· 10 .

2 INTERNAL VO LTA G ES OF LOADED MACH INES UN DER FAULT COND ITIONS 385

IL i n the c i rc u i t of Fig. 10.2( a ) l E/:I wo u l d rem a i n t h e same b u t a new v a l u e of

E� would be required.
Synchronous motors h ave r e ac t an ce s of the same type as ge nerat ors.
When a motor is sh o rt - c irc ui t ed, it no lo n ge r receives e lectric ene rgy fro m the
power l ine , but its field re m a in s en ergized and the i n e rt i a of its rotor a nd
c onnec ted lo ad keeps it ro t at in g for a short pe riod of tim e . The int er nal voltage
of a synchronous motor cau ses it to c on tr ib ut e c u r r e n t to the system, for it is
t h e n acting l i ke a ge nerat or . By com pari so n with the correspon d i n g formu las for
a g en er a t o r the s u b t r a n s i e n t i n t e r n a l voltage and
E;� tra ns ient i nt er n a l voltage
for a synchronous motor are given by
E;"
£"!II f/I - J'Xd"m
( 10.5)
IL
l ·� '
� I II --- f/I ( 1 0.6)
- }'X d' ill
/I.

where VI is now the t e r m i n a l v olta ge of the mot or . Fau lt cu r r en ts in systems

con t a i n i ng gene rators and motors u n d e r load may be so h'ed in eit her one of two
ways : (1) by calcul c H i n g t h e s ub tra n s ien t ( or tra n s i e n t in t er n a l vol tages of
the )
ma c h i nes or (2) by using Theveni n's t h e or em . A simple exa mple w i l l i l l ustrate
the two appr oach es.
Su p p o s e that a synch ronous g en er a t o r is conn ected to a synch ronous
motor by a li ne of extern al i m p e d a nce Zexl ' Th e motor is dra wing load current
Ii" from the gene rator w h e n a s y m m e t ri c al three-phase fa u lt occurs at the mot or
t e r m i n a ls. Figu re 10.3 shows the e q u i v a l e n t ci r c u it s and current flows of the
syst em immed ia t e ly be fore an d immed ia t el y a fter the fault occurs. By repl ac ing
the synchronou s reacta nces of the ma c hi nes by t h e ir subtransient rea cta n ce s as
shown in Fig. 1O.3( a), we can c a l c u l a t e the s u bt r a n s ient i n t e r n a l voltages of the
ma. ch ine i m m e d ia t e l y be fore the fau lt occurs by s u b s t it utin g the valu es of
VI

p p
+
jXd m --
(jO. l0) -- 1"m jXdm
1"
( jO. 20) (jO.20) (jO.20) (pjO;.20)
m

Neutral
E"
8 E" En
In

Neutral
e

(a) Before the fau lt (b) After the fault

FIGURE 10.3
E qu iv a l e nt ci rcuits and current flows be fore and after a fau lt at the terminals of a synchronous
motor conn ected to a synchronous generator by line impedance 20,1 ' Numerical values are for Example
10 . 1 .
386 CHAPTER 10 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

and IL in the equati ons

(10.7)

E"
'm
= V1 - )'Xd"m ( 10.8)
1L

When t h e faul t is on the system, as s hown In Fig. 1 0 3C b) the subtransient . ,

currents I; out of the generator and out of the motor arc found from the
rel ati ons
E"
J" = -
+ ! ( 10.9)
� I.
L--'exl -I- J'X til'
"

/" "
==
Enr
m
( 10. 10)
J'Xd"n
z

These two currents add together to give the total symmetrical fault current 1;
shown in Fig. 10.3(b). That is,

I" I" I"

+ X + jXdm ( 10.1 1) '
= =

1 8 m
Z +
ext Jdg '"

/ [m"
g"f !

where 1;1 and I;I are the respective contributi ons of the generator and motor
to the fau l t current If. Note that the fa ult current does not i nclude the
(load) current.
prefault The alternati ve approach

using Thcvcnin' s theorem is based on the

observation that Eq. (10. 1 1 ) requires a knowledge of only VI ' the prefault
voltage of the fault point, and the parameters of the network with the subtran
sient reactances rep resenting the machines. Therefore, 1; and the additional
currents produced throughout the network by the fault can be found simply by
applying voltageVIto the fault point in the dead subtransient network of the
system, as shown in Fig. 10.4( a). If we redraw that network as shown in Fig. lO.4(b),
it becomes clear that the symmetrical values of the subtransient fault currents can
be found from the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the subtransient network at the
fault point. The Thevenin equivalent circuit is . a single generator and a single
impedance terminati ng at the point of applicati on of the fault. The
equivalent g enerator has an internal voltage equal to V ' the voltage at the
fault point before the fault occurs. The impedance is that I measured at the
point of
application of the fault looking back into the circui t with all the generated
voltages short-circuited. Subtransient reactances are used since the initial sym-
 10.2 INTERNAL VOLTAGES OF LOADED MACHINES UNDER FAULT CONDITIONS 387

Zext 'X" Zext

J dg
P
I" - I"
[If P
g( m(
jXd m g(

J'Xd" Vr jXdm -
g
I Vr [If
m(

If ---
/If
r

(a) (b)

FI G L R E 1 0.4
c u r r e n t !l ows du e: to t h e t h re e- ph as e fa u l t at P: (a ) applying VI to
C i r c u i t s i l l u s t r a t in g t h e a d d i t i o n a l
d e a d n e t w o r k t o s i m l J l a t e t h e fa lI l t : ( /J ) T h c \'t�n i n e:q u iv;l I e n t loo k i n g i n t o th e ci rcu i t at po i n t P .

me t r i c a l f { l u l t cur r e nt is d e s i r e d . ) n fig. I O.4Ch) the Th cv en i n i mpe danc e Z th is

. X'''
(2 )
X
J. dm"XI -+- ] dli "
Zth ( 1 0 . 1 2)

U po n th e occu rrence of a t h r e e - p h a s e short circu it at P, si m ul a t e d by closing

swi tc h S, t h e s u b t r a n s i e n t cu rre nt in the fau lt is

Vf [ ZCXI + j( X;;RX;;m ) ]
+
If" jX:;m ( ZexI + jX�g ) ( 10 . 13)

Thus, t h r e e - p h a s e symm e tri cal fa ul ts on systems containing ge nerators and

motors u n d e r load may be an al yze d by either the use of s ubtrans i e nt i n t e r n a l
vol t ages or Theven in 's t h e o r e m , as i l l u s t r a t e d in the fol l owing exa mp les .

Ex am pl e 10 . 1 . A sy n c h r o n o u s ge n e r a t o r a nd mo to r are ra t e d 30,000 k Y A , 1 3 .2 kY,

a nd both have s u b t r;\ I 1s i e nt re a c t a n c e s of 20%. The l i ne conne ct ing t hem has a
re ac t ance of 1 0 So on t h e base of t he m a c h i n e rati ngs. The motor is drawing 20,000
kW a t 0 . 0 powe r - f a c t or l e a cl i n g a n d ,\ l e rm i n ;\ 1 vo l t a ge of 1 2 . 8 kY w h e n
a s Y ll l l l 1 c l r i c t i l l m: c - p i 1 : t S C f; 1 \ I I I O C C l \ I'S , I I l i l e J l l o t o r l eI' ll1 i l 1 : t i s . r i n d t h e s u b t r ll n
sient c u rre n l s i n t i l l' g e n e f' : l i ( lI. t h e Ill t l i O f , , l l l l l t h e ra l l l t h y l I s i t 1 g l he i n l e r n a l vol
t a ges o f
the n1 ; 1 ch i n es.

SO/Illion. The p r c f a u l t e q u i v a l e n l circu it of t h e syslem curresponds to Fig. 10.3(a).

C hoo s i ng a base of 3 0,00 0 kYA, 1 3 .2 kY and using the v ol t ageV at the fault point
as t h e re ference phasor, we ob t a i n
i
1 2 .8
V = 0 . 970 L. per u ni t
-f 13.2
388 CHAPTER 10 SYMMETRICAL FAU LTS

30 ,000
Base current =
= 1312 A
13 X 13 .
2

IL = 0

= 1 1 28 A
0.8 X fS3 X

12. 8

= O .�() ( O .K + jO J) ) = O N) + jO .52 per u n i t

For the generator

� = 0 .970 + jO . l (0 .69 + jO.S2) = 0.918 + jO.069 per unit

E; = 0.918 jO.069 + jO.2(0 .69 + jO.52)

+ = 0.814 + jO .207 per u n i t

0 .814 + jO.207
I g" = -
= 0.69 }· 2 . 7 1 p er unit
jO.3
-

= 1312(0 .69 j2 .71) - = 905 j3SS0 A

-

Fv. "r

� =
.
� / 0° per unit

£;;, = 0 .970 + J
') . 69 + jO .S2) = 0 . 970 - - jO. I 3R + 0 . 1 04 p er u n i t

= 1 .074 - jO . l 38 1-

1 .074 - jO.1 38
1"'" =

- 0.69 - uni t
jO .2

= 1 3I2( - 0.69 - is .37) = -905 - j7'v_

In the fault

If = I; + I� = 0.69 - j2.7 1 - 0 .69 - jS .37 7= -j8 .u,

 = - j8 .0S X 1312 = - jl0,600 A

Figure IO.3(b) shows the paths of 1:, I�" an d 1[.

 10.2 INTERNAL VOLTAGES OF LOA D ED M A C H I N ES UND ER FAULT CON D IT I O NS 389

Example 1 0 .2. Solve Example 10. 1 by the use of Thcvenin's theorem.

Solution. The Thevenin equivalent circuit corresponds to Fig. 10.4.

i O . 3 X iO .2
J . + J .

VJ
L.Q: =
0. 970
per unit

In the fault

V 0. 97 + iO
f -
-i8 .OS per unit
Zlh iO . 1 2

T h i s b u l t cu rr ent is c1i\ided bet w ee n t h e pa r a ll e l c ir c u i ts of t h e m a c h i n es i nve r sel y

� \S t h c : � im p c( Linc cs By s i mpl c current division we ob t a i n t hc fa u l t cll rre nts

From generator: iO.2

1;r - is .08 X - - i3 .23 per unit
iO.S
=
From motor:
i8 .08 iO.3 -i4. SS p e r unit
1�'r O.
= - X j
-
S
Neglec ting load c u r r e n t g ives

Fault curren t from generator = 3 . 23 X 1 3 1 = 4240 A

2
Fault current from motor = 4. 8S x 1312 = 6360 A

Current in fault = 8. 08 x 1 3 1 2 = 10 ,600 A

T h e c u r in r e the
n t ilines
n t he di
fa ffer.
ult isWhen
the same
load whether
current or not lo ad current is
t h e c 10ud,r.1but
considere
Example r e n ts L I
is included, we fi nd from
that
I: ':1 + f L = i3 .23 + 0. 69 + iO .5 ? = 0. 69 - i 2. 7 1 per un it
=- -

1;:, = 1::,! - 11. = -i4 .85 - 0. 69 - iO.52 = - 0.69 - is .37 per unit

Note that I/. is i n the sa m e d ir ect i o n a s I ; b u t opposite to ,;: . T he p e r un i t v a l u e s , -

fo u n d fo r Ii , 1; , and 1;;, a r e t h e s a m e as i n Exa m p l e 1 0 . 1 , a n d s o t h e am

valuesw i l l also be the same,
pere

Fault current from generator = 1 905 - j3SS0 1 = 3600 A

Fault current from motor = 1 - 905 - j70S0 1 = 7200 A

The sum of the magnitudes of the generator and motor currents does not equal the
fault current because the currents from the g ene r a t or and motor ar � not in phase
when load current is included.
390 CHAPTER 10 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

Usually, load current is omitted in determining the current in each line

upon occurrence of a fault. In the Thevenin method neglect of load current
means that the prefault current in each l ine is not added to the component of
current flowing toward the fault in the line. The method of Example 10.1
neglects load current if the subtransient internal voltages of all machines are
assumed equal to the voltageVat the fault before the fault occurs, for such is
the case if no current flowsI anywhere in the network prior to the fault.
Resistances, charging capacitances, and off-nominal tap-changing of transform ers
are also usual ly omitted in fault studies since they are not likely to in fl uence the of
fault level
current signifi cantly. Calcu lation of th e fa u l t c u r r e n ts is thereby simplifi ed
since the network model becomes an in t e r con n ec t i o n of inductive reactances and
all currents throughout the fau l ted sys tem are th en In phase, as demonstrated in
Exa m pl e 10 .2.

10.3 FAULT CALCULATIONS USING Z bus

Our discussion of fault calculations has been confined to si m pl e ci r cu it s, b u t
now we extend our study to general networks. We proceed to the general
equations by starting with a specific network with which we are already familiar.
In the circuit of Fig. 7.4 if the reactances in series with the generated voltages
are changed from synchronous to subtransient values, and if the generated '
voltages become subtransient internal voltages, we have the network shown in
Fig. 10.5. This network can be regarded as the · per-phase equivalent of a
balanced three-phase system. If we choose to study a fault at bus (1) , for
example, we can follow the notati on of Sec. 10.2 and designate Vf as the actual
voltage at bus 0 before the fault bccurs.

FIGURE 10.5
Reactance diagram obtained from Fig. 7.4 by substituting subtransient values for synchronous reactan!;:es a
of the machines. Reactance values are marked in per u n i t.

+
E"a E'b
 10. :; FAULT CALCULATIONS US ING Zbus 391

® CD +
@ V
i

+ -
Vi

F I G U R E 10.6
Circuit of Figure 10.5 with a

t i 1 r� e - p h a s t: fa li l t on b-u (1)
s
E
�u
'l E,: ,i ll1l 1 i;tt l: d by and V
V f
I
S t.:rI l: S.

A th ree -ph ase fa u l t at bus @ is s i m u l a t e d by the network of Fig. 10.6,

wher e the sou rce vo l t a g es Vf Clnd - Vf in se ries con s t i t ute a sh or t-c ir c ui t
b r a n c h . Source vo l tage Vr a c t i n g a l o n e in t h i s branch wo ul d m a t c h the pre fault
vol ta g e a l r ea d y at bus (1) , and t h e r e fore would not cause c ur re nt to flow in t h e
br anch . With Vf - Vf in ser ies, the b r a n c h becomes a s hort c i rc ui t and
theand
b r a n c h c ur r en t is Ii as shown . It is evi d e n t , th ere fore, tha t Ii is c a u s ed
the
by 8. d d i t ion of the - VI so urce. The c u r r e n t Ii di s tri bute s itsel f th ro ugho ut the
s ys tem from the refe rence n o de be fore fl o w i n g out of bus W t hr o u gh the -
fVu rce. In d o i n g so, it p r o d uc es w h a t e v e r bus
so vol tage changes th a t occur i n t he
sys tem due to the fa u l t . If E� , E;; , and Vf are short-ci rcu i te d, t h e n - is le ft to
act a l o n e and - Ii in fO b us W is t h e nVfthe only cur r en t entering th e networ k
fro m e xt e rn al sou rces. W i t h - V; as the only source, the network has the n o d a l
i m p e d an ce e q u a t i ons in t h e Z bllS ma trix fo rm

6. V
I

6. V t CD 2CDt 1
CD
.% t 2 ZtG):- @
2 1 .1
()
- V
I
J (1) 2 :' L Z 2 2'1 - "

I ( lO. 1 4)
1 n 2� ()
6 V, 6V, G) L , t L 12 L �l / :\.1 0
6. V
-1 � V.J 2 ,\
@ 24 1
2
Z. I
:1 7,44

The p re fix 6. is chosen to i n d i c a t e t h e changes in the vo lt ages at the buses d u e

to t h e c u rr e n t - Ii i nje cted i n t o b u s W by t h e fa
ult. Th e Z blls b u i l d in g a l g o r i t h m , or some o the r means such as Y bus t r i a n g u l ar
i z a t i o n an d i n ve rs i o n , can be use d to eva l u ate the bus i m pe danc e m at ri x for
th e
,
392 CHAPTER 1 0 SYMMETRICAL FAU LTS

network of Fig. 10.6. The numerical values of the elements of the matrix will be
different from those in Example 7.6 because subtransient reactances are now
being used for the synchronous machines. The changes in the bus voltages due
to- are given by
If
� V1
� V2
� V1
- VI
=
l
- Ij' =
Culum n 21 - Z 1 I2
-L

I"/
22
f ( 10 . 1 5 )
� V3 � V:I - 2 .1 If
�� � V4 2
- 2'1 2
1j'

The second row of this equ a tio n shows th at

( 10. 16)

We recognize 2 22 as the diagonal element of Z blls representi ng the Theveni n

impedance of the network at bus @ . Substi tuti ng the expression for Ii into
� q. 00.15) gives

221v
�Vl - -

222
- J
� V2 , V
f
� VJ - Z32 V
-
( 10. 17)
� V4 - Z422 vf
Z22I
-

When the genera tor vol tage Vf is s hor t- c i rell i ted in the networ k of Fig. 1 0.6
-

and the sources E�, E;; , and V are reinserted into the network, the currents
and voltages everywhere in the networkI will be the same as those existi ng before
the fault. By the principle of superposi tion these prefault vo tage s ad dl to the changes
given by Eq. (10. 17) to yield the total voltages existing after the fault occurs.
The faulted network is usually, but not always, assumed to be without load
before the fault occurs. In the absence of loads, as remarked previously, no
prefault currents flow and there are no voltage differences across t he branch
impedances; all bus voltages throughout the network are then the same as Vf'
the prefault voltage at the fault point. The assumption of no pre fault current
simplifies our work considerably, and by applying the principle of superpos i t ion,
 lU.3 FAULT CALCULATIONS USING Z bus 393

we obtain the bus voltages

6. V1 VI - 2 1 2 Ii 212
VI VI 1-
V2 VI VI 6. V2 VI - VI VI - 2:12 I]'
6. V3 Z22
VI 0
6.V4
+ VI (10.18)
2:n
=

1 -
222
-

1 - 242
V4 V I - 242 IJ
222

Thus, the voltages at all buses of the network can be c al c u lat e d using the
prefa ult voltage VI o f the fault bus and the cl ements in the column of Z bus
corresponding to the fa ult bus. The calcu lated values of the bus vol t a g e s will
y ie l d the subtransicnt cu rre nts in the branches of the ne t w o rk if th e sys tem Z bus
has been fo rmed with sub tr an sie nt va lues fo r the mac hine r e acta n c e s .
In more ge neral terms, when the three-phase fa u l t occ urs on bus ® of a
large-scale network, we have

"
I - 2"" ( 10 .19)

a nd n e g lectin g prefau lt load currents, we can then wri te fo r the voltage at a ny

b us 0 d ur in g the fault

(1 0 .20 )

where 2j" and 2u a re el ements in col umn k of the s y s t e m Z OllS. If the p refault
vo ltage of bus (j) is not the same as the prefault vol tage of fault bus CD, the n
we s im p l y replace V on t he le ft in Eq . ( I O. 2()) hy t h e a c t u a l prcfault voltage of
I
bus (j) . Knowing the bus vol tages during the fa ult, we can calculate
subtrans ien t current I:�. from bus CD to bus (j) in the l i n e of i mp edance 2b
the
connecting those two buses,

(1 0.21 )
This equation shows I:; as the fraction of the fault c urr e nt Ii appearing as a
line flow from b us CD to bus (]) in the faulted network. If bus 0 is directly
connected to the fa ulted bus CD by a line of series impedance 2b, then the

cVju/r r where
ebn't contributed
Vi is g i v e n from
by Eq.bus (]) to the current i n the fau l t at b u s
00 .20). CD is s i
m pl y 2
394 CHAPTER 10 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

The d iscussion of this section shows that only column k of Zbu s , which we
now denote by Zb:�, is required to evaluate the impact on t h e syst e m of
asymmetrical three-phase fault at bus . If necessary, the element s of Zb:� c a n
be generated from the triangular factors of Y bus ' as demonstrated in Sec. 8.5 .
®
Example 10.3. A three-phase fault occurs at bus W of the network of Fig. 10.5.
Determine the initial symm etrical rms currcn t (th at is, thc subt ra n s i e n t c u r r e n t ) i n
the fault; the voltages at buses G) , a n d @ d u r i n g the fault; the current
i n th e line f rom bus ® t o bus
flow a nd the cu rr e n t contributions
l ine s G) - W , CD (l no - W , Ta ke@th-e (1p)r d a .u l t vll lt at bus
e q u a l to 1 .0ZQ:. p e r u n i t a n o n e g l e c t ;1 1 1 p r da u l t c u rr e n t
to t he fault fr om
s.
T'J G)
Solution. Applying t he ZhllS b uil d i n g a l g o r i t h m to f i g . 1 0.5, we fi n el that

CD (1) G) .��

jO..21 293Q58
CD jO.2436 jO .11 45056
jO.
CD
Zbus = G) jO ..1159 15441 494 jO.. 11 49594
jO.
@ jO.1 456 jO.1506 jO .l 046 jO. 1954
43 48 jO.1O-l6

Since l oa d currents are n eglecte d , the pr e fault voltage at each bus is l .Oft per
unit, the same as f at bus . Wh e n the fault occu
rs, @V
1.0 1.0
f
[ " = -
= -j4 .3573 per unit
Z 2 2 jO . 2 2 95

and [rom Eq. (10.18) t h e vo l tages d uring t h e fau lt arc

VI 1 -
jO.21 293985
0.
V= j0O.1494 1o556
2
� V 1 - 1 - jO .2295 0. 3490 per unit
3 jO..212509 65
0.3438

The current flow in line ®- CD is

0.3490jO-.250 . 1 556
- jO.7736 pe r unit
 IDA FAU LT CALCULATIONS USING Zbw EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS 395

Fault currents contributed to bus W by the a dj a c e n t unfaulted buses are

Vj
0 . 1 55 6
From bus CD :
Zbl jO.1 25 -jl .2448 per unit
VJ 0. 3490
jO.25
From bus G): Zb3 0 .3438 -jl .3960 per unit
=

jO .20
V4
From bus @: Zb4 = =

-jl .7 1 90 per unit

Exce p t ror round-off e rr ors , th e sum of these current contributions equals If.

10.4 FAULT CALCU LATIONS US IN G Z blls

EQ U IVALE NT . C I R C U I T S

We cannot devise a physica lly real izable network which d irec tl y in c orpor te s all
the i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s of the bus impedance m a tr i x . However, Fig. 8.4 shows
t h a t we can use the matr ix elements to construct the Thevenin equival ent circuit
between any pair of buses in the network that may be of interest. The Thevenin
e q u ivale nt circuit is very helpful for illustrati ng the symmetrical fault equations,
which are developed in Sec. 10.3.
In the Theven in e q u i va l e nt c i rc u i t of Fig. lO.7(a) b u s ® i s assumed to be
the fault bus and bus (j) is u nf au lt ed . The impedances shown correspond
directly to the elements of the network Z bus and all the p re f au l t bus voltages are
the same as Vf of t he fa ult bus if load currents are neglected . The two
points

Unfaulted bus U nfaulted bus

}}
Z· · - (]) ))�
Z · · - Z k (])
x

v Faulted bus
Bus to be faulted = _f
Zk k

II;
(b)

FIGURE 10.7
Th eve n in equ ival e n t b e twe e n buses and ® of system with no pr e fa u lt 10<l u currents: ( ) before
CD a
t h c Ll u l t ( S o rc n ); ( 1)) u u r i n g t h e fa u l t (S c l osed ).
 396 CHAPTER 10 SYMMETRICAL FAU LTS

marked x h ave the same potential, and so they can be joined together to yield
the equivalent circuit of Fig. 10. 7 ( b ) with a single voltage source V as shown. If
the switch S is open between bus ® and the reference node, there r is no short
circuit and no current flows in a ny branch of the network. When S is closed to
represen t the fault on bus ®, cur ren t flows in the circuit toward bus ®.
current
This is If = IZwhich agrees w i t h Eq . C 1 0. 1 9), and it in d uces a volt ageVr
d rop ( Zjk lZk k ) Vr in the direclion ji'o/11 t he r e fe r e n c e node towa rd b u s CD. The
kk '
voltage from bus (]) to the reference changes therefore by the amou nt
- (Zjk IZ kk ) Vf s o t h a t th e voltage a t b u s (]) d u ring the fau l t is VI -
(Z IZ ) , which is co ns is t ent with Eq. ( 1 0.
20).kkk Thus,Vrby
j substituting appropriate n u m e r ical value s fo r the i m p e d a n c e s in
the simple equivalent ci rcuit of Fig. 10.7( b ), we can calculate the bus voltages of
the system before and after the fault occurs. With switch S open in the circu it,
the voltages at bus and the representative bus (J) are equal to Vf . The
usame ® voltage profile occurs in Fig. 10.6 i f there are no prefault currents so
niform
that E� and E� equal Vf ' If S is closed in Fig. 10.7(b), the circuit reflects the
voltage of representative bus CD with respect to reference while the faul t is on
bus ®. Therefore, if a three-ph ase short-circuit fault occurs at bus ® of a
large-scale network, we can calculate the current in the fault and the voltage at
any of the un faulted buses simply by inserting the proper impedance values in to
elementary circuits like those in Fig. 10.7. The fol lowing example illustrates the
procedure.

Example 10.4. A five-bus ne twork has generators at buses CD and G) rated 270
and 225 MVA, respectively. The generator subtransient reactances plus the
reactances of the transformers con necting them to the buses are each 0.30 per unit
tohnet hvoe lgtaegneerbaatoser riant ienagcahs gbeans eraTthore ct ui rrcnusi
traitsioesqoufa tl hteo t rtahnesfvoorlmt aegres raaretinsgucohf t thhaet
generator. Line impedances in per unit on a 1 00-MVA system base are shown in
Fig. 10.8. All resistances are neglected. Using the bus impedance ma trix for the
ne twork which includes t h e gen era l o r and tra ns former re act, I I1CCS, fi nd t h e

®
® 1. 0�
)0. 168 )0. 126
1.0�
)0.210
jO. 126

FIGURE 10.8
Impedance diagram for Example 10.4. Generator reactances include subtransient value6
plus
reactances of set-up transformers. All values in per unit on 3 1 00-MYA base.
 \0. 4 FAULT CALCULATIONS USING Zbus EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS 397

subtransient current in a three-phase fault at bus@ and the current coming to

the faulted bus over each line. Prefault current is to be neglected and all voltages
are assumed to be 1 . 0 p er unit before the fault occurs.

Converted to the lOO-MVA base, the combined generator and

Solution.
transformer reactances are

Generator at bus CD: 100

X = 0 . 30 X = 0. 1 1 1 1 per unit
-

270
Generator a t bus G):
100 = 0 . 1333 per unit
X = 0 . 30 X
-

225

These values, along with the line impedances, are marked in per unit in Fig. 10.8
from which the bus imped ance matrix can be determined by the Z bus building
algorithm to yic ld

CD W 0) C1) W
CD jO .0793 jO .0558 jO.0382 jO .05 1 1 jO.0608

W jO .0558 jO.1338 jO.0664 jO.0630 jO .0605

Zbus = G) jO .0382 jO .0664 jO .0875 jO .0720 jO .0603

@ jO .05 1 1 j 0.0630 jO .0720 jO .232l jO .1 002

G) jO.0 608 jO .0605 jO .0603 jO . 1002 jO. 130l

Since we are to calculate the currents from buses G) and G) into the fault at bus

Unfaulted bus Unfaulted bus

Z33 - Z 34 ® ®
Z 1)1) - Z5'

Z44
+

l. oLQ:,
s
V(
S Vr
_.

. �
@
=

If = -j4 . I = -j4.30B
jZ5O.0720
_4 308 jO . 1601 Z4 5 --

jO.l 002
=

-- jO.1319
f
ea)

(b)

FlGU RE 10. 9
Use of Thevenin equivalent circu i t s to calcu late voltages at (a) bus G) and (b) bus @ due to fault
at b u s G).
398 CHAPTER 10 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

0 , we need to know V3 and during the fault. Visualizing equivalent circui ts

like those of Fig. 10.9 helps
Vs in finding the desired currents and voltages.
The subtransient current in the three-phase fault at bus 8) can be calculated
from Fig. 1O.9(a). Simply closing switch S gives
V
I II_ I _ 1 .0
= -j4 .308 per unit
f - -
Z44 jO .2321
From Fig. 1O.9(a) the voltage at bus G) during the fault is

VJ = Vf - IlZJ4 = 1 .0 - ( - j4 .3 08 ) ( J 0 .0720) = 0 . 6891-: p e r u n i t

From Fig. 1O.9( b) the voltage at bus G) du r i ng t h e fa ult is

Vs = Vf - flZs4 = 1 . 0 - ( -j4 .3(8) ( j0 . 1 002) = 0 . 5683 p e r u n i t

Currents i nto the fault a t bus @ over t h e line impedances Zb are

0.6898 jO.336 =
From bus @: VJ
- =
-j2 .053 per unit
Z b3 0. 5683
Vs

From bus G): - =

- j2 .255 per unit
Zb S jO .252

Hence, total fault current at bus @ - j4 .308 per unit

=

Other equivalent circuits based on the given bus impedance matrix can be
developed for three-phase faults on any of the other buses or transmission lines
of the system. A specific application will demonstrate how this is accomplished.
Three-phase faults occur more often on transmission lines than on substa
tion buses because of the greater exposure of the lines to storms and acciden tal
disturbances. To analyze a line fault, the point of fault on the line can be
assigned a new bus n umber and Z b u s fo r the normal configuration of the
network can then be modified to accommodate the new bus. Sometimes the
circuit breakers at the two ends of the line do not open simultaneously when a
line fault is being cleared. If only one circuit breaker has opened and the fau lt is
not fully cleared, shor t-circuit current persists . The so-called line-end fa ult
represents the p articular situation where the three-phase fault occurs very close
to one of the terminating buses of the line, on the line side of the first breaker
(near the fault) to open. The line breaker near the fault is called the near-end
breaker and that at the end away from the faul t is called the remme-end breaker.
The single-line d iagram of Fig. 10.10 shows a four-bus network with a line-
end fault at point P on the line con necting buses CD and 0 The line has °

series impedance Zb o The near-en d breaker at bus @ is open a n sI

remote-end breaker is closed, leaving the fault still on at point P, which we now
the
 10.4 4 FAU LT CALCULATI ONS U S I N G ZbuS EQU I VALENT CI RCUITS 399

CD

o - Closed breaker
@ - Open breaker

FI GLRE 1 0 . 1 0
L in � ·end fa ult at point P on lin e of ser ies imped;tnce Z" between bJses CD nnd G) of system of
F ig I O .H .

call bus ®. In order to study t his fault condition, we need to modify the
existing bus impedance matr ix Zorig for the normal configuration of the system
to reflect the near-end breaker operation. This is accomplished in two steps:

1. Establish the new bus ® by adding a line of series impedance Zb between

bus CD and bus ®.
2 . Remove the line between bus CD and bus W by adding line impeda nce
Zb between those two buses in the manner explained in Sec. 8.4.
-

The first step follows the procedure given for Case 2 in Table 8.1 and yields, in
terms of the elements Z ij of Zorig , the first five rows and columns of the

® ®
ZII Z I I - 212
221 Z 21 - 222
.% � I
.1..1 1 - 2:12

Z4 124 1 - Z42

2 11 + ZbZ I I 212
-

( Z I I - 22 1 ) ZII1. 12 2b-

( 10 .22)

whe r e Zth. 1 2 = Z I I + Z22 - 2 Z 1 2 w h e n Z ori g is sym met ric. The second ste p
can be accompl is he d by fo r m i n g row
® a mI column ® as shown a n,d then Kron
40 CHAYTER 10 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

reducing the matrix Z to obtain the n ew 5 X 5 matrix Z bus . new including bus ®,
as explained for Case 4 of Table 8.1. However, since 2 k , ne w is t he only element
required to calculate the current in the fault at bus ®
( point P of Fig. 10.10),
we can save work by observing from Eq. 00.22) that the Kron reduction form
glves

( 10 .23)

Again, w e note t h a t 212 2 2 1 an d 2(h, 1 2 = 2 I I

=
+ 222 - 2Z 1 2 ' By neglecting
prefault currents and assigning pre fault voltage VI = 1.0 LQ: per unit to the
fault point P, we find the line-end fault current 1; out of bus ® as follows:

I" -
- 1 .0
2\ ! +- ( 21 1 -
1 .0
1 2 - Zb)
( 10 .24)
=

f 2 kk , new Zb Z21 ) 2
/( Zth

Thus, the only el em e nts of Zorig entering into the calculation of I; are 2 1 1 ,
Z 12 = Z 21' and Z22 '
It is worthwhile observing that the same equation for the line-end fault
current can be found directly by inspection of Fig. 10.l l(a), which shows the
Thevenin equivalent circuit between buses CDand W of the prefault ne twork.
The impedances Zb and -2b are connected as shown in accordance with steps
1 and 2 above. Circuit analysis then shows in a straightforward manner that the
impedance looking back into the circuit from the terminals of the open switch
S is
( 2 1 1 - 2 1 2 ) ( 222 - 22 1 -
2b ) b +22 ( 1 0 .25 )
k k, new
=2 + -
2 1 1 _ 2 12 + 2 21 2 b
_ _

2 22 1

S ince 2 1 2 = 2 2 1 and 2(h 1 2 = 2 1 1 + 2 22 - 2 2 12 , Eq. 00.25) can be reduced to

gIve

( 10 . 26 )

Thus, simply by closing switch S as shown in Fig. 10. 11 (b) and using elementary
circuit analysis, we can ca l c u l a te the line-end fault current I; in agreement with
Eq. (10.24). Of course, the circuit approach using the Thevenin equivalent ,must
yield t he same results as the matrix manipulations of Eq. 00.22)-for the same
 10.4 4 FA U LT CA LCU LATIONS USIN G :Z bU, EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS 401

®
p

- z�

(a)
®
P
S

V{ = 1. 0iQ:.

(b)

FlGU RE 10 . 1 1
Simul at in g the li n e - e nd fa u l t o f Fig. 1 0 . 1 0 by Thevenin equivalent circu it: (a) w i t h li ne CD- (1)
open before the fault; ( I» d urin g the fau lt (S closed),

external connections arc being made to the larger system model as to its
Thevenin equivalent.
Other uses of the equ ivalent circuits based on the bus impedance matrix
are possible.

Exa mple 10.5. In the five-bus system of F i g. 10.8 a li ne-end, short-circu it fault
occurs on I inc CD - W, on the line side of the breaker at bus W. Neglecting
p rc fault curre n ts and assum ing r ated sys tem volt age at the fault point, calculate
the subtransicnt current into the fault when only the ncar-end breaker a t bus @
opens.

Figure 1 0.8 shows that the impedance of line J)- (l) is Zb jO. 168 per
Solution. =

unit and the required elements of Z hus are given in Example 10.4. The Thevenin
equivalent circuit looking into t h e intact system between buses ,CD a n d @
402 CHAPTER 10 SYMMETRICAL FAU LTS

corresponds to Fig. 1O.1 1(a). The numerical values of the im p e dan c e s shown in
parallel are calculated a s Zfo1 l1lo=ws: =

jO .0793 - jO .0558 jO .0235

22 - 2 1 - 2b = jO. 1338 - jO.0558 - j0. 1 68 =

jO .092 2
-
i t t h e fa ul ted
T h e n e w 2H T anh ,cdnv enin
th impedance seen looking back n o system
=e referen+ce (isjOth. 0e2r3e5fo)r(e-gjiOv.e(n9 )
between
th e f au l t p o i n t
P by Eq . ( 1 0.25) as
.
cw + jO .0558.
1 0 . 1 68
( j0 .0235 _ jO .
09)
j O.255()
= per u n i t

Thus, lhe su bt ra l l s ic l l t cur rell t i ll to t l l c l i l l c - cnJ h u l t

is

= 1
1;
jO . 255 6 - j 3.9 1 2 per uni t
=

10.5 THE SELECTION OF CIRCUIT

BREAKERS
The electric uti li ty company furnishes data to a customer who must determine
the fault current in order to specify circuit breakers properly for an industrial
plant or industrial power distribution system connected to the u tili ty system at a
certain point. Instead of providing the Thevenin impedance of the system at the
point of connection, usually the power company i nforms the customer of the
short-circuit megavoltamperes which can be expected at nominal voltage; that
IS,

S hort-ci rcuit MYA 13 X ( nominal kY) X I isc i

= X 10 --3 ( 10 .27)

where I Isc i
in amperes is the r ms magnitude of the short-ci rcuit current in a
three-phase fault at the connection point. Base megavoltamperes are rel ated to
base kilovolts and base amperes I /basc i by

Base MYA = 13 X ( base kY) x 1 1 b aSe I X 1 0 - 3 ( 10 .2 8 )

If base kilovol ts equal nominal kilovolts, then dividing Eq. 00.27) by Eq. 00.28)
converts the former to per unit, and we obtain

Short-circuit MYA in per u ni t = l I se I in per unit ( 10 .29)

At nominal voltage the Thevenin equivalent circuit looking back into the system
�
from the point of connection is an emf of 1.0 per unit in series with the
 10.5 THE SELECTION OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS 403

per-unit impedance Zth. Therefore, under short-circuit conditions,

1 .0 1 .0
-
l Ise ! per unit = per unit ( 10 .30)
- short-circuit MVA

O ften resistance and shunt capacitance are neglected, in which case Zth = Xth
Thus, by specifying short-circuit megavoltamperes at the customer's. bus, the
electric utility is effectively describing the short-circuit current at nominal
voltage and the reciprocal of the Th e venin impedance of the system at the point
of connection.
Much study has been given to ci rcu it-breake r ratings and applications, and
our discussion he re gives some introduct ion to the subject. The presentat ion is
not i n t en d e d Zl S a s t u c l y of b r e a ke r a p pl icat ion s b u t , ra t h e r , to i n dic a t e the
i m p o rt an c e of u n d e r s t a n d i n g f a u l t c Z l l cu l a t i o n s . For additional guidance in
s p e c i fy i n g b re a k e rs t h e (T i l ( i e r s h o u l d c ( ) l l s u l t t h e A N S I p u b l i c a t i o ns listed
in the footnot es w h i c h a c c omp an y t h i s s e c t i on .
From t h e current viewpoint two factors to be considered in selecting
ci r c ui t breakers a r e :

• The maximum instantaneous cu rrent which the breaker m ust carry ( withstand)
and
• Th e total current when the breaker contacts part to in terrupt the circuit.

Up to this point we have devoted most o f our attention to the subtransient

current called th e initial symmetrical current, which does not i nclude the de
component. Inclusion of the dc component results in a rms value of current
immediately after the fa ult, which is higher than the subtransient current . For
oi l circuit breakers above 5 kV t he subtransient current multiplied by 1.6 is
considered to be the rms value of the current whose d isruptive forces the
breaker must withstand during the first half cycle a fter the fault occurs. This
cu r r e n t is ca l l e d t h e momentary current , and for many years circuit breakers
we re ra t ed in te rms of their m o m e n t a ry c u r r e n t as we l l Zl S o the r criteria. I
The illt amptill/{ ratil/g o f a c i rc u it bre,l ke r was s I1eci fied in kilovol tam
peres or m e g a vo l ta m p e r es . The i n terrupting kilovoltamperes equal 13 X ( the
ki lovo lts of the bus to whi ch the b r c , l k e r is c o nn e c ted ) X ( t h c c u rr e n t wh ich the
b re a ke r m us t be cl ]Jablc o r i n t e r r u p t i n g w h e n it s co n t a cts pa rt). This interrupt ing
current is, of course , l ower t h an the m o m e nt a ry CUITent and dep en ds on the
spe ed of the breaker, such as 8, 5, 3, or 2 cycles, which is a measu re of the time
from the occu rrence of the fault to the ex tinct ion of the arc. Breakers of
different speeds are classified by their rated interrupting times. The rated

l
See G . N. Lester, "High Yolt ilge Ci rcu it Breaker Standards i n the , nt, and
USA: Pas t Prese
Fu tu r e ," IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vo l. 93, 1974, pp. 5 90,600.
404 CHAPTER 10 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

Extinction of
arc on
Initiation of primary contacts
short ci rcuit

Energization
of trip circuit

Parting of
primary arcing
contacts

Time �

Interrupting time

Tripping Opening Arcing

del ay time time FIGU RE 10.12
De f i n it ion of int e r r u p t i n g time give n In

Contact ANSI/IEEE S tan d ar d C.37.0 10-1 979, Applica

parting time tion Guide for AC High VO/lage Circuit Break ers
Rated Of! a Symmetrical Currellt Basis.

interrupting time of a circuit breaker is the period between the instant of

energizing the trip circuit and the arc extinction on an opening operation, Fig.
10. 12. Preceding this period is the tripping delay time, which is usually assumed
to be � cycle for relays to pick up.
The current which a breaker must inte rrupt is usually asymmetrical since
it still contains some of the decaying dc component. A schedule of preferred
ratings for ac high-voltage oil circuit breakers specifies the interrupti ng current
ratings of breakers in terms of the component of the asymmetrical current
which is symmetrical about the zero axis. This current is properly called the
required symmetrical interrupting capability or simply the rated symmetrical short-
circuit current. Often the adjective symmetrical is omitt ed. Selecti on of circuit
breakers m ay also be made on the basis of total current (dc component
2
included). We shall limit our discussion to a brief treatment of the symmetrical
b asis of breaker selecti on.

2See Preferred Ratings and Related Required Capabilities for AC High- Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated
ona Symmetrical Current Basis, ANSI C37.06-1 987, a nd Guide for Calculation of Fault Currents for
Application of AC High - Vo/tage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Total Current Basis, ANSI C37. �-1979,
American National Standards Institute, New York.
 10.5 THE SELEcnON OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS 405

Breakers are identified by nominal-voltage class, such as 69 kY. Among

other factors specified are rated continuous current, rated maximum voltage,
voltage range factor K, and rated short-circuit current at rated maximum
kilovol ts. The rated maximum voltage of a circuit br eaker is the highest rms
voltage for which the circuit breaker is designed. The rated voltage range factor
K is the rat io (rated maximum voltage -7- t he lower l imit of the range of
operati ng voltage). K determines the range of voltage over which the product
(rated short-circuit current X operati ng voltage) is con s t a nt . In the applicati on
of circuit breakers it is important not to exceed the short-circuit capabilities of
the breakers. A b r e ake r is required to have a maximum symmetrical internlpting
capability equal to K x rated short -circuit current. Between the rated maximum
voltage and 1/K times the rated maximum voltage the symmetrical interrupting
capability is defined as the product [rated short-circuit current X (rated m axi
mum voltage/operati ng voltage)].
Example 10.6. A 69-kV circuit breaker having a voltage range factor K of 1 .21 and
a con tinuous current rating of 1 200 A has a rated short-circuit current of 19,000 A
at the m aximum rat ed voltage of 72 .5 kV . Determine the maximum symmetrical
int errupt ing capabil ity of the brea ker and expl ain its significance at lower operating
voltages.

Solution . The maxi mum symmetrical interrupting capabili ty is given by

K x rated short-circuit current = 1 .21 x 19 ,000 = 22 ,990 A

This value of symmetrical interrupting current must not be exceeded. From the
definition of K we have

rated maximum voltage 72.5

Lower limit of operating voltage = = = 60 kV
K 1 .21

Hence, in the operating voltage range 72.5-60 kV, the symmetrical interrupting
current may exceed the rated short-circu it current of 1 9,000 A, but it is lim ited to
22,990 A. For example, at 66 kV the interrupting current can be

72 .5
-66 x 19,000 = 20 ,871 A

B reakers of the 1 1 S- kV class and hi gher have a K of 1. 0.

simplifi ed procedure for calcuJat ing the symmetrical short-circuit cur
A
rent, called the E/X method, 3 disregards all resistance, all static load, and all :

3See Application Guide for AC High- Voltage CirCLIit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis,
Nat iona l S tandards Institute, New York. This publication is also
ANSI C37.01O-1 979, American
IEEE Std. 320-1 979.
 '
..
. - � . �

406 CHAPTER 10 SYMM ETRICAL FAULTS

prefaultcurrent. Subtransient reactance is used for generators in the EjX

method, and for synchronous motors the recommended reactance is the X� of
the motor t imes 1 .5, which is the approximate value of the transient reactance
Xd of the motor. Inducti on motors below 50 hp are neglected, and various
multiplying factors are applied to the X of larger induction motors depending
�
on their size. If no motors are present, symmetrical short-circuit current equals
subtransient current.
The impedance by which the voltage at V the fault is divided to find
short-circu it current must be examined when f the E jX method is used. In
specifying a breaker for bus ® , this impedance isZkkof the bus impedance
matrix with the p roper machine reactances since the short-circuit current is
expressed by Eq. ( 1 0. 1 9). If the radio of XjR of t h i s i mpedan ce i s 1 5 or le ss ,

a breaker of the correct voltage and kilovoltamperes may be used if its

interrupt ing current rati ng is eq ual to or exceeds the cal culated current. I f t h e
XjR r a t i o is unknown, the calculated curren t should be no more than 80O/C of the
allowed value for the breaker at the existing bus voltage. The ANSI application
guide specifies 'a corrected method to accou nt for ac and dc ti me constants for
the decay of the current amplitude i f the XjR ratio exceeds 15. The corrected
method also considers breaker speed.

Exam ple 10.7. A 25,000-kVA 1 3.8-kV generator with X;; 1 5% is con nected
=

through a transformer to a bus which supplies four identical motors, as shown in

Fig. 10.13. The subtransient reactance X; of each motor is 20% on a base of 5000
kVA, 6.9 kV. The three-phase rating of the transformer is 25 ,000 kYA, 13.8/6.9
kV, with a leakage reactance of 10%. The bus voltage at the motors is 6.9 kV when
a three-phase fault occurs at point P. For the fault specified , determine (a) the
subtransient current in the fault, ( b) t he subtransicnt current in breaker A, and CC)
the symmetrical short-c ircuit interru pting current (as defined fo r circuit-breaker
appl ica tions) in the fault and in breaker A .

(a) For a base of 25,000 kVA, 13.8 kV in the generator circuit the base
Solution.
for the motors is 25,000 kVA, 6.9 kV. The subtransicnt reactance of each motor is

Xd" = 0 .20 25 ,000

= 1 .0 per unit
5000

Figure 1 0. 14 is the diagram with sub transient values of reactance marked. For a

FIGURE 10. 13
One-line diagram for Example 10,7.
 10.5 THE SELECfION OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS 407

fault at P FIGURE 10. 14

Reactance diagram for Example 10.7.

VI = J .O� per u n i t Zlh = jO . 1 25 per unit

/" - I .()� -jR .n per u ni t

J -
jO . 1 25

The base current in the 6 .9 kY circu it is

2090 A
= f3325 X,0060. 9 =
and so i Ili = 8 X 2090 = 16,720 A
Through breaker A comes the contribution from the generator and three
(b)
of the four motors. The generator con tribu tes a current of
0.25
- j 8 .0 X
0.50
--

= -j
4.0 per unit
Each motor contributes 25% of t he remaining fault current, or - jl.O per-unit
amperes each. breaker A
J" = -j4 .0 +- � ( - j l .O ) = -j7 or 7 x 2090 = 14 ,
630n A 0 per u i t
.

(c ) To compute th e cu rre nt to be i n t e rrupted by b re ake r A . repl ace the

c n c e of j l .O by t h e t ra ns i e n t
s u b l r a n s i e n t re a t a r e ac t a nce of j 1 .5 in the motor
ci rcuits of Fig. 1 0. 1 4. Then, 0. 375 X 0.25

0 . 375 + 0 .25 = jO . l S per u

Z lh = j
nit
The generator contribut e--s 1a.0cu
rxren0t.3o7f5
-j4.0 per unit
jO. 15 0. 625
·
408 CHAYfER 10 SYMMETRICAL FAU LTS

Each motor contributes a current of

1 1 .0 0 .25
- X -- X -- = -jO.67 per unit
4 jO.15 0. 625

The symmetrical short-circuit current to he interrupted is

(4 0 + 3
. X 0. 67) X 2090 = 1 2,560 A

Suppose that all the breakers connected to the bus are rated on t he basis of the
current into a fault on the bus. In that case the short-circuit curren t interrupting
rat ing of the breakers connected to the 6.9 kY bus must be at l east

4+ 4 X 0. 67 = 6. 67 per unit

or 6. 67 X 2090 = 13 ,940 A

A 14.4-kV circuit breaker has a rated maximum voltage of 15.5 kY and a K

of 2.67. At 15.5 kY its rated short-circuit interrupting current is 8900 A. This

= 23, 760 A, at a voltage of 15.5 /2.67 .

breaker is rated for a symmetrical short-circuit interrupting current of 2 67 X 8900
5 8 kY. This current is the maximum
=
.
that can be interrupted even though the breaker may be in a circui t of lower
voltage. The short-circuit interrupting current rating at 6.9 kY is
15 .5
X 8900 = 20 ,000 A
.9

The required capability of 13,940 A is well below 80% of 20,000 A, and the
breaker is suitable with respect to short-circuit current.

The short-circuit current could have been found by using the bus
impedance matrix. For this purpose two buses CD and @ are identi fi ed in Fig.

the 4 . Bus CD i sside.

10. 1high-voltage o n thFor motorl tage
e low-vo reactance
s i d e o of
f t h e per former and
unit
t ra ns
1 .5 bus 0 is

on Y

=
\I
-
+
' 10
j1.5 /4
1
-

67
j12 .

= jl0 j 6 . 67
Y
Y1
2 22 = -j l 0 - = -j 16 .67

The node admittance matrix and its inverse are

CD @ CD @

CD:[ jO .0901
jO.114 ,
- j12.67
 10.5 THE SELECTION OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS 409

)0.15 - CD s,

Vf = l.O�
®

jO.09

FIG U RE 1 0 . 1 5
Bus i m p e d a nce e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t fo r the Z !HIS of f'ig. 1 0.1 4.

1 0.15 is the ne twu rk corresponding to Z ou s and VI = 1 .0 per unit. Closing

Fig ure
5[ with 5 open represents a fau lt on bus CD .
2 The symme trical short-circuit interrupti ng current in a three-phase fault at
bus CD is
l.0
I')c = --
-j6 .67 per unit
=
jO. 15

which agrees with our previous calculati ons. The bus impedance matrix also
gives us the voltage at bus Cl) with the fau lt on bus CD ·

V2 = 1 .0 - 1St Z2J = 1 . 0 - ( -j6 .67) ( j0.09 ) = 0 .4

and since the admitt ance between buses CD a n d W is - j l 0, the cur rent into
the faul t from the transformer is

(0. 4 - 0 .0) ( -jI 0) - j4 .0 per unit

which also agrees with ollr previous resu lt.
We also know immediately the short-ci rcu it current in a three-phase fault
a t bus W , which, by referring to Fig. 10.15 with S I open and S2 closed, is
l.0
=
1sc = -j8.77 per unit
jO.1 14

This simple example ill ustrates the value of the bus impedance matri x where the
,
410 CHAPTER 10 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

effects of a fault at a number of buses are to be studied. Matrix inversion is not

necessary, for Zbus can be generated d irectly by compute� using the Z b us
building algorithm of Sec. 8.4 or the triangular factors of Y b u s' as explained In
Sec. 8.5.

Example 10.8. The generators at bu ses CD and (1) of the network of Fig. 1 O. 1 6( a)
have s y n ch ro no u s reacta nces X" I = X" 2 j l 7 0 r>er u n i t (as mark ed ) a n d
= .

subtransient r e a c t a n ce s X� = X:; = jO.2S per u n i t . If a th re e- phase short -ci rcu it

fault occurs at bus G) wh�n the: e is no load (al l bu s voltages equal pe r
un it), find the init ial symmetrical (subt ransient) cu rre n t ( 0) in the fault line
CD G) , and (c) the voltage at bus @ . Use t ri angular factors of Y bus in the
-

calculations.
Solution. Fo r the give n rau l t con di t i o n s t I l e ne twor k lIas t he s u h t r ;l I l s i e n t re a c t ; I I1CC
shown tI l(': co r re spo n d i n gY
factors
diagram
r
i ll fig. I O. I ()( h), and
- 01 .1I - O-.�04.3504
has the l r i �I I l g ll b

-j7.9
)II'

j3 .5
L u
1
[ . ][X J [ O J
Since the faul t is at bus 0, 0Eqs. (10. 1 9) through
involve column 3, Z�Js' of the subtransient Zbu s ' which
0.21 ) we n ow
show thatgenerate as follows:
the calculation s

-jlO 1

jl .
X
2 = 0
jS j3.S -j3 .94937 X
3
1

jO.2
)O.3333 )0.2 ® )0.3333
®

j O.25 j O.25
1. 0LQ:.
l.O�

..

(a)

FIGURE 10.16
The reactance diagram for Example 1 0.8 with generators represented by: ( a) series volta ge �ou rce
behind Xd ; (b) e q u ivale n t cu rre n t source i n paralle l w i t h X:;.
 10.6 SUMMARY 411

Solving, we obtain

= -j3 .94937
1 O . 25 3 20 per u nit

]
X
3 j
- 0.44304
=
=

and so the e l e m e n t s of Zb�- s0are. 1 given by

I 2 33
0 2][) 2I3] [
- 0.
5
= jO . 1 1 2 1 t{ pcr u n i t
0 " .
j O.253 20
We A n d t hat

22:1..11 = jO.25320 per unit

2� ,
u = jO .1 3782 per unit

(u) Accord in g to EC] . ( J 0 .1 9), t h e s u b t r a nsic n t cu r r e n t in the fa u l t

-
J -
is
= j3 . c)493 7 per u n i t
" - _ I
V jO .25320
1
1

2(
From Eq. 1( 0.21 ) 0- G)
( )
(b) we ca n wri te for nt in l i n e
the curre

I"
- _ _ VI
2 1 3 - 233

b
D Z �3

jO .2
jO . 1 3782 - jO . 25320

jO .25320
) = -j2. 27844 per u n it

(c) During the f(l u l t t h e vo l t

a ge
(
is gi ven by Eq. OU.20) as foll ows:
at b u
) jO . 1 1 2 IH

.7 jO. 25320

( s W

"� )
= 0 . 55695 per un it

10.6 SUMMA RY
The cu rrent flowing immediately afte r a fault occurs in a power ne twork is ,
determined by the impedances of the network components and the synchronous
machines. The initi al symmet rical rms fault current can be determined by
representi ng each machi ne by its subtransient reactance in series with its
subtransient internal vo ltage. Subtransient currents are larger than the transient
"
 412 CHAPTER 10 SYMMETRICAL FAU LTS

and steady-state currents. Circuit breakers h ave ratings determined by the

maximum instantaneous current which the breaker must withstand and later
interrupt. Interrupting currents depend on the speed of breaker operation. ·
Proper selecti on and applicati on of circu it breakers should follow the recom
mendati ons of ANSI standards, some of which are referenced in this chapter.
Simplifying assumptions usually made in industry-based fault stud ies are:

• All shunt connections from system buses to the reference node (neutral) can
be neglected in the equivalent circu its representi ng transmission lines and
transformers.
• Load ·impedan ces are much larger t han those of network co mponents, and so
they can be neglected in system mode Ii ng.
• All buses of the system have rated/nom inal voltage or I. pe r unit so that
no prcfaul t currents tlow in the network. ()�
• Synchronous machines can be represented by voltage of l. 0 per unit �
behind subtransient or transient reactance, depending on th e speed of the
circu it breakers and whether the momen ta ry or interrupti ng fault curren t is
being calculated (ANSI standards should be consulted).
• The voltage-source-plus-series-impedance equivalent circuit of each syn
c hronous machine can be transformed to an equivalent current-source-plus shunt-
impedance model. Then, the shunt impedances of the machine models
represent the only shunt connecti ons to the reference node.

The bus impedance matrix is most often used for fault current calcula
ti ons. The elements of Z bus can be made available explicitly using the Zbus
building algorithm or they can 'be generated from the triangular factors of Ybus '
Equivalent circuits based �:m the elements of Z b us can simpli fy fault-current
calculations as demonstrated in this chapter for the line-end fault.

PROBLEMS
10. 1. A 60-Hz alternating voltage having a rms value of 1 00 V is applied to a series RL
circuit by closing a switch. The resistance is 15 n and the inductance is 0.12 H.
(a) Find the value of the dc component of current upon closing the switch if the
instantaneous value of the voltage is 50 V at that time.
(b) Wh at is the ins tant aneou s valu e of t h e voltage which will produc e the
m aximum dc component of current upon closing the switch?
(c) What is the instantaneous val ue of the voltage which will result in the absence
of any dc component of current upon closing the switch?
(d) If the switch is closed when the i nstantaneous voltage is zero, find the
instantaneous current 0.5 , 1 .5, and 5.5 cycles later.
10.2. A generator connected through a 5-cycle circuit breaker to a transformer is rated
1 00 MVA, 18 kV, with reactances of X� 1 9 %, Xd 26%, and Xd = 1 30� . I t
=
=
 PR OBLEMS 413
is operating a t no load and rated vol tage when a three-phase short circuit o
"
ccurs between the breaker and the transformer. Find (a) the sustained short-circuit
current in the breaker, (b) the initial symmetrical rms current in the breaker, and
(c) the maximum possible dc component of the short-circuit current in the
breaker.
10.3. The three-phase transformer connected to the generator described in Prob. 10.2 is
rated 1 00 M YA, 240Y/ 1 8 6 k Y X = 1 0%. If a three-phase short ci rc ui t occurs
,

on the high-voltage side of the transformer at rated voltage and no load, find (a)
the initial symmetrical rms current in the transformer windings on the high-volt
age side and (b) the initial symmetrical rms current in the line on the low-vol tage
side.
10 .4. A 60-Hz generator is rate d 500 MYA, 20 kY, w i h t = 0.20 per unit. It supplies a
purely resist ive load of 400 MW at 20 kY. The load is connected directly across the
terminals of the generator. If all three phases of the load are short-circuited
simultaneou sly. find the init ial sy mmetrical rms current in the generator in per unit
on a base of SOO MYA, 20 kY.
10.5. A g e ne r a to r is c onn e c t e cJ t h ro u g h a t ra ns for m e r to a s y n c h ro no s m ot o r. Reduced
to the same base, the per-unit subtransient reactances of the generator and motor
u respectively, and the leakage reactance of the transformer is
a re 0 . 1 5 and 0.35,
0 . 1 0 p e r u n i t . A t h r ee p h a s e fa ul t occu rs a t t he ter m i n (ll s of the motor when the
-

termi nal voltage of t he ge n e r a t o r is 0.9 pe r u n i t and the output current of the

ge n e r a t o r is 1 .0 per u n i t at 0 .8 powe r factor l e a d ing. Fin d th e subtransient current
in per u n it in the fau l t in the generator, and in the motor. Use the
,

terminalof the generator as the reference phasor and obtain the solution (a) by
voltage
computing the voltages behind subtransient reactance in the generator and motor
and (b) by using Thevenin's theorem.
10.6. Two synchronous motors having subtransient reactances of 0.80 and 0.25 per unit,
respectively, on a base o f 480 Y , 2000 k Y A are connected to a b u s. Th is motor is
connected by a lin e having a reactance of 0.023 fl t o a bus of a power system. At
t he power system bus t h e s h o rt-ci rcui t megavoltamperes of the power system are
9.6 MYA for a nominal voltage of 480 Y. When the voltage at the motor bus is 440
Y, neglect load current and find the initial symmetrical rms current in a three-
phase fault at the motor bus.
10. 7 . T h e bus impedance m a t r ix of a fo ur-bus network with values in p e r unit IS

jO .07 jO.09 jO .05

j O.1 5 jO .08 jO.04
jO .12
jO .08 jO .15 jO .06
Z bu s =
jO .04 jO.06 jO .13
jO.07 jO .09 jO .OS

Generators connected to buses CD and0have their subtransient reactances

included in Zb us' If prefault current is negle cted, find the subtransient current in
per u nit in fault for a three- phase fault on bus @. Assume the volt ge at the
fault is per unit before the fault occurs. Find also the per-unit current
from generator 2, whose subtransient reactance is 0.2 per unit.
414 CHAPTER 10 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

10.8. For the network shown in Fig. 10. 17, find the subtransient current in per unit t hree-
from generator 1 and in line - @ and the voltages at buses and for
phase fault on bus CD . Assume that n o current is flowing prior to the faul t
aaG)
ndCDthat t h e prefault voltage a t b u s @ is 1. 0& per unit. CD Use the
impedance
bus matrix in the calculations.

FIGURE 10.17
Network for Probs. 10 .8 an d 10 .9.

:. 10.9.For the network shown in Fig. 10. 17, determine Y b u s and its triangular factors.
Use the triangular factors to generate the elements of Z bus needed to solve Prob.
10.8.
10.10. If a three-phase fault occurs at bus CD of the network of Fig. 10.5 when there is
no load (all bus voltages equal 1 .0 & per unit), find the subtransient current in
the fault; the voltages at buses @, ® . and @; and the current from the
generator connected to bus @ . Use e quivalent circu its based o n s of
1 0.3 and simil ar to those of Fig. 10.7 to illustrate your calculat ions.
Example Z bu
10.11. The network of Fig. 1 0.8 has the bus impeda nce matrix given in Example l O A . If a·
short-circuit fault occurs at bus @ of the network w h e n t here is no load (al l bus
voltages equal 1 .0 & per u n it), find the subtransicnt c u rrent i n t he fau l l,
voltages
the at buses CD and G). and the c u rrent from the generator con nected
bus CD. Use equivalent circuits based on Zbus and similar to those of Fig. 1 0.7 to
illustrate your calculations.
to
10. 12. Z bus for the network of Fig. 1 0.8 is g iven in Example 10.4 . If a li ne-end
-
short-circuit fault occurs on line ® G) of the network on the line side of the
breaker at bus G) , calculate the subtransient current in the fault when only the
near-end breaker at bus G) has opened. Use the equivalent circ uit approach of
Fig. 1 0 .1 1 .

10.13. Figure 9.2 shows the one-line

9.2. diagram of a single power networkCDwhich @ has the
line data g iven in Table Each generator connected to buses and has a
s ubtransient reactance of 0.25 per unit. M aking the usual fault study
assumptions,
s ummarized in Sec. 1 0.6, determine for the network ( a ) Y bU5 ' ( b ) bus ' (c) th e
Z
subtransient current in per unit in a three-phase fault on bus ® and Cd) the
-
contributions to the fault current from line CD G) and from line @ G) . -
 PROBLEMS 415

10.14. A 625-kV generator with

breaker, as shown in Fig. 10. 18.
X'd =Connectedperthrough
0.20 unit is connected to a bus through a circuit
circuit breakers to the same bus are
three synchronous motors rated 250 hp, 2.4 kV, 1 .0 power factor,
90% efficiency, with X'd 0.20 per unit. The motors are operating at full bad,
unity power factor, and rated voltage, with the load equally divided among the
machines. =
(a) Draw the impedance diagram with the impedances marked in p e r unit on a
base of 625 kVA, 2.4 kY.
(b) Find the symmetrical short-circuit current in amperes, which must be inter
rupted by breakers A and B for a three-phase fa ult at point P. Simplify the
calculations by neglecting the prefault cu rrent.
(c) Repeat part (b) for a three-phase fault at point Q.
Cd) Repeat part (b) for a three-phase fa ult at point R.

FIGURE 1 0 . 1 8
O n e · lin e d ia gr a m for Prob. 1 0 . 1 4 .

1 0.1 5. Acircuit breaker having a nominal rating of 34.5 kV and a continuous current
rating of 1500 A has a voltage range factor K of 1.65. Rated maximum voltage is 38
kV and the rated short-circuit current at that voltage is 22 kA Find (a) the
voltage below which rated short-circuit current does not increase as operating
voltage decreases and the value of that current and (b) rated s hort-circuit current
at 34.5 kY.
 CHAPTER

11
SYMMETRICAL
COMPONENTS
AND SEQUENCE
NETWORKS

One of the most powerful tools for dealing with unbalanced polyphase circui ts
is the method of symmetrical components introduced by C. L. Fortescue. !
Fortescue ' s work proves that an unbalanced system of n related phasors can be
resolved into n systems of balanced phasors called the symmetrical components
of the original phasors. The n phasors of each set of componen ts are equal in
length , and the angles between adjacent phasors of the set are equal. Although
the method is applicable to any unbalanced polyphase system, w e con fine our
discussion to three-phase systems.
In a three- phase system which is normally balanced, unbalanced fault
conditions generally cause unbalanced currents and voltages to exist in each of
the phases. If the currents and voltages are related by constant impedances, the
system is said to be linear and the principle of superposition applies. The
voltage response of the linear system to the u nbalanced cu rrents can be
determined by considering the separate responses of the individual elements to
the symmetrical components of the currents. The system elements of interest
are the machines, t ransformers, transmission lines, and loads connected to 6. or
Y confi gurati ons.

Ie. L. For tescue, "Method of Symmetrical Coord inates Applied to the Solut ion of Polyph ase
Networks," Transactions of AlEE, vo l. 37, 1918, pp. 1 027- 11 40.

4H l
 1 1 .1 SYNTHESIS OF UNSYMMETRICAL PHASORS FROM TH EIR SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 417

In this chapter we study symmetrical components and show that the

response of each system element depends, in general, on its connections and the
component of the cu rrent being considered. Equivalent circui ts, called sequence
circuits, will be developed to reflect the separate responses of the elements to
each current component. There are three equivalent circuits for each element of
the three-phase system. By organizing the individual equivalent circuits into
ne tworks according to the interconnecti ons of the elements, we arrive at the
concept of three sequence net wo rks Solving the sequence networks for the fault
.

conditi ons gives symmetrical current and voltage components which can be
combined together to reflect the effects of the original unbalanced fault currents
on t he overall system .
Analysis by symmetrical components is a powerful tool which makes the
calculati on of unsymmetrical faults almost as easy as the calculati on of three
phase fau lts. Unsymmetrical faults are stud ied in Chap. 12.

11.1S Y NTHESIS OF UNS Y MMETRICAL

PHASORS FROM THEIR S Y MMETRICAL
COMPONENTS

According to Fortescu e's theorem, three unbalanced phasors of a three-phase

system can be resolved into three balanced systems of phasors . The balanced sets
of components are:

1. Positive-sequence components consisti ng of three phasors equal in magnitude,

d isplaced from each other by 1 200 in phase, and having the same phase
sequence as the original phasors,
2 . Negative-sequence components consisti ng of three phasors equal in magni tude,
displaced from each other by 1200 in phase, and having the phase
sequence opposite to that of the original phasors, and
3. Zero-sequence components consisti ng of three phasors equal in magn itude
and with zero phase displacemen t from each other.

It is customary when solving a prob lem by symmetrical components to

designate the three phases of the syslem as a, b, and c in such a manner that
the phase sequence of the voltages and currents in the system is abc. Thus, the
phase sequence of the positive-sequence components of the unbalanced phasors
is abc, and the ph ase seq u ence o f the n ega tive-sequence components is acb. If
the original phasors are voltages, they may be designated Va ' Vh ' and VC The
three sets of symmetrical components are designated by the additi onal super
script 1 for the positive-sequence components, 2 for the negati ve-sequence .
components, and 0 for t he zero-sequence components. Superscripts are chosen
so as notThetopositive-sequence
chapter. confuse bus numbers with of
components Va ' Vh ' indicators
sequence Va( ),onVbi(n), this
and Vc arelater and
l I
Vc( l), respectively. Simi larly, the negative-sequence components are , VY), VP),
418 CHAPTER 11 SYMM ETRICAL COMPONENTS AND SEQUENCE N ETWORKS

y(l)
a

y(2)
a

VP)

Positive-sequence Zero-sequence components

Negative-sequence
components
components

FIGURE 11.1
Three sets of balanced ph asors which are the symmetrical compon ents of th ree u n ba l a nce d ph asors.

and Vc(2 ), and the zero-sequence compone nts are Va(O ), V� O ), and Ve(O),
respec tively_ Figure 1 1.1 shows three such sets of symmetrical components. Phasors
representi ng currents will be designated by J with superscripts as for voltages.
Since each of the original unbalanced phasors is the sum of its compo
nents, the original phasors expressed in terms of their components are

va = Va(O) + Va( l ) +
Va(2 ) (11 .1)

( 1 1 .2)
v = V (O) + V( I ) +
V(2)
c cc
( 1 l .3)
c

The synthesis of a set of three unbalanced phasors fro m the three sets of
symmetrical componen ts of Fig. 11 .1 is shown in Fi g. 11 .2_
The many advantages of analysis of power systems by the method of
symmetrical components will become apparent gradually as we apply the
method to the study of unsymmetrical faults on otherwise symmetrical systems.
It is suffi cient to say here that the method consists in finding the symmetrical
components of cu rren t at the f au lt. T h e n , th e va lu es of c u r re n t a n d vol tage at
various points in the system can be found by means of the bus impedance
matrix. The method is simple and leads to accurate predictions of system
behavior.

11.2 2 THE SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS OF

UNSYMMETRICAL PHASORS
In Fig. 11 .2 we observe the synthesis of three unsymmetrical phasors from t h ree
sets of symmetrical p h aso rs. The syn t h e s i s is made in accor da nce w i t h EQs.
 1 1 .2 THE SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS OF UNSYMMETRICAL PHAS ORS

V (Ol )
Cl
VCl(2

v( l )

V (2)
c

FI G U RE 1 1 .2
Graphical a ddi ti o n of the components
showll ill Fig. 1 1 . 1 to o btai n three un
balanced phasors.

(1 1 . 1) th rough ( 1 1 .3). Now let us examine these same equations to determi ne

how to resolve three unsymmetrical phasors into their symmetrical components.
First, we note that the number of unknown quantities can be reduced by
expressing each component of Vb and Vc as the product of a component of Va
and some function of the operator a = 1 �
, which was introduced in Chap.
1. Refe rence to Fig. 1 1 . 1 verifies the foll owing relations:

V (O) V (O) V ( O) V (O)

=

b
=
a
c a

V(l) = aV(I)
C 11

VOl
h
=

a V (2)
a

RC f)C( l t i n g Fq . ( 1 1 . 1 ) a n d sub st i t u t i ng Eqs. ( I J . 4) in Eqs. ( 1 1 . 2) an d ( 1 1 .3) yield

V( I )
/I ( 1 1 .5 )
+
( 11 .6)

( 11 .7)

or in matrix form
V (O) V eO)
V 11 1 a a
a
Vb =
1 2aa Vea l ) =
A V
(l)
( 1 1 J8)
a
1 a2 V (2) V (2)
Vc a a a
420 CHAPTER 1 1 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND SEQUENCE N ETWO RKS

where, for convenience, we let

( 11 .9)

Then, as may be verified easily,

( 1 1 . 1 0)

and premul ti plying both sides 0 f Eq. ( 1 1 . 8) by A- I yic Ids

Va(O
) 1 1 1 Va
1 Va
V (l =
I
Vb (11. 11)
a2
A-
a
-
1 a
) Vb Vc
3
Va(2) 1 a2 a
Vc

which shows us how to resolve three unsymmetrical phasors into their symmetri
cal components. These rel ations are so important that we write the separate
equ ati ons in the expanded form

Va(O) = �3 ( V + II

( 1 1 . 12)

Va( l ) = �3 ( V + a
+ a2 V )
a
( 1 1 . 13)
Vh
C

Va(2) -
�3 (V a
+ 2a +
( 1 1 . 14)

I f required , the components v,b(0), Vb( l ) ' Vb(2)' Vc( O )' Vc( l ) ' and V ( 2 ) can b e found byC

Eqs. (11 .4). Similar results apply to line-to-line voltages simply by replacing Va '
Vb ' a nd � in above e q u a t ion s by Vab, V"c , a n d VC t" respectively.
Equati on ( 11 .12) shows that no zero-sequence components exist if the sum
of the unbalanced phasors is zero. Since the sum of the lin e-t6-line voltage
phasors in a three-phase system is always zero, zero-sequence components are
never present in the l ine voltages regardless of the degree of unbalance. The
sum of the three line-to-line neutral voltage phasors is not necessarily zero, and

voltages to neutral may contain zero-sequence components.

 The preceding equations could have been writt en for any set of related
phasors, and we might h ave written them for currents instead of for vol ta ges.
They may be solved either analyti cally or graphic(llly. Because some of the
 11 .2 THE SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS OF UNSYMMETRICAL PHASORS 421

preceding equati ons are so fundamental, they are summarized for currents:

Ia = 1a(0 ) +
1 a( 1 ) 1a(2)
+

Ib = I� O) + a 2 1a ( 1 ) aIa(2) ( 1 1. 1 5 )
+

Ic = 1a(0) + a 1a( 1 ) + a2Ia(2)

J (O )
a
= 1.3 ( Ia + Ib + IJ
(1)
=
J t ( la alb a2/c ) ( 1 1 . 16 )
a + +

J a( 2 ) = (1
1.
:I u
+ a 2 Ib alc )
+
Finally, these results can be extended to phase currents of a � circuit [such as
tha t of Fi g. 1 1 .4( a )] by rep lacing 111 ' 1,." and 1, by I,,/) , I;" . and respect ively.
l)ICI
Example 1 1 . 1 . One conductor of a threc- phnse line is ope n . The current flowing to the
6.-connccled load t hroug h l i ne ([ is l O A. With the current in li ne (/ as rcfcn:nce and
assuming that li ne c is o pe n find the symmetrical c o mp o n en ts of the line currents.
,

Solution. Figure 1 1 . 3 is a di agram of the circu it. The line currents are

1c = OA

Fro m Eqs. 01. 1 6)

l� O ) = H 1 0L2: + 1 0� + 0)
� I) = 010
H L2: =
+ 10 1800+ 1 200 + 0)1

= 5 - j2 .89 = 5 .78L - 300

A
1�2 ) = Hl OLo + + 2400 + 0)

= 5 + j2 .89 = 5 . 7�
8 A
FIGURE 11 .3
Circuit for Example 1 1 . 1 .
422 CHAPTER 1 1 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND SEQUENCE NETWORKS

From Eqs. (11.4)

lceO} =0
[gI ) = - 1500 A

If!.) = S. A IP) = - <JO° A

7H�
I�O)
0 holds for any three-wire system.
The result I�U) = J�U) =
In Example 1 1 .1 we note that components and have nonzero
1 � ') 1 � 2)
=
values although line c is open and can carry no net current. As is expected,
therefore, t he sum of the components in line c is zero. Of cou rse, the sum of
the components in line a is 1 0� A, and the sum of the components in line b
is 10� A.

11 .3 SYMMETRICAL Y AND d CIRCUITS

In three-phase systems circuit elements are connected between lines a, b, and c
in either Y or fl. configuration. Relationships between the symmetrical compo
nents of Y and fl. currents and volt ages can be established by referring to
Fig. 11 .4, which shows symmetrical i mpedances connected in Y and fl.. Let us
agree that the reference phase for fl. quantities is branch a-b. The particular
choice of reference phase is arbitrary and does not affect the results. For
currents we h ave

(1 1.17)

Zy

(a)

FIGURE 11.4
Symmetrical impedances: (a) �-connected; ( b) Y -connected.
 11 .3 SYMMETRICAL Y AND A CIRCUITS

Adding all three equations together and invoking the definition of zero
sequence current, we obtain I�O ) ( Ia + Ib + 1)/3 0 , which means that
= =

line currents into a D.-connec(ed circuit have no zero-sequence currents. Substi tuti ng
components of current in the equati on for Ia yields

= ( J�g) - 15�») + ( /�b) - 15�») + ( /!�) -

( 11 . 1 8)
11�»)
o

Evidently, if a nonzero value of circulati ng current 1��) exists in the D. circu it, it
cannot be determined from the l ine currents alone. Not i ng that 15� ) a"�h) =

1��)
and 211�t),
=a we now write Eq. ( 1 1 . 1 8) as follows:
- a) 1 ( 1 ) (+-
1
1 ( 1 ) + f (2 ) ( 1 a )
2
( 1 1 .19)
a a
ab

A sim ila r equat ion for phase b is 1 h( 1 ) + 1b( ) = (1 - a ) Ib( eI ) + ( 1 - a 2 ) Jb(2e ) , and
2

express ing 1b( 1 ) ' 1b( 2 ) ' be 1 ( 2 ) in terms of 1a( 1 ) ' 1 (2) ' 1a( D1) ' and 1a(2b)' w e obtain
/ ( 1' ) and be a
a
resultant equation which can ' be solved along with Eq. (11 .1 9) to yield the
important results

j( 1 ) = 13 - 30° X 1( 1 )
a ab ( 11 .20 )

These results amount to equati ng currents of the same sequence in Eq. (1 1.1 9).
Complete sets of positive- and negative-sequence components of currents are
shown in the phasoT diagram of Fig. 1 1 .5( a).
In a similar. manner, the li ne-to-line vol tages can be written in terms of line-
to-neutral voltages of a Y -connected system,

vu f) = V -
on bn

V" ,. :co
V,,,, - v: "
( 1 1 .21)
v;,·u v:." - �,"
=

AJ nd d i ntogether
g all three equati ons shows that V:,(j/) e V:,h + V"c + V,,)/3 = = O.
words, lille-Io-line uolluges l/{fpe 110 zero-sequence components. Substi tuti ng
components of the voltages in the equati on for Vu h yields

Ve00l ) ( VaenOl + I + )ez»)

V( V - ( V(O) + V ( l) +
at>
+ V ( 2)
an
=

Ill! bll on

()
424 CHAPTER I I SYMMETRICAL COMI'ON ENTS AND SEQUENCE N ETWOR KS

/ (1 )
e

/ (1 )
ea (2)
1be a

/ (1 ) [( l ) [ ('2 )
b be ca

Positive-sequence Negative-sequence
components components

(a )
)
v( lab

v (\) VO)
an bl

VOl v( l ) v(bel)
ea en

V(2)
an

va(b2 )

Positive-sequence
Negative-sequence
components
components

(b
FIGURE 11 .5 )
Posit ive- and negative-sequence components of (a) line and delta currents and (b) line-to-Iine and line-
to- neutral voltages of a th ree-phase system.

Therefore, a nonzero value df the zero-sequence voltage v}� cannot be deter

mined from the l ine-to-line voltages alone. Separati ng positive- and negati ve
) 9), we obtain the
sequence quanti ti es in the manner explained for Eq. (1 1.1
important voltage relati ons

VCI)
ab
(1 - a2) VC1)
=
an

( 1J. .23)
 I I .J SYMM ETRICAL Y A N D 6 CIRCU ITS 425

Complete sets of positive- and negati ve-sequence components of voltages are

shown in the phasor diagrams of Fig. 1 1 .5(b). If the voltages to neutral are in
per u nit referred to the base voltage to neutral and the line voltages are in per
unit referred to the base voltage from line to line, the 13multi pliers must be
omitt ed from Eqs. ( 11 .2 ). If both voltages a re referred to the same b
however,
ase, 3 the equations are correct as given. Similarly, when line and 6. currents
are expressed in per unit, each on i ts own base, the 13 in Eqs. ( 1 1 .20)
disappears since the two bases are related to one another in the ratio off3: l.
When the currents are expressed on the same base, the equation is correct as
writt en.
From Fig. 11 . 4 we note that �"jlab = Z 6. when there are no sources or
mutual coupling inside the c. circuit. When positive- and negative-sequence
quantities are both present, we have

VII(hI ) V (2 )
ai,
1 (1 ) = =
1 ( 2)
( 1 1 .24)
IIi> a i,

S u bst i t u t i n g from E qs . ( J J . 2 0 ) a n c.J ( J J . 2 3 ), we ob t a

in
13- Vu(nI )� 13 V}�) 30° -

1 (\) � - Z6. --
-
1(2)
a - 300
31 13
_

_ II

so that ---
a n

I(
f a( l )
V
Z().
3 v)
an
(2
5
( 1 1 .2 )

1 a( 2 )

-
)
which shows that the c. c on nec t e d i mped ances Z6. are equivalent to the per
phase or Y-co n nected impedances Z y = Z6./3 of Fig. 1 1 . 6(a ) insofar as posi-

(a) (b)

FIGURE 11 .6
( (I) S y m m e t ri c;1i CI-cOIlIlected i m r e d; l!l ccs and t h e i r V-con necte d equi va l en t s re l at ed by 2y = 26/3;
'
( b ) Y - c o n n e c t e d i m p e d a n c e s w i t h n e u t r a l c o n n e c t i o n to ground.
426 CHAPTER 11 SYMM ETRICA L COMPONENTS AND SEOUENCI: N ETWO RKS

tive- or negative-sequence currents are concerned. Of course, this result could

have been anti cipated from the usual /1-Y transformati ons of Table 1 .2. The
relation Zy = Z/l/3 is correct whe n the impedances Z/l and Zy are both
expressed in ohms or in per unit on the same kilovo)tampere and voltage bases.

Example 11 .2. Three identical Y-connected resistors form a load bank wi th a three-
phase rating of 2300 V and 500 kVA. If the load bank has applied voltages

I V',c l = 2760 V I V:'11 I = 230() V

find the lin e voltages and currents in per unit i n t o the load. Assume that
the neutral of the load is not connected to the neutral of the system and select a
base of 2300 V, 500 k VA.

The r ati n g of the load bank coin cides w i t h the spe cified base, and so the
Solution.
resistance values are 1 .0 per u nit. O n the same base the g ive n line vo l tages i n per
unit are

I Vca I = 1 .0

Assuming an angle of 1 80° for Vca and using the law of cosines to find the angles
of the other line vol tages, we find the per-unit values

Vab =

The symmetrical components of the line vol tages a rc

= 1 (0 . 1003 + jO .7937 + 0 . 2 3 72 + j l . 1 7 63 + 0. 5 + jO . 8(60)

= 0.2792 + jO .9453 = pCI' u n i t ( I i n c - t o - l i n e voltage base )

= � (0 . 1 003 + jO .7937 - 1 . 1 373 - jO .3 8 28 + O .S --c jO .8660)

= -0 .1 790 - jO .l51 7 = per unit ( line-to-l ine voltage base )

The absence of a neutral connection means that zero-sequence currents arc not
present. Therefore, the phase voltages at the load contain positive- and negative
sequence components only. The phase voltages are fou nd from Eqs : (11.23 ) with
the {3 factor omitted since the line voltages are expressed in terms of the base
voltage from line to line and the phase voltages are desired in per unit of the' base
 11 .4 POWER IN TERMS OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 427

voltage to neutral . Thus,

= 0.9857 43 .6° per unit (line-to-neutral voltage base)

== per unit (Iine-to-neutral voltage base)

S i ncc e a c h resi st or has an i m p e d a nce of 1 .0LQ:. pc r u n i t ,

v( l )
J � I) =
= 0.9857 43 .6° per u n i t

/ (2 )
a =
= O.2346i.3S0.3° per unit

The pos itive direction of current is chosen to be from the supply toward the load.

11.4 4 POWER IN TERMS OF

SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
If the symmetrical components of current and voltage are known, the power
expended in a three-phase circuit can be computed directly from the compo
nents. Demonstrati on of this statement is a good example of the matrix
manipulati on of symmetrical components.
The total complex power flowing into a three-phase circui t through three
lines a, b, and c is

S 3</. "- ,

jJ + = V" ! "* V I* Vt · ( 1 1 .26)

· + j C*

where Va ' Vb ' and Ve are the vol tages to reference at the terminals and la ' lb '
and Ie are
connecti on the
maycurrents flowing
or may not into the Ifcircuit
be present. there in
is the
impedance three lines. A neutral
in the neutral
connect ion to ground, then the vol tages V;/ ' VI"a n d V;. must be interpreted as
voltages from the line to grou nd rather t h a n to n e u t r a l . In matrix notation

( 1 1 .27)
 CHAPTER 11 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND SEQUENCE N ETWORKS

where the conjugate of a matrix is understood to be composed of elements that

are the conjugates of the corresponding elements of the original matrix.
To introduce the symmetrical components of the voltages and currents, we
make use of Eq. (11.8) to obtain

( 11 .28)

va(O) ](0)
a

where and ( 1 1 .29)

V(2) I (Z)
a a

The reversal rule of matrix algebra states that the transpose of the product
of two matrices is equal to the product of the transposes of the matrices in
reverse order. According to this rule,

( 1 1 . 30)

and so ( 11 .31)
Noting that AT A and
= that a and a Z are conjugates, we obtain

s3
</>
= [V 1 1 1 1 1
(O) a Va( l 1 1 ( 11 .32)
)
1 a 1

or smce

1 1 1 o U
1 1 0
a 1 o 1

v(a O) V(l)
a
V (Z)
a
1a( 0

( 11 . 33 )
)
534> = 3

So, complex power is

which shows how complex power (in voltamperes ) can be computed from the
symmetrical components of the voltages to reference (in volts) and line currents
 1 1 .5 SEQUENCE CIRCUITS OF Y AND A IMPEDANCES 429

(in amperes) of an unbalanced three-phase circuit. It is important to note that

the transformation of a-b-c voltages and currents to symmetrical components is
power-invariant in the sense discussed in Sec. 8.6, only if each product of
sequence voltage (in volts) times the complex conjugate of the corresponding
sequence current (in amperes) is multiplied by 3, as shown in Eq. (11 .34). When
the complex power S 3 1> is expressed in per unit of a three-phase voltampere
base, however, the multiplier 3 d isappears.

Using symmetrical components, calculate the power absorbed in

Example 11 .3.
the load o f Example 1 1 .2 an d check the answer.

Solution. In per unit of the three-phase 500-kYA base, Eq . ( 1 1 .34) becomes

Substitut ing the components of voltages ,md cu rrents from Example 11 .2, we
obtain

- 250 .3"
S) <b = 0 + X 0.9857[.. 43 .6° + X

2 2
= (0 .9857) + (0 .2346) = 1 .02664 per unit

= 513.32 kW
The per-unit ya)ue of the resistors in each phase of the Y-connected load bank is
1 .0 per unit. In ohms, there fore,
2
(2300)
R = = 10.58 D
Y 500 ,000

and the equivalent 6.-connected resistors are

R Cl. = 3Ry = 31 .74 D

From the given line-to-line voltages we calculate directly

2 2
(1840)2 + (2760) + (2300)
=

31 .74
- - = 513.33 kW

11.5 5 SEQUENCE
CIR' IMPEDANCES CUITS OF Y AND �

Ifimpedance Zn is inserted between the neutral and ground of the Y �co nnected
impedances shown in Fig. 11 .6(b), then the sum of the line currents is equal to
430 CHAPTER 11 SYMMETRICAL COMPON ENTS AND SEQUENCE NETWORKS

the current /n in the return path through the neutral. That is,

(1 1 .35 )

Expressing the u nbalanced line currents in terms of their symmetrical compo

nents gives

(/ a(0 )+ / b(0) +
1(0») + ( 1/(+)/ (1) 1(1»
+ ) +( a + 1 +(2»
1(2)(2) 1 )
c fI b c h c

o ()

=
3 1 (0)
a ( I I .36)

Since the positive-seq uence and negati ve-sequence currents add separately to
zero at neutral point n, there cannot be any positive-sequence or negati ve
sequence currents in the connections from neutral to ground regardless of the
value of Zn' Moreover, the zero-sequence currents combining together at n
become 3 /�0) , which produces the voltage drop 3 between neutral and
ground. It is important, therefore, to disti nguish1�between
)Z/l voltages to neutral
0
and voltages to ground under unbalanced cond itions. Let us designate voltages
of phase a with respect to neutral and ground as Va ll and� , respec+tively.
the voltage of phase a with respect to ground is given by Va = Van v,, , where
Thus,
� = 31�0)ZTI ' Referring to Fig, 1 1 .6( b ), we can write the vol tage drops
to ground from each of the l ines a, b, and c as

( 11 .37)

The a -b-c voltages a n d cu rre n t s i ll thi s equation c a ll be rep laced by t h eir

symmetrical components as fo ll ows:

Va(O) 1 (0)
a

A V}t) = Zy A J! I) ( 11 .38)
Va(2) 1a(2)

M U ltiplying across by the inverse matrix A- I , we obtain

· va< O ) 1

1 (2)
a
+ 31a(0)Zn A - I 1
1
 1 1 .5 SEQUENCE CIRCUITS OF Y AND A IMPEDANCES 431
'
Postmultiplying A - 1 by [1 1 I V amounts to adding the elements in each row
of A- I ,

v (O )
a
1
and so V a(I) = Zy + 3 1a(0)Zn 0 ( 1 1 .39)
V(2)
a
o

In expanded form, Eq. (1 1. 39) becomes three separate or decoupled equations,

v (O ) = (Z
Y
a
+ 3Z n ) 1 (0) a
= ZO ( 1 1 AO)

vae l ) = 1a(0) Z Y / ( 1 ) a
=
( l 1 A 1)

v(a 2 ) =
ZI 1( 1 )Z (J Y
1 (2 )
a
( 1 1 .42 )

= Z 2 /a(2)
It is customary to use the symbols Z o , Z l ' and Z 2 as shown.
Equations ( l 1 AO) through ( 11 .42) could have been easily developed in a
less formal manner, but the matrix approach adopted here will be usefu l in
developing other important relati ons in the sections wh ich foll ow. Equati ons
( 11 .24) and (11 .25) combine with Eqs. ( 11 .40) through (11 .42) to show that
currents of one sequence cause voltage drops of only the same sequence in /:
or Y -connected circuits with symmetrical impedances in each phase. This most
important result allows us to draw the three single-phase sequence circuits
shown in Fig. 11 .7. These three circuits, considered simultaneously, provide the
same information as the actual circuit of Fig. 1 1 .6( 6), and they are independent
of one another because Eqs . ( l 1 AO) through ( 1 1 .42) are decoupled. The
c ircuit
of Fig. 1 1 . 7( a ) is called t he zero-sequence circuit beca use it relates t he
zero O
sequence voltage Va(O ) to the zero-sequence current 1� ), and thereby s e rv e s to
defi ne the impedance to zero-sequence curren t given by

v «(I)
(J
1 (0)
= Zo = 2y + ( 11 A3)
321/
(1

+ ta
J(O) J( l)
� Zy a Zy
+

+t
a

V iOl Z
o
3 Z"
-
V O) Z
'

I Reference Reference Reference

(a) (6) (c)

FI GU RE 11 .7
Zero-, posi tive-, a n d n egat i ve- se qu en ce c i r cu i t s for Fig. l1 .6(b).
432 CHAPTER 1 1 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND SEQUENCE NETWORKS

Likewise, Fig. 11 .7(b) is called the positive-sequence circuit and Z I is called the
impedance to positive-sequence current, whereas Fig. 11 .7 c is t h(e ) negath'e sequence
circuit and Z 2 is t h e impedance to negative-sequence current . The names
of the impedances to currents of the different sequences are usually
shortened to the less descriptive terms zero-sequence impedance 20 , positive
sequence impedance 2 I ' and negative-sequence impedance 22 , Here the positi ve and
n e g at iv e s e qu- e nc e i m p e d a n c e s Z I <t nd Z2 ' resr c ct i v cl y arc /1oth fou nd to
b e equal t o the usual per-phase i m p e d a n ce , Z y , w hi c h i s ge n e r a l l y t h e c a s e
for
stationary sy mme t ric a l circuits. Each or the three sequence circu its re p r e sen t s
one phase of th e actual three-phase circuit when t h e l a tt e r c a r r i e s c u r r e n t of
only that sequence . W h e n t h e t h r e e s eque nce cu r re n ts ar c s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
p re s e n t , all three sequence c ircuits a re n e e d e d t o fu l ly r e p r e se n t t h e o r i g i n a l
circuit.
Voltages in the positi ve-sequence and n e g at ive -s eq u e n c e ci r c u i t s can be
regarded as voltages measured with respect to either neutral or ground whet her
or not there is a connection of some fi nite value of impedance Zn be tween
neut r a l and ground. Accordingly, in t he positi ve-sequence circuit there is no
d ifference between V( I ) and V ( I ) and a s i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t a p p l i e s t o V ( 2 ) and
U U II , a

Va� in t h e negative-sequence circuit. However, a voltage di fference can exist

between the neutral and the reference of the zero-sequence circuit. In the
)
circuit o f Fig. 1 l .7( a) th e current 1� 0) flowing through impedance 3Zn
produces t h e same voltage drop from neutral to ground as the current 3 1�0)
fl owing through impedance Z n in the actual circuit of Fig. 1 1 .6(b).
If the neutral of t h e Y -connected circuit is grounded through zero
impedance, we set Zn = 0 and a zero- impedance connection then joins the
neutral point to the reference node of the zero-sequence circuit. If th e r e is no
connection between neutral and ground, there cannot be any zero-sequence
current flow, for then Zn = which is indicated by the open circuit between
00,

neutral and the reference node in the zero-sequence ci rcui t of Fig. 1 1 .8( a).
Obviously, a L1-connected circuit cannot provide a path through neutral,
and so line currents flowing into a L1-connected load or its equivalent Y circuit
cannot contain any zero-sequence components. Consider the symmetrical L1-
connected circui t of Fig. 11 .4 with

( 11 .44 )

Adding the three preceding equati ons together, we obtain

( 1 1 .45)

and since the sum of the li ne - t o- l i n e voltages is always zero, we therefore have

v < O)
a b
= [ (0 ) = 0
ab
( 1 1 .46)
Thus, in � -connected circuits with impedances only and no sources or m ' utual
coupling t h e r e cannot be any circulati ng cu rr en t s . Sometimes s ing l e - ph a s e
 11.5 5 SEQUENCE CIRCUITS OF Y AND A IMPEDANCES 433

1(0) Z
� y

Reference

z,.

FI GURE 1 1 .8
Reference (a) Ungrounded Y-co nnected and
(b) 6-connected circuits and their
( b) zero-sequence circuits.

circula ting currents can be produced in the 11 circuits of transformers and

generators by either inducti on or zero-sequence generated voltages. A 11 circuit
and its zero-sequence circuit are shown in Fig. 11 .8(b). Note, however, that even
if zero-sequence voltages were generated in the phases of the 11, no zero
sequence voltage could exist between the 11 terminals, for the rise in vol tage in
each phase would then be matched by the voltage drop in the zero-sequence
impedance of each phase.

Three equal impedances of j21 .n are connected in .1. Determine

Example 1 1 .4.
the sequence impedances and circuits of the combination. R epeat the solution for
the case where a mutual impedance of j6 n exists b etw e en each pair of adjacent

branche� The
in theline-to-l in e voltages a r c related t o the 6. currents

j2 1
Solution.

l
6. .

V
l an1
A

j)2}Vl
0
VI,. 0 j2 !
r< " 0 0

0
 lj21
Transform ing to symmetrical c omp o n e n tso of voltages and curren ts gives
j2 1
VO )
vo j,. a
=

2)
a(t>
 j7
434 CHAPTER 1 1 ](l)
SYMM ETRICAL COMPONENTS AND SEQUENCE +t
N ETWORKS I a
+ a J

+0: --
.
'
21
V( )

� +�
Zero-sequence Positive-seq uence

]lj[
+t [(0) j33
(a)

t'
D I(1)
j5
�t :
, Reference

V(O): :

�'!+
Negative-sequence
V (l )
�+ .: �t:
j21 Reference ,Reference
II
I ( 2)
V
( 2 }1

D
j5
�t :
, R e fere nc e

Zero-sequence
Positive-sequence Negative-seq uence
(b)

FIGURE 11.9
Zero-, positive-, and negat ive-se quence ci rcu i ts for Cl-connected i mp e d an ce s of Exampk 1 1 . 4.

and premuitiplying each side by A- I) we obtain

j2 ol o

Thc pos i t ivc an d negat ive-se q ue nc e c i rcu i t s have p e r- p h ase i m p e d a nce s Z =

- I

2 = i7 fl, as shown i n Fig, 1 1 .9(a ), a n d s i nce V"cJ}) 0 , t h e zero-se q u e nc e c u

rrent= 2 0 so that the zero-sequence circuit is a n o p e n c i rc u i t . T h e j 2 1 -fl res i s t a n c e
I��) =

in the zero-sequence network has s i g n i A c an ce only wh en th e re is an internal

source in the o r i g i n al t1 circu it.

[V}2) l
When there is mutual inductance j6 n we e n phases,

be t
i6
j21 j6 A I�i)
A .Vn(b1 l
= )' 6 b
2)
V ( 2l

lj21 [1
)' 6 j6 1a(
ab

The coefficient matrix can be separated into two parts as follows:

1
i 21 i6 i6 1
, [ j6 ] = j1 5 1
0
ia21
i6 i6
o
1
a
 11 :6 SEQUENCE CIRCUITS OF A SYMMETRICAL TRANSMISSION LINE 435

and substituting into the previous equation, we obtain

)
1(0

V (O)
Va(bl) j 15A - JA + j6A - [ 1 1 1 (b
I

1 j6r�
:: 1 1 1 A
va(b2)
1 1 1 a (
b
) 2)
1

Tr{
L

=
115
0

� Ia 0

n3 ° l W; � l
0 0
o / ( 1)
j15 0

'W D) J
+ 0 a b
ab
!�;)
�

0 j 15
0
jlS oo II h
The positive- and negative-seque nce i m p e d a nce s Z 1 and Z now take on t h e
jS
valuen , 2 as shown in Fig. 1 1 .9(b), and since �il?) 1��) 0, th e zero-sequence ci rc u i t
= =

is open. Ag(} in, we note that the j33-[2 resistance in the zero-sequence
has no significance because there is no i nterna! source in t h e o r igin al 6 circuit,
network

The matrix manipulati ons of this example are useful in the sections which
fol low .

1 1 .6 SEQUENCE CIRCUITS OF A
SYMMETRICAL TRANSMISSION LINE
o / (2)
We are concerned primarily with systems that are essenti ally symmetrically
hal anced and which become unbalanced only u pon the occurrence of an
unsymmetrical fault. In practi cal t ransmission systems such complete symmetry
is more i d e a l h a n realized, but since the effect of the departure from symmetry
is usually small, perfect balance between phases is often assumed especially if
the l i nes a re t ransposed a long their l e ng ths. Let us consider F i g 1 1 . 1 0, .

for i ns l Ll n c c , w h i c h s h ow s o n e s e c t i o n o f a t h r e e p h a se transm ission l ine

-

with a neutral conductor. The self-impedance Z a a is the same for each phase
conduc tor, and t h e neu t ral conductor has sel f- impedance Z"" . When currents
la ' 1b , a n d Ie i n t h e p h as e co n d u c t o rs a rc u n b a l a n ce d , t h e n e u t r a l c o n d u c t o r
serves as a return path. A l l the currents are assumed positi ve in the directi ons
shown even though some of their numerical values may be negative under
unbalanced conditions caused by faul ts. Because of mutual coupling, curren t flow
in any one of the phases induces voltages in each of the other adjacent p hases and in
the neutral conductor. Similarly, In in the neutral conductor induces voltages
in each of the phases. The coupling be tween all three phase
conductors is regarded as being symmetrical and mutual impedance Z ab is
assumed between
 4 36CHAPTER 1 1 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND SEQUENCE N ETWO RKS

Zob Zoboo
Z
b Zoboo
Ib
Z b'

I e
�

V• • Ie '
�c

Vcn V. .
Zo n e n

FIGURE 1 1.10
Flow of unbalanced cu rrents in a symmetrical thrce- phasc-line sec tion w i t h ne utral c onduc tor .

each pair. Likewise, the mutual impeda nce between the n e u tr al c o n d u c tor a n d
each of the phases is taken to be Za n"
The voltages induced in phase a, for example, by currents in the other two
phases and the neutral conductor are shown as sources in the loop circu it of
Fig. 1 1 . 1 1 , along with the similar voltages induced in the neutral conductor.
Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law around the loop circuit gives

(1 1 .4 7)

from which voltage drop across the line section is found to be

v:,n - Va'n' = ( Zaa - Zan ) la + ( Za b - Z a n ) ( lb + IJ + ( Za n - Znn ) In

( 11 .48)

Similar equations can be written for phases b and c as follows:

V:n - �' n ' = ( Zaa - Zan ) Ie + ( Zab - Z an ) ( la + Ib ) + ( Zan - Znn ) ln

10 Zab1b Za n In Zo ( 1 1 .49)

T
�
V
an '
W riting Kirchhoff's voltage
a � at
T F1GU RE 1 Ll

1 Va'

Zn,.
n

In Z an Ia

_ n
�
n'�
equation around the
loop formed by line a
and th e. neu- tral
conductor.
 11.6 SEQUENCE CIRCUITS OF A SYMMETRICAL TRANSMISSION LINE 437

When the line currents la ' Ib, and Ie return together as In in the neutral
conductor of Fig. 11 .10, we have

( 1 1 .50)
Let us now substitute for In in Eqs. (11 .48) and (11 .49) to o b ta i n

( 1 1 .51 )
+ ( 7 "/1 + 21111 - 2 211/1 )
I,.

The coefficients in these equations show that the presence of the neu tral
conductor changes the self- and mutual impedances of the phase conductors to
the following effective values:

� 'J l �z
( 11 .52)

Using these definitions, we canV rewrite

aa
-- v "Eqs. (1 1.51) in the convenient matrix
(i l i o n .r

J
form

V1>/ , ,
.
= - V/! =
2/11 ( 1 1 .53)
V;· r'
_

" /I
V; " V;·'n' Z/II

where theVvol, tage

UU
,@ V drops
- v across
"
(l l P
the phase conductorsVee'
II n
are£ now - v:., by( 1 1 .54)
V:·n denoted n'

Since Eq. ( 1 1 .53) does not explicitly include the neutral conductor, Zs and Zm
can be regarded as parameters of the phase conductors alone, without any self'-
or m u t u a l inductance being associated with the return path.
The a -b-c vol tage d rops and currents of the line s ec t i on can be written in
terms of their symmetrical components according to Eq. ( 1 1 .8) s,o that with
438 . CHAPTER I I SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND SEQUENCE N ETWO RKS

phase a as the reference phase, we h ave

Va(a0)
A

Va(a
l)
Va(a
2)

( 11 . 55 )

This parti cular form of the equation makes calculati ons easier, as demonstrated
in Example 11 .4. Multi plying across by A I , we obtain -

v(O)
00
1
Ve l)
aa 1 1 ( 1 1 .5 6)
v (2)
aa
1

The matrix multi plicati on here is the same as in Example 11 .4 and yields

va(a
0)
( 11 .57)
V(I a a

)
va(2a
)

Let us now define zero-, positi ve-, and negative-sequence impedances in

terms of 2s and 2m introduced in Eqs . ( 1 1 .52),

( 11 . 58)

From Eqs. (11 .57) and (11 .58) the sequence components of the voltage drops
between the two ends of the line secti on can be written as three simple
equati ons of the form
va(a�) = Va(nO) Va�o� = 2 -

1 (0 )
vaa(a�) = V e l)
a n
11

- V �l � =
0
2
)1(1
I a
( 1 1 . 5 9)
 v (2') = V ( 2) - Va �n2 � = 2 1(2)
aa 2a
an a n

Because of the assumed symmetry of the circuit of Fig. 1 1 . 10, once again we see

+r
V ( O) 439
1 1 .6 SEQUE:-CE CIRCUITS OF A SYMMETRICAL TRANSMISSION LINE

[(0)
a --
a Zo II '
a

n Va��'
a ll

-t / (1 )
�
�
n
ZI I

+r a a -r
V (l' n
a ll n

-
t Z2 �
Va('�)'
+Vt(2)
1(2)
a
-
a

a
I V (? ),
a II Se qu e ncl: 1ci1 rc
FIGURE .12uits
for t h e sym-
on

j+
metrical line section of Fig.
-+I n 1 1 .10.

n�
that the zero-, posltlve-, and negati ve-sequence equati ons decouple from one
another, and corresponding zero-, positi ve-, and negative-sequence circuits can
be drawn without any mutual coupling between them, as shown in Fig. 1 1 .12.
Despite the simplicity of the line model in Fig. 1 l .1 0, the above development
has demonstrated important characteristi cs of the sequence impedances which
apply to more elaborate and practi cal line models. We note, for instance, that
the positive- and negati ve-sequence impedances are equal and that they do not
include the neutral -conductor impedances ZnJl and Zan' which enter into the
calcul ati on of only the zero-sequence imped ance Zo, as shown by Eqs. ( 1 1 .
58). In other wo rds, imped ance parameters of the retu rn-path conductors enter
into the values of the zero-sequence impedances of transmission lines, but they
do not affect e i th e r the p os i t i v e or negative-sequence impedance.
-

Most aerial transmission lines have at least two overhead conductors

called ground wires, which are g rou nded at uni form intervals along the length of
the line. The ground wires combine with the earth ret urn path to consti tut eZ
anffe c tive n e u t r a l co n d u c to r w i t h i m pe d a n c e p a ra m e t e r s , l i k e ZlI n a nd an '
e
which depend on the re sisti vity of the earth. The more specialized literature
shows, as we have demonstrated here, that the parameters of the return path
are included in the zero-sequence impedance of the line. By regarding the
neu tral conductor of Fig. 1 1 . 10 as the effective return path for the zero sequence
components of the unbalanced currents and including its parameters in the
zero-sequence impedance, we can treat the ground as an ideal conductor. The
voltages of Fig. 11 .12 are then interpreted as being measured with respect
I
440 CHAPTER 1 1 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND SEQU ENCE NETWORKS

to perfectly conducti ng ground, and we can write

VCO) V CO) - V C'O) Z a/ ( 0)

0
=
=

aa a a

V ( l) =
V ( l ) - V ef l ) = Z /
( 1aa) a a I a ( 11 .60)

V ( 2) =
V (2 ) - V ('2 ) = Z 2 [( 2)
oa a Il a

where the sequence components or the voltages V:, and Vu' arc now w i t h respect
to ideal ground.
In deriving the equati ons fo r inductance and capacitance of transposed
transmission lines, we assumed balanced three-phase currents and did not
specify phase order. The resu lti ng p a r a met e rs are therefore valid fo r both
positi ve- and negative-sequence impeda nces. When only zero-sequence current
flows in a transmission line, the cu rrent in each phase is identi cal. The current
returns through the ground, through overhead ground wires, or through both.
Because zero-sequence current is identi cal in each phase conductor( r a th e r than
equal only in magnitude and displaced in p h a s e by 120 from other phase
currents), the magneti c field due to zero-sequence current is very different from
the magneti c field caused by either positi ve- or negati ve-sequence current. The
di fference in magneti c field results in the zero-sequence inductive reactance of
overhead transmission lines b e in g 2 to 3.5 times as large as the positi ve
sequence reactance. The ratio is toward the h igher portion of the specifi ed

11.1 0
range for double-circuit lines and lines without ground wires.

Example
1 1.5. In Fig. the terminal voltages at the left-hand and right-hand

Vall +.170.0 Va'n' 154.0 +

ends of the line are given by

= 1 82. 0 kY = j28 .0 kY

170I .24 Vb' Ve'V'bdl

=
+
4 . 62 k Y. 4
44 .24 - j 7=2 2 -7

V:n = - j32.62 k Y+ j88 .6 2 kY = - 1 98 . 24 j46 .62 kY

The line impedances in ohms are

Z b Znnj20Zaa
= 0= = j80=
j60 2a
a ll

Determine the line currents nd Ie using symmetrical components. Repeat

fa' Ib'
the solution without using symmetrical components.

Zo Zaa 2Zab 32 - 0 j40 +j240 -j180 j 160

Solution. a
The sequence impedances have calculated values

=
+ + = j6 + = n

6Za
'
nn

n
ZI Z2 Zao - Zab j60 -j20 j40
=
= = = n
VV}a Vbn - Vb' n' 8 2 .
0
1 1.6 SEQUENCE CIRCUITS OF A SYMMETRICAL TRANSMISSION LINE 441

�; 15 4 .
0 ) (7 2 .2 4 - 2874. 0. ) 62)
1I[ Va �+- 1
Th e s e q uence co m p on en t s o f the volt age drops in the line a re

4/ l4 .2 4j() 7[ V302.. 'l [

an - V0a 'n 62--
= A- ) = A -I

:v -(170.24 - 198.24) +j(88.62 - 46.62)

I

[2 1
.n -
8 .0
:v
+
. 'n '
j4 2 .0 1 [
= A-

28.0 + j42.0 28.0 +0j42.0

28.0j42.00
kV

Sub sti tutin g in Eq. ( 1 1 .59), we obtai n

V«a(l�) = 20 ,000 + ;'42 , 000 = j'1 60! (O)

j40/( l )
(/

() =
a

() = j40 !( 2)
II
from which we determine the symmet rical components of t he currents in phase

262.-j1755
a,

I� O) = A

a (11.52) b 262.5
The line currents are there fore

I =I = Ie =

Zs Z""-j+1-75Zn2nZIlfl- 2 (1+l j6j60 0 +jj8400

The self- and mutual impedances of Eq. have values

= Za a =

= Zil" +
A = j20 JRO =
j40
Zm - n

[ V 1( 1 ' j [ [ j
-j 6 0 j 8 0
compo n e n t s a s f ol l ows:

Z (11.53)
and so line curren ts can be calcu lated from Eq,
= n
without symmetrical

V" " '

�
= + j42
j40X =

28 j40
.
e'
+ j42

28 10)
j j80
28 + j42 262.5 -j175

- [28

+j42
 X
[
j40 28 103 262.5 -j175
=
j A

j+j42
j40 l
j40 j80
262.5 -j175
442 CHAPTER I I SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND SEQUENCE NE1WORKS

Z" I"

FIGURE 1 1 .13
C i r c l l i t d i a g r< lm of �! g e n e ra t or grou n d ed
th rough a reac t a n c e . The r has c em fs
Eall , E"n , and Ecn arc po� itivc seque nce.

11.7 7 SEQUENCE CIRCUITS OF

THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
A synchronous generator, grounded through a reactor, is shown in Fig. 1 1 .13.
When a fault (not indicated in the figure) occurs at the term inals of the
generator, currents la ' lb ' and Ie flow in t h e lines. If the fa u l t invulves
ground, the current flowing into the neutral of the generator is Idesignated
and the line currents can be resolved into their symmetrical components
regardless of how u nbal anced they m ay be.
n
The equations developed in Sec. 3.2 for the idealized sy nchronous ma chine
are all based on the assumption of balanced i nstantaneous armature currents.
In Eq. (3 .7) we assumed that i a + i b + ie 0, and then set i = =

-(i b + i) in Eq. (3.5) in order to arrive at Eq. (3 .1]) for the terminal voltage of
phase a in the form a

( 1 1 . 61)

The steady-state counterpart of this equation is given in Eq. (3 .24) as

( 11 .62)

where Eois n the synchronous internal voltage of the machine. The subscripts of
the voltages in Eqs. (1 1 .61) and (1 1 .62) di ffer slightly from those of Chap. 3 so as to
emph asize that the vol tages are with respect to neutral. If the substitution
La = -(ib + iJ had not been made as i ndicated, then we would h ave found
dia d
Va
n
= � Ri a - LS - + M -(ib + ie ) + e an ( 1 l .63 )
dt 5 dt
Assuming for now t hat steady-state sinusoidal curren ts and voltages of nominal
 l i .7 SEOUENCE C[ RCUITS OF THE SYNCH RONOUS MACHINE 443

system frequency w continue to exist in the armature, we can write Eq. (1 1 .63)
in the phasor form

( 11 .64 )

where E a n again designates the phasor equivalent of e a n . The armature

p h ases b and c of the idealized machine h ave similar equations

[lu1 [1
We
( 11 .65)

[ VI/ I 1
can a rrange Eq s . ( 1 1 .64) and 0 1 .65) in vector-matrix
1 form as

�
>n = - [R + jw ( L , + MJ ] Ih + jw Ms 1 1
�
�. 1 1

( 1 1 .66)
Followingthe procedure demonstrated in the two preceding sections

V
, we n ow
ofa-b-c q ua n
e st itof
the armature i the machine in t er m s of symmetrical co

)()
I2
express the

V(
mponents
of p ha s e a
O) (
vall
all - [ R + jw( Ls + MJ ]

1
=

all
E'III
1 1 (0)
1
1
1/
I (I )
+ j(uM1 A- 1 A + A - I a 2£
II . 1111
( 1 1 .67)
1 (2 ) aEOII
1 II

Since the synchronous g e n e r a tor is designed to supply balanced three-phase

e generated voltages Ea E'm ' and Ecn as a
in Eq . (1 1 . 67), wh e r e the operator a =
positi
anu a 2
ve-se quence The
set ofm ;lt
=,
phasors
r i x In li lt i p l i c a t ions o f Eq . ( 1 1 . 67) are s i m i l a r to tho se

(2)
O)naa(nqs).
E
of (V ( 1 1 .56), anu /a C O I ))
- [ R + jw so
( Lswe+ Ms ) ]

1
=

V
I )

I a(
an

obta i n
 jw Ms Ean
1+a
) 0
3 1a(0) 0
1a ( 11 . 68)

,.
'

44 CHAPTER 11 SYMM ETRICAL COMPONENTS AND SEQUENCE N ETWORKS

The zero-, positive-, and negative-sequence equations decouple to give

v(O
an ) = - RI (aO) - J'w ( L s - 2 M s) 1 a
(0)
Va(nl ) = - RIaO ) - J'w ( L s + M ) 1a( 1 ) + Ea n
5

( 1 1 .69)

v (2 )
a l l
= - Ri 1aI ) - J· w ( /. .\"
+ M.,. ) /,(,:!)

Drawing the corresponding seq u e n ce circu its is m a de s im p l e by w r it i n g Eqs.

( 1 1 .69) in the form

vva(en0l )) = - j (O )Z
(l !; o
-- - E
E ( 1 1 .70)
G il
- (l ll all - a

2 - 1( 2)2
va(l l ) =
a 2:

where Zg O ' Z I ' and Z2 are the zero-, posltlve-, and negative-sequence
impedances, respectively, of the generator. The sequence circuits shown in Fig.
11 .14 are the single-phase equivalent circuits of the balanced three-phase
machine through which the symmetrical components of the unbalanced currents
are consider e d to flow. The sequence components of current are flowing
through imped ances of their own sequence only, as indicated by the appropriate
subscripts on the impedances shown in the figure. This is because the machine
is symmetrical with respect to phases a, b, and c. The positive-sequence circuit
is composed of an emf in series with the positive-sequence impedance of the
generator. The negative- and zero-sequence circuits contain no emfs but include
the impedances of the gene r ato r to negative- and zero-sequence currents,
respectively.
The reference node for the positive- and negative-sequence circuits is the
neutral of the generator. So fa r as positive- and negative-sequence com ponents
arc conce rned , the n e ut r a l of the g e n e r a tor is at ground p o t e n ti a l if t h e r e is a
connection between neutral and ground having a finite or zero impedance since
the connection
we will carry
see that there is no noessential
positive- diorfference
negative-sequence
betwee n V}c urre
) and nt. OV an�in c) ethe
l
positive-sequence
again, circui t or between VP) an d Va<'�) in the nega tive-sequence
c i ofrc uit.
Fig. This
1 1 .14explains w hy without
are written ive- and n.negative-sequence voltages v}l )
the positsubscript
VY ) The current flowing in the impedance Zn between neutral and ground is
3I�O), By referring to Fig. 1 1 . 1 4( e ), we see that the voltage drop of
and
zero sequence from point a to ground is - 3 /�O) Zn - I�O )Zg O ' where Zg O
is the zero-sequence impedance per phase of the generator. The � ero-
sequence cir
cuit, which is a single-phase circuit assumed to carry only the zero-sequence
 1 I .7 SEQUENCE CIRCUITS OF THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE 44S

Reference
(a) Positive-sequence current paths (b) Positive-sequence network

/(2)
a

Reference

(c) Negative-sequence current paths (d) Negative-sequence network

Reference
(e) Zero-sequence current paths (n Zero-s equence network

FIGURE 1 1 . 14
P a t h s fo r cu rre n t of each sequence in a g e n e ra to r and th e correspo n di n g sequence networks.

cu rrent of one phase, must there fore have an impedance of 3 Zn + Zga, as

shown in Fig. 1 1 . 1 4( / ). The total ze ro-sequence impedance th rough which
J�a) flows is

( 1 1 . 71)

Usually, the components of current and vol tage for phase a are fou nd
from equations determined by the sequence circu its. The equations for the
components of voltage drop from point a of phase a to the reference node (or
446 CHAPTER I I S Y M M ET R I CA L CO M PO N ENTS A N D S EO U FN ( ' I ;. N I ;:rWO I { K S

ground) a re written from Fig. 1 1 .1 4 as

v (O)
- Q
=

V (I =
a
£
al l - /(l )Z
a1 ( 1 1 . 72)
)
V(a 2 ) =

where £ /1/1 is the positive - seq u e nce voltage to n e u t ra l , Z 1 a n d Z 2 arc

the positive- and negative-sequence impedances of the generator, respectively,
and 20 is de fined by Eq. (I 1 .71 ).
The equations d eveloped to this poi nt are ba se d on a s i m p l e m J c h i n e
model which assumes the cxistence or o l 1 l y rU I l l L l I l l c n l a l com p o n e n t s or c u r
rents; on this basis the positive- and negative-sequence impedances are found to
be equal to one another but qu ite different from the zero-sequence impedance.
In fact, however, the impedances of rotating machi nes to currents of the three
sequences will generally be different for each sequence. The mmf produced by
negative-sequence armatu re current rotates in the direction opposite to that of
the rotor wh ich has the dc field winding. Unlike the flux produced by positive sequence
current, which is stationary with respect to the rotor, the flux pro duced by the
negative-sequence current is sweeping rapidly over the face of the rotor. The
currents induced in the field and damper windings counteract the rotating
mmf of the armature and thereby reduce the flux penetrating the rotor. This
condition is similar to the rapidly changing flux immediately upon the
occurrence of a short circuit at the terminals of a machine. The flux paths are
the same as those encountered in evaluating subtransient reactance. So, in a
cylindrical-rotor machine subtransient and negative-sequence re actances are
equal. Values given in Table A.2 in the Appendix confirm this statement. The
reactances in both the positive- and negative-sequence circuits are often taken
to be equal to the subtransient or transient reactance, depending on whether
subtransient or transient conditions are being studied.
When only zero-sequence current flows in the armature wind ing of a three-
phase m achine, the current and mmf of one phase are a maxi mum at the same
time as the current and mmf of each of the other phases. The windings are so
distributed around the circum ference of the armature that the point of maximum
mmf produced by o n e phase is displace d 120 electrical d eg r ee s in
space from the point of maximum mmf of each of the other phases. If the mmf
produced by the current of each phase had a perfectly sinusoidal distribution in
sp ace, a plot of mmf around the armature wou ld result in three s inusoidal
curves whose sum would be zero at every point. No flux would be produced
across the air gap, and the only reactance of any phase winding would be that
due to leakage and end turns. In an actual machine the winding is not
distributed to produce perfectly sinusoida l mmf. The flux resulting from the,sum
of the mm fs is very small, which makes the zero-sequence reactance the smallest
 1 1 .7 SEOUENCE CIRcuiTS OF THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE 447

of the machine's reactances-just somewhat higher than zero of the ideal case
where there is no air-gap flux due to zero-sequence current.
Equati ons (1 1 .72), which apply to any generator carrying unbalanced
currents, are the starting points for the derivation of equations for the compo
nents of current for different types of faults. As we shall see, they apply to the
Th6venin equivalent circuits at any bus of the system as well as to the case of a
loaded generator under steady-state conditions. When computing transient or
subtransient conditions, the equati ons apply to a loaded generator if £' or E" is
substi tuted for Eo n '
Example salient-pole generator without dampers is rated 20 MVA,
11 .6. A
13.8 kY and has a direct-axis subtransient reactance of 0.25 per unit. The negative
and zero-sequence reactances are, respectively, 0.35 and 0. 10 per unit. The neutral
of t h vol
rated e generator
tage with isEsaonl id=l y gperr u nioun
t, dsing
e dle. With ath e generator
l i ne-ta-grou n d fau l t opera
o c c u tr i
sn at l . O ft which then have per-unit vol tages to
g unloa d e d atthe machine terminals,
ground,

0 1 02.25°
v" v"
-
= =

Dfoer tseurbmtirnaenstiheentscuobntrdaint isoinesntdcuuerrteontthein

fathuelt .generator and the line-to-line voltages

Figure 11. 15 shows the line-to-ground fault on phase

Solution. a of the machine.
In rectangular coordinates V and c
areVb
Vb 0.215 - jO.990 per unit
= -

JJ;.. = - 0.215 + jO.990 per unit

I z"
FIGURE 11 .15
Circuit d iagram for a single line-to
ground fault on phase a at the termi
nals of an un loaded generator whose
neutral is grounded through a reac
tance.
448 CHAPTER 1 1 SYMMETR ICAL CO M PON ENTS A N D SEQU ENCE N ETWORKS

] [-0.1.43 3 ]
The symmetrical components of the voltages at the fault point are

[V}VO()l]) 1 3[ 1 1 1 1 ][
V (11.72)1
a = - a2 - 0 . 2 1 50 - }0 .990 = 0 64 + +}O}O per u n i t

( 2)
a
a - 0 .215 + }0 .990 - 0 .500 + }O
From Eqs. and Fig. 1l .14 with 2" 0 = we ca l c u l a t e

ZgO
V eil
a ( - 0. 143 + }O)
1a(0) = -
)
--
= -j l '+ 3 per unit
)0 .10
.

(1 .0 + }O) - (0 .643 + jO)

/ ( 1) -j

V(2,)
(/ E = -) V
(I jO .25 l .·n pcr unit
a" Z I 11

3
1a(2) = - a

Z
--
= =
-j 1 . 4 3 per u nit
jO . 5
( - 0.500
+ }O)

Therefore, the fau lt current into the ground is

1 (0
The base current is 20,000/(
I
a
=
a
) 13 13.8) 837
+
a

1 (1) +
X
a
[ (2)
=

3/ (0) =

=
a

-)'4 .29 per unit

A, and so the subtransient current

837
in line a is

fa = -}4 .29 X = -j3 ,590 A

Line-to-line voltages during the fault arc

vti ll =
0.2 15 + jO.990 per unit

1 .980�
Va - V" = =

V"C OC�,
VI,
- V c
=

0 - j l .980 per unit

�'1I = - 0.21 5 + jO.990 1 .0 1 i. .r per u n i t
c - v:, =

Since t h e generated voltage-to-neutral E a ll was taken as l .0 per u nit, the

above line-to-line voltages are expressed in per unit of the base voltage to
neutral.

7 . 7 0 k Y
Expressed in volts, the post fault line volt ages arc

. 1
V 77.70 8
=

a
l0
bX
13
= . 05

1. 113. 8 kY
Vbc = 1.980 X 13 = kY
.
Vca = 0 X 13 102 .30
=
 1 02 .30 8 .05

1 1 .8 SEQUENCE CI RCUITS OF Y-A TRANSFORMERS 449

c
FIGU RE 1 1 .16
Phasor diagrams of the line voltages of Example 1 1 .6
(a) Prefa ult (b) Postfault be fo re and after the fau lt.

Be fore the ra u l t the line vo l t a g e s were b" la nced lind equa l to 13.8 kY. For
compa rison wi l h l h e l i n e vo l l ages a fte r th e f, l l l l t occu rs, th e prcfa u l t voltages, with
l�l fl = F.i/ I/ as rdc re nce , ;I IT g i v C I !

= 13.8�
as

�," =
3 (jO
kV v" , . kY v:" = 13.R� kY
Fi gur e 1 1 . 1 6 sh ows phll so r d i a gr a m s of p r c f a u l t a n d pos t fault voltages.

The preced ing example shows that I(� (J ) I� l) I�2) in the case of a single =
=

line-to-ground fault. This is a general result, which is established in Sec. 12.2.

SEQUENCE CIRCUITS OF V-A

11 .8
TRANSFORMERS

The sequence equivalent circu its of three-phase transformers depend on the

connections of the primary and seconda ry windings. The different combinations
f

of L1 and Y windings determine the configurations of the zero-sequence circuits

and the phase shift in the positive- and negative-sequence circuits. On this
account the reader may wish to review some port ions of Chap. 2, notably Secs.
2.5 and 2.6.
We remember that no cu rrent flows in the primary of a transformer un less
cu rrent fl ows in the secondary, if we neglect the relatively small m agnetizing current.
We know also that the prima ry current is determined by the secondary current and
the turns ratio of the windings, again with magnetizing current n e g l e c t e d . These
p r in c i p le s guide us in the analysis of individual cases. Five possible connections of
two-winding transformers will be d iscussed. These connections are summarized,
along with their zero-sequence circuits, in Fig.
11 . 1 7 . The arrows on the connection diagrams of the figures to fol low show the
possible paths for the flow of zero-sequence current. Absence of an arrow
ind icates that the transformer connection is such that zero-sequence current
cannot flow. The zero-sequence equivalent circuits are approximate as shown
since resistance and the magnetizing-cu rrent path are omitted from each circuit.
The let ters P and Q identi fy corresponding points on the connection d
iagram
450 CHAPTER 11 SYMMETRICAL COM PONENTS AND SEQUENCE N ETWORKS

CASESYMBOLS CONNECTION DIAGRAMS ZERO-SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

1 � �. p Zo Q
pi
.FY� I
Reference bus
I

�� p
Zo Q
2 �
�y Reference bus

�� I

:Q
I
p
--
Zo
Reference bus
-
Q
3
Zo
6 6 Reference bus

� p
Q

Zo Q
p
�

5 Reference bus

FIGURE 1 1 . 1 7
Zero-sequence equivalent circuits of th ree-phase transformer banks, together wi th d i ag r a m s of
connections a nd the symbols for on e-l ine diagram s. Impedance 20 accounts for th e l eakage
impedance 2 and the neutral impedances 32N and 3 2" where applicable.

and equivalent circuit. The reasoning to justify the equivalent ci rcuit for each
connection follows.

CASE 1. Y-Y Bank, Both Neutrals Grounded

Fig ure 1 1 . 1 8(a ) shows t h e ne u t ra l s of a Y - Y b a n k gro u n d e d
imped ance ZN on the high-voltage side and 211 on the low-voltage side. The
arrowst hrou
on the
g h diagram show the directions chosen for the currents. We first
treat the trans formers as ideal and add series leakage impedance later when the
shunt magnetizing current can also be included if necessary. We continue to
designate voltages with respect to ground by a single subscript such as VA ' VN ,
a nVa'
d Voltages with respect to neutral have two subscripts such as VA N and
� n' Capital letters are assigned to the high-voltage and lowercase l etters are
assigned on the other side. As before, windings that are drawn in parallel
] =
] (0) + ] ( 1 ) + ] ( 2 )
B B B B
]
A
=
B]A( 0 ) + ] ( 1 ) + ] ( 2)
A A
•
1 1 .8 SEQU ENCE (0) + ] ( 1) + ](2)
b b b b
CiRCUITS OF Y-L\
TRANSFORMERS
] = ] (0) + ] ( 1 ) + ] (2)
a a a a
] = ] a

] [(0) + ]( 1) ](2)
+
=

C c c C ] = ](0) + ]( 1) + 1 (2)
c c c c

c
c

(a)

--�
i\ a
+ + +
+
NI : N2
3[(0) 3 ] (0 )
" a
Va

ZN Zn n

FIGURE 11 .18
(a) Y-Y conn ec ted transformer bank wi th bot h neutrals grounded th rough impeda nces;
(b) a pair of the magnetica l ly lin ked wi n d i ngs .

directions are those linked magnetically on the same core. Two such windings t ak en from
Fig. 1 1 . 1 8( a ) arc shown in Fig. 1 1 .1 8(b ). The vol tage m easured with respect to grou nd
on th e h i g h - v o l t a g e side is givt.: n by

( 1 1 .73)

Substituting the symmetrical compon en ts of each voltage gives

( 1 1 .74)

and equating quantities of the same sequence, as explained for Eq. 11.1 ( 9 , again
confirms the fact that positive- and negative-sequence voltages to ground )are equal to
positive- and negative-sequence voltages to neutral. The zero sequence volt age di
fference between neu tral and ground is equal t o (3ZN ) I�O).
J
 452 CHAPTER I I SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND SEQUENCE

., Similarly, on the low-voltage side we have

N ETWO RKS

](0)
VaCO) + VaCl ) + Va( 2 ) = ( vaClOl ) + VaCnI ) + V ( 2 ) ) - 32fl
a
a( 1 1 .75 )
There is a minus sign in this equation because the direction of 1 (0) is out of the
transformer and into the lines on the low-voltage side. Voltages ;nd cu rrents on
both sides of th e transformer are related by turns ratio N I /N2 so that

Multiplying across by N, /N2 gives

-( Vo)
N
v (2 » ) = ( VANl + V e l ) + V (2 » )
CO) - (N
J
32 (
, 2 JA O ) ( 1 1 . 77)
a + a + A N AN
N2
a 11

V(O) N
2
_
1

and substituting for ( Vl� + Vl� + Vl� ) from Eq. (1 1 .74), we ubtain

N
( VCO) + V(l) + V (2» ) = ( V CO) + V e l ) + V (2))
l N
_
3 2 J(O) _ 32 () 21 (0)
j
2 A
N a a a A A A N A N2
n
( 11 .78)

By equating voltages of the same sequence, we can write

N
_N I V ( I ) = _
I ( 2) (2)
_ V = VA ( 1 1 . 79)
N( I ) A
N2

(NI )2]
V2 <l 11

N
V CO) =A
_

[ 3 2 + 32 ( 1 1 , 80)

«()]
N_1 N
V (O) a
A
N2
II
2

The positive- and negative-sequence relations of Eqs. (11 .79) are exactly the
same as in Chap. 2, and the usual per-phase equivalent circuit of the trans former
therefore applies when positive- or negative-sequence voltages and currents
are present. The zero-sequence equivalent circuit representing Eq. (11 .80) is
drawn in Fig. 1 1 .19. We have added the leakage impedance 2 of the transformer in
series on the high-voltage side as shown so that the total
impedance to zero-sequence current is now 2 + +3 2 N 3(Nl/ N2 )22n
,
referred to the high-voltage side. It is apparent that the shunt magnetizing
impedance
could also be added to the circuit of Fig. 1 1 .19 if so d esired. When voltages on
both sides of the transformer are expressed in per u nit on kilovolt line-to-line
 1 1 .8 SEQUENCE CI RCUITS OF y-� TRANSFORMERS 453

O) Ol
VA'( V(
A

FIGl'RE 1 1 .19
Zero -sequence ci rcuit of Y- Y connected tran s formers of Fig . 1 1 . I R. Impedance Z is t h e leakage
re act ance ,IS m eas li red Oil the h igh -v o lt ; lg e side or t i le t r;lI1s former.

bases in accorda nce with the rated voltages, the turns ratio in Fig. 1 1 . 19
chosen
becomes unity a n d N t /N2 d i s a p p e ars , a n d we arr ive a t the zero-
seq uence circu it shown under Case 1 in Fig. 1 1 . 1 7, where

Zo = Z + 3 ZN + 3Z n per unit ( 1 1 .81)

Again, we note that impedances connected from neutral to ground in the actual
circu it are multiplied by 3 in the zero-sequence circuit. Where both neutrals of a y -
Y bank are grounded d irectly or through impedance a path t hrough t h e
transformer exists for zero-sequence currents in b oth windings. Provided the zero-
sequence current can fo llow a complete circuit outside the transformer on both
sides, it can flow in both windings of the transformer. In the zero-sequ ence circuit
points on the two sides of the transformer are connected by the zero-sequence
impedance of the transform er in the same manner as in the positive- and
negative-sequence networks.

CASE 2. Y - Y Bank , One Neutral Grounded

If either one of the neutrals of a Y Y bank is ungrounded, zero-sequence-

current cannot flow in either winding. This can be seen by setting either Z N or
Z n equal to in Fig. 1 1 . 19. The absence of a path through one winding prevents cu
cc

rren t in the other and an open ci rcu it exists for zero-sequence current
between the two parts of the system connected by the transformer, as shown in
F i g . 1 1 .17.

CASE 3. 6-6 Bank

The phasor sum of the line-to-line voltages equals zero on each side of the
6-6 transformer of Fig. 1 1 . 20, and so V ,J<]i= O. Applying the rules of the =

vaCE) ,
454 CHAPTER I I SYMMETRICAL COM PONENTS AND SEQUENCE N ETWORKS

II. = 11°) + 111) + 112)

� I a = 1 ( 0) + 1a(l) + 1a(2)
a
A �
+

B
� .

In = 1�0) + Ij/) +
IIe
�2)= I�O ) + Ig) +
�
I�2) -

FIGURE 11 .20
Wiring d i a �raJ1l of l i l l: I l l rl : l: · p l l ; I � C � . � C U I 1 1 I C l' l c d I l' a 1 1 S I( 1 I 1 l 1 C I.

conventional dot notation fo r coupled coils to that figure, we have

N]
"
N2
( 1 1 .82)
V(l) + V (2) =
N1
_ ( V(l) + V ( 2»
AB AB ab ab
N2

The line-to-line voltages can be written as line-to-neutral voltages according to

Eqs. (11.23) giving

N
NI v( l v( 2 I v( 2 )
and so AN ( 1 1 .84)
V O) )
)
_
""
=

N2

Thus, the positive- and negative-sequ ence equivalent circuits fo r the 6.- 6.
tra nsformer, like those for the Y Y connection, correspond exactly to the usual per-
-

phase equivalent circuit of Chap. 2. Since a 6. circuit provides no return p ath

for zero-sequence current, no zero-sequence current can flow into either side of
a Ll- Ll bank although it can sometimes circulate within the Ll windings.
Hence, I�O) = J�O) = 0 in Fig. 1 1 .20, and we obtain the zero-sequence equivalent
circuit shown in Fig. 1 1 .17.

CASE 4. Y-� Bank, Grounded Y

If the n eutral of a Y-Ll bank is grounded, zero-sequence currents h,ave a
p ath to ground through the Y because corresponding induced currents can
 1 1 .8 SEQUENCE CI RCUITS OF Y·I!> TRANSFORMERS 455

I a
= 1a( 0) + 1a( 1) +

I = 1 (0) + 1 (1 ) +
1(2)
A A A A

A �

• Ie = I�O) + le( 1) + 1�2)

•
� C

Ic = ](0) + ](1) + ](2)

c c c Ib -- 1b(0) + 1b(1) + 1b(2)
c --

FI GURE 11 .2 1
Wiring diagram for a three-p hase Y-O transformer bank wit h neutral grounded through
impe cJance ZN '

ci rcu late in the 6. . The ze ro-sequence

cu rrent ci rcu l ating in the 6. magnetically
b Clld nces t he z e r o - s e q u e nce current
in the Y but cannot flow in the lines
connected to the 6.. Hence, l�O) = 0 in Fig. 11 .21. Phase-A voltage on the Y side
can be written the same as in Eq. (11.74 ) from which we obtain
+
y eo) (I) (2) = _

(2) + 3 (0) (11.

1N
_

+ V + V 1V
+ (1)
N b 2 1
A _

A eNbIonA)y 2 N2
n 2 85)
N A
N N
Vab

Equating corresponding sequence components, as explained for Eq. (1 1. 19),

gIves

V ((l) V - 0
N -
- 32 1 (0) _I eO)
A N A
=

ah ( 11 .8 6)
N2

N N
V (, I ) = _ V ( I = I _1 / X V (I ) 1I
,. N2 ill>
3
N:;>,
N N
V (2) I = 1
(2
= _ ( 2: ) _
A :2 Vti l ! ( 1 l .87)
N N2 - 30° X
.
vtI )

Eq uation ( 1 l .8 6 ) enables us to draw t h e zero-sequence circuit s hown i n

Fig. 1 1 . 22( a) in which Zu 2 + 32 N when leakage impedance 2 is referred to
=
the high side of the transformer. The equ ivalent circuit p rovi des for a zero
sequence current path from the line on the Y side through the equivalent
resistance and leakage reactance of the transformer to the reference node . An
open circuit must exist between the line and the reference node on the 6. side.
When the connection from neutral to ground contains impedance 2N as shown,
 = _

AN N :>. {/II