac shanthtnfa.

© _hatnhdf Hrahlnoe Hrahlnoe. Thtkr hac ehgntht

www.hrahlnoe.ofj

OEHYNSWK 8. Hvhat ck ofjjkaokr 4

Ykaskr lk « skrvnok °
L„fgmkotnb ofaorkt c„ua prfmkt chas lk cfjhnak ck l„khu kst c„fbbrnr ua skrvnok drçok é
uak nabrhstruoturk.

Brîqukjjkat, o„kst l„nabrhstruoturk qun bnant phr hoohphrkr tfutk

l„httkatnfa. _n lh quhatntî ck oelfrk, lh cnsthaok é phrofurnr fu uak
ofasfjjhtnfa kxokssnvk ck shvfa é ohusk ck lh curktî ck l„khu bfat quk lh
pfpulhtnfa prîbårk ofasfjjkr cks khux sthdahatks, lk syståjk a„h phs
rîussn é httknacrk sks fgmkotnbs ka tkrjks c„hjîlnfrhtnfa ck lh shatî,
nacîpkachjjkat ck lkur gfa bfaotnfaakjkat eycrhulnquk. Lk cîbn kst ck
jkttrk ka hvhat l'fbbrk c'ua skrvnok =

Lks orntårks ck suooås

_klfa jfn, nls pkuvkat ítrk rîsujîs é oks trfns orntårks=

8. Lk syståjk kst curhglk c„ua pfnat ck vuk tkoeanquk kt nastntutnfaakl, kt ok ck

jhanårk nacîbnank.
7. Nl dhrhatnt ua hooås é l„khu pfur tfus.
?. Nl s„hchptk kt îvfluk.

www.hrahlnoe.ofj Bfrjhtnfas kt Ofasknls pfur lh Offpîrhtnfa hu Cîvklfppkjkat

5 Kphakt kt Offpîrhtnfa. Ofaokptnfa kt cnjkasnfaakjkat ck rîskhux c„khu phr frcnahtkur.

Oks trfns prnaonpks sfat lks pnlnkrs sur lksqukls trhvhnllkr pfur s„hssurkr c„ua okrthna
suooås. Xuk ok sfnt ka lks îornvhat sur lks jurs, ka lks drhvhat sur uak thglk fu ka lks
thtfuhat sur lk oenka cu vfnsna, vfus ckvkz tfumfurs lks dhrckr é l„ksprnt. Afthjjkat
curhat lh pehsk ck ofaokptnfa. Wkvkafas-y é afuvkhu =

H. Curhgnlntî tkoeanquk kt nastntutnfaakllk =

! Lks ofðts c„kxplfnthtnfa = lh pfpulhtnfa kst-kllk cnspfsîk é lks hssujkr6
! Lks jhtîrnkls prfpfsîs = sfat-nls cnspfanglks lfohlkjkat 6 _fat-nls ofaaus
ck lh pfpulhtnfa 6

G. Dhrhatnr ua hooås hvko îdhlntî =

! Lks ofðts c„katrktnka, ck rhoofrckjkat, kto., pkrjkttkat-nls ua hooås é l„khu
pfur tfutks lks bhjnllks 6
! Kvntkz-vfus lh cnsornjnahtnfa ck okrthnas drfupks sfonhux (pkrsfaaks é
jfgnlntî rîcuntk, jnafrntîs, kto.) 6
! Lk syståjk tflårk-t-nl ua pfurokathdk ck grhaoekjkats nllîdhux 6

O. Nl s„hchptk kt îvfluk=
! L„kxplfnthtnfa cu rîskhu = skrh-t-nl hchpthglk pfur bhnrk bhok hux gksfnas
buturs 6
! Lk jfcålk = kst-nl bhonlkjkat kxtkasnglk 6

Rfnon, shas prîtkacrk ítrk kxehustnb, okrthnaks cks qukstnfas huxqukllks vftrk jfcålk
ckvrh pfuvfnr rîpfacrk kt qun skrfat hgfrcîks chas lks cnbbîrkatks phrtnks ck ok jhaukl.

© _hatnhdf Hrahlnoe Hrahlnoe. Thtkr hac ehgntht

www.hrahlnoe.ofj

OEHYNSWK 8. Hvhat ck ofjjkaokr >

Xuhac kst-nl pkrtnakat ck ofastrunrk ua rîskhu c„khu 6

Lks rîskhux sfat ofðtkux kt rkqunårkat uak ohphontî c„frdhanshtnfa ofasncîrhglk, uak
nabrhstruoturk ghsnquk kt pfssåckat cks ofjpfshats trås oekrs qun, s„nls sfat jhl
katrktkaus, skrfat cnbbnonlks é rkjplhokr. Okpkachat, quhac lks ofacntnfas sfat rîuanks,
huouak natkrvkatnfa a„kst ohphglk ck bfuranr uak tkllk quhatntî c„khu pfur ua ofðt hussn
ghs. Lks ofacntnfas é rîuanr sfat lks sunvhatks=

8. Lh pfpulhtnfa kst ofaokatrîk fu gnka pfssåck lh ohphontî ck lk bhnrk ck phr

sh sntuhtnfa chas uak zfak c„foouphtnfa afuvkllk. Lh ofaokatrhtnfa ck lh
pfpulhtnfa pkrjkt ck cnjnaukr lk rhppfrt ck `nlfjåtrk ck tuyhutkrnk nasthllîk phr
ehgnthat ofaokraî, ok qun cnjnauk lk ofðt ck l„natkrvkatnfa. Nl kst plus rhnsfaahglk
c„nasthllkr 799 jåtrks ck tuyhux chas ua afyhu urghna quk ck bhnrk ua afuvkhu
bfrhdk. H tntrk nacnohtnb, ua punts pkut ofðtkr kavnrfa ?99 €/j, ua bfrhdk kavnrfa
799 €/j kt ua tuyhu ck YRO ck 899 jj kavnrfa 79 €/j. Yfur vfus cfaakr ua
frcrk c„ncîks, ka Ksphdak, chas lks zfaks urghansîks, lk rhppfrt hvfnsnak lks 7
`j ck ohahlnshtnfa pfur jnllk ehgnthats.

7. Lh pfpulhtnfa pfssåck uak ofeîsnfa sfonhlk subbnshatk, cks nastntutnfas

lfohlks hptks é prkacrk ka oehrdk lh dkstnfa cu rîskhu kt uak struoturk qun
bhvfrnsk sh rkspfashgnlnshtnfa. Lks afjhcks ak sfat phs ck gfas ohacnchts.
Dîaîrhlkjkat, pkrsfaak ak sk skat « prfprnîthnrk ° cu syståjk qun pkut sk
ofavkrtnr ka uak sfurok ck rkvkaus vnh lk pnllhdk. Hu ofatrhnrk, ua ohjp ck
rîbudnîs hvko ua njpfrthat sfutnka natkrahtnfahl kt cks rkspfashglks olhnrkjkat
nckatnbnîs kst ua lnku h prnfrn ncîhl pfur njplhatkr ua rîskhu.

?. Lh sfurok ck l„khu pkut ítrk kxplfntîk curhglkjkat.Lh orîhtnfa c„ua rîskhu,

ka cnjnauhat lks bhotkurs lnjnthat lh ofasfjjhtnfa c„khu (lk trhaspfrt
afthjjkat), bhvfrnsk okttk ckranårk. Lh sfurok cfnt ítrk ohphglk c„hgsfrgkr uak
hudjkathtnfa ck lh ckjhack. [a rîskhu hlnjkatî phr uak sfurok fu ua
hqunbårk jfatrhat cks sndaks îvnckats ck surkxplfnthtnfa a„kst phs, é prnfrn, ua
oefnx pkrtnakat.

3. Lk rîskhu ak cfnt phs dîaîrkr cks prfglåjks kavnrfaakjkathux,

afthjjkat cks prfglåjks c„khux sthdahatks. L„khu kxplfntîk kt trhaspfrtîk
phr ua rîskhu cfnt pfuvfnr ítrk îvhouîk. Ka l„hgskaok c„ua syståjk ck crhnahdk
cks khux usîks, sn lk rklnkb kst plht kt lks sfls njpkrjîhglks, ua rîskhu pkut
hppfrtkr plus ck prfglåjks quk ck sflutnfas.

;. Sfpfdrhpenk bhvfrhglk. _has pfur huthat ítrk ua jftnb c„kxolusnfa, lks rklnkbs
trås plhts ofjplnqukat lh ofastruotnfa kt lk bfaotnfaakjkat c„ua rîskhu tfut ka

www.hrahlnoe.ofj Bfrjhtnfas kt Ofasknls pfur lh Offpîrhtnfa hu Cîvklfppkjkat

89 Kphakt kt Offpîrhtnfa. Ofaokptnfa kt cnjkasnfaakjkat ck rîskhux c„khu phr frcnahtkur.

hudjkathat skasnglkjkat sfa ofðt. _„nl a„kst phs pfssnglk ck ofastrunrk cks
oeçtkhux c„khu hcîquhts, lk pfjphdk pfur pkrjkttrk l„îvhouhtnfa cks khux
usîks pkut ckvkanr pkrjhakat. Ck plus, lks tuyhux ak sk akttfyhat phs tfus
skuls, lkur cnhjåtrk cnjnauk hvko l„hjfaokllkjkat ck cîpót kt l„hooujulhtnfa
c„hnr pnîdî chas lh jultntuck ck pktnts ehuts kt ghs qun bfrjkat lfrs ck lh pfsk
ck ohahlnshtnfas sur lks tkrrhnas trås plhts =

[a rîskhu kst cfao uak gfaak fptnfa chas lks zfaks fþ ua syståjk drhvnthnrk pkut ítrk
jns ka plhok, quk ok sfnt drçok é lh prîskaok c„uak sfurok ka ehutkur fu c„ua gfa
kjplhokjkat pfur nasthllkr ua rîskrvfnr.

© _hatnhdf Hrahlnoe Hrahlnoe. Thtkr hac ehgntht

www.hrahlnoe.ofj

OEHYNSWK 8. Hvhat ck ofjjkaokr 88

Yfurqufn jfcîlnskr ua rîskhu 6

Nl h bhllu httkacrk 8>?2 pfur quk sfnt orîî ua hpphrknl jhteîjhtnquk ohphglk ck ohloulkr
cks rîskhux jhnllîs, kt 9.75 skofacks é jfa frcnahtkur pfur ohloulkr lk rîskhu cu ohjp
ck rîbudnîs ck Ludubu. Jhldrî oklh, l„njhdk cu rîskhu qun bfaotnfaak quhsnjkat phr lun-
jíjk kt qun pkut ítrk ofaäu é vuk c„şnl fu drçok é trfns rkokttks ck ounsnak fgsflåtks,
pkrcurk.

Lh prflnbîrhtnfa ck pkrsfaaks qun hbbnrjkat shas sfuronllkr qu„kllks sfat ohphglks ck

ohloulkr ua rîskhu ck títk kst brhaoekjkat kxhspîrhatk. Nl a„kst hlfrs phs surprkahat ck
ofasthtkr quk that ck rîskhux bnansskat phr ak mhjhns bfaotnfaakr, jhldrî l„îjulhtnfa ck
okrvkhux « kxpkrts ° kt l„kadhdkjkat hotnb ck ghnllkurs sur plusnkurs haaîks.

_n vfus plhanbnkz ua rîskhu é vuk ck akz, vfus ítks ka trhna ck

sfujkttrk lh shatî, lk gnka-ítrk kt lk cîvklfppkjkat îofafjnquk c„uak
ofjjuahutî hu ehshrc.

Ka futrk, lks rîskhux qun a„fat phs bhnt l„fgmkt ck ohlouls prîhlhglks prîskatkat
dîaîrhlkjkat lks nasubbnshaoks sunvhatks =

8. Nls jîprnskat lk trhvhnl kt l„kbbfrt cks ofjjuahutîs hppklîks é phrtnonpkr.

7. Nls sfat chadkrkux. Lh vnchadk fu lk rkjplnsshdk cks tuyhux phr jhaquk ck

prkssnfa bhvfrnsk l„hspnrhtnfa c„hdkats phtefdåaks é l„natîrnkur, kt phr lé jíjk,
lh prfphdhtnfa cks jhlhcnks.

?. Nls sfat brhdnlks. Lks rîskhux cîprkssurnsîs sk rkjplnsskat c„hnr. H jksurk

qu„nls sk rkjplnsskat c„khu, l„hnr cfnt ka ítrk îvhouî. Okttk purdk cfnt sk bhnrk ck
jhanårk kxtríjkjkat jnautnkusk pfur îvntkr lks ofups ck gîlnkr qun cîtîrnfrkat
lks tuyhux kt dîaårkat cks buntks. Okrthnaks îtucks, chas lks phys ka
cîvklfppkjkat fþ lks ofupurks c„khu sfat brîqukatks, jfatrkat quk lks tuyhux
qun sfat rkjplns kt vncîs é oehquk ofupurk sk ohsskat musqu„é 89 bfns plus
qu„kspîrî8.

8
Lhjgkrt, H., Jykrs, _. hac Srfw, _. (8>>5) Jhahdnad Thtkr Lkh`hdk= Kofafjno hac tkoeanohl nssuks.
Bnahaonhl Snjks Kakrdy.

www.hrahlnoe.ofj Bfrjhtnfas kt Ofasknls pfur lh Offpîrhtnfa hu Cîvklfppkjkat

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87 Kphakt kt Offpîrhtnfa. Ofaokptnfa kt cnjkasnfaakjkat ck rîskhux c„khu phr frcnahtkur.

3. Nls sfat rhrkjkat kxtkasnglks. Lk jhaquk c„fgmkotnbs olhnrs hu jfjkat ck lh

ofaokptnfa kt lks njprfvnshtnfas ofjplnqukat l„hdrhacnsskjkat c„ua rîskhu
ofastrunt shas orntårks prîons.

;. Nls sfat hatnîofafjnquks. Nls a„utnlnskat phs ofavkahglkjkat lks rkssfuroks

cnspfanglks, quk ok sfnt phrok qu„nls sfat surcnjkasnfaaîs fu phrok quk lkur
bfaotnfaakjkat kst faîrkux.

[ak jksurk olhssnquk pfur « rkjîcnkr ° hux rîskhux hvko cks

prfglåjks ck prkssnfa kst ck rklkvkr lk rîskrvfnr huprås cuqukl
nl kst hlnjkatî. Hu bnahl, hbna ck pfuvfnr rklkvkr plusnkurs jnllnkrs ck
tfaaks c„khu é plusnkurs jåtrks pfur ofjpkaskr ua jhaquk ck
prkssnfa, lh ofasfjjhtnfa c„îakrdnk s„kavflk.

© _hatnhdf Hrahlnoe Hrahlnoe. Thtkr hac ehgntht

www.hrahlnoe.ofj

OEHYNSWK 8. Hvhat ck ofjjkaokr 8?

_„hchptkr hu ofatkxtk
Nl y h cîmé gkhuofup ck jhaukls sur lks rîskhux c„hccuotnfa c„khu kt ua ck plus a„kst
pkut-ítrk phs aîoksshnrk. Hlfrs, pfurqufn îornrk oklun-on 6

Yhrok quk lks prfmkts ck Offpîrhtnfa ak sfat phs cks prfmkts ofjjk okux cks
phys cîvklfppîs.

Yrkafas ckux kxkjplks =

Lks rîskhux cks phys cîvklfppîs sfat ofaäus hu vu ck trfns fgmkotnbs. Sfut c„hgfrc, nls
cfnvkat ítrk bfaotnfaakls c„ua pfnat ck vuk eycrhulnquk. O„kst-é-cnrk qu„nls cfnvkat ítrk
ohphglks ck bhnrk bhok é lh ckjhack ka khu. Kasuntk, nls cfnvkat hlnjkatkr lh pfpulhtnfa
hvko uak khu ck ehutk quhlntî. Kabna, nls cfnvkat ítrk rîsnsthats hux rupturks,
cîbhnllhaoks, phaaks, kto. Ok ckrankr pfnat rkqunkrt ua navkstnsskjkat ofasncîrhglk, hvko
katrk hutrks brhns, l„nasthllhtnfa ck rîskrvfnrs kt ck tuyhutkrnks supplîjkathnrks. Xuhac
lks gksfnas pfur lks vhoonahtnfas, l„îcuohtnfa fu lk oeójhdk brhppkat uak pfpulhtnfa,
oklh h-t-nl vrhnjkat ua skas quk lk rîskhu c„khu sfnt é l„îprkuvk cks phaaks îlkotrnquks 6
_n vfus hvkz kaofrk cks cfutks, fgskrvkz lks ofasîqukaoks c„uak ofupurk c„khu
curhat quklquks ekurks kt ofjphrkz-lks hvko okllks ck ak phs hvfnr vhoonaî cks kabhats