Databases & Information

Systems
 8.1 Managing Files: Basic Concepts
▪ A database is a logically organized collection of related
data designed and built for a specific purpose
▪ Data is stored hierarchically for easier storage and
retrieval
▪ Files: collections of related records
▪ Records: collections of related fields
▪ Field: unit of data containing 1 or more characters
▪ Character: a letter number or special character made of bits
▪ Bit: a 0 or 1
 8.1 Managing Files: Basic Concepts
▪ Key Field – the field that uniquely identifies a record
▪ Often an identifying number, such as social security
number or a student ID number
▪ Keys are used to sort records in different ways
▪ Primary keys must be unique
▪ Keys are used to access particular records in a database
▪ Unique keys make records distinguishable from one another
▪ Foreign keys appear in other tables and usually refer to
primary keys in particular tables; they are used to relate
one table to another (to cross-reference data)
 8.1 Managing Files: Basic Concepts
▪ Program files and Data Files
▪ Program files are files containing software instructions
▪ Source program files are written by the software developer
in the programming language
▪ Double-clicking on them won’t run them
▪ They have such file extensions as .cpp, .jav, .bas
▪ Executable files are program files translated so they can be
executed on the computer
▪ Double-clicking on them will usually cause them to run
▪ They have such file extensions as .exe and .com
▪ Data files are files that contain--words, numbers, pictures,
sounds. etc.
8.1 Managing Files: Basic Concepts
▪ Data files are the files used in databases, spreadsheets,
and word-processing documents
▪ Data files have filenames and such extensions as .txt (text),
.mdb (Acess), .ppt (Powerpoint), and .xls (Excel)
▪ Graphics files have such extensions as .tiff, .jpeg, and .png
▪ Audio files have such extensions as .mp3, .wav, and .mid
▪ Animation/video files have such extensions as .qt, .mpg, .avi,
and .rm
▪ Data files are often compressed to save space and
transmit them faster
▪ Compression removes repetitive elements from a file
 8.2 Database Management Systems
▪ Database Management System (DBMS)
▪ Software written specifically to control the structure of a
database and access to the data
▪ DBMS benefits:
▪ Reduced data redundancy (redundant data is stored in multiple
places, which causes problems keeping all the copies current)
▪ Improved data integrity--means the data is accurate,
consistent, and up to date
▪ Increased security—DBMS limits who can create, read, update,
and delete the data
▪ Ease of data maintenance—DBMS offers validation checks,
backup utilities, and standard procedures for data inserting,
updating, and deletion
 8.2 Database Management Systems
▪ 3 Principal Database Components
▪ Data Dictionary
▪ Repository that stores the data definitions and descriptions
of the structure of the data and the database
▪ The data dictionary defines the basic organization of the database and
contains a list of all files in the database, the number of records in each file,
and the names and types of each field
▪ DBMS Utilities
▪ Programs that allow you to maintain the database by
creating, editing, deleting data, records, and files
▪ Also include automated backup and recovery
▪ Report Generator
▪ Program for producing on-screen or printed readable
 8.2 Database Management Systems
▪ Database Administrator (DBA)
▪ Coordinates all related activities and needs for an
organization’s database
▪ Ensures the database’s:
▪ Recoverability
▪ Integrity
▪ Security
▪ Availability
▪ Reliability
▪ Performance
 8.3 Database Models
Database Type Description
Hierarchical database Fields or records are arranged in a family tree, with
child records subordinate to parent or higher-level
records
Network database Like a hierarchical database, but each child record
can have more than one parent record
Relational database Relates, or connects, data in different files through the
use of a key, or common data element
Object-oriented database Uses objects (software written in small, reusable
chunks) as elements within database files
Multidimensional database Models data as facts, dimensions, or numerical
measures for use in the interactive analysis of large
amounts of data
 Hierarchal Database
▪ Hierarchical Database
▪ Fields or records are arranged in related groups
resembling a family tree with child (low-level) records
subordinate to parent (high-level) records
▪ Root record is the parent record at the top of the
database, and data is accessed top-down, through the
hierarchy
▪ Oldest and simplest; used in mainframes in 1970s
▪ Still used in some reservation systems
▪ Is rigid in structure and difficult to update
Hierarchal database
 Network Database Models
▪ Network Database
▪ Similar to a hierarchical database but more flexible-- each
child record can have more than one parent record
▪ The child record in network database is called “member”
and parent record is called “owner”
▪ different relationships may be established between
different branches of data
▪ Used principally with mainframe computers
▪ Requires the database structure to be defined in
advance; flexibility still lacking
▪
Network Database Models
 Relational Database Model
▪ Relational Database
▪ Relates or connects data in different files through the use
of a key, or common data element
▪ Data stored in tables (relations, or files) of rows (tuples,
or records) and columns (attributes, or fields)
▪ More flexible than previous models
▪ Examples for large systems are Oracle, Informix, Sybase
▪ Examples for microcomputers are Paradox and Microsoft
Access
▪ Users don’t need to know data structure to use the
database; primary and foreign keys are used
 Relational Database Model
▪ Relational Database (continued)
▪ Users employ SQL (structured query language) to create,
modify, maintain, and query the database
▪ Query by Example uses sample record forms to allow users
to define the qualifications for choosing records
▪ Some relational database allow the use of natural spoken
language to make queries
Relational Database Model
 Object –Oriented Database Model
▪ Object-Oriented Database
▪ Uses “objects,” software written in small, manageable
chunks, as elements within data files
▪ An object consists of:
▪ Data in any form, including audio, graphics, and video
▪ Instructions on the action to be taken with the data
▪ Examples include Fast Objects, Gem Stone, Objectivity
DB, Jasmine Object Database, and KE Tex press
▪ Types include web (hypertext) database and hypermedia
database, which also includes links
 MULTIMEDIA DATABASE
▪ An object-oriented database is a multimedia
database; it can store more types of data than a
relational database can. For example, an object
oriented student database might contain each
student’s photograph, a “sound ” of his or her voice,
and even a short piece of video, in addition to grades
and personal data.
 Multidimensional Database Model
▪ Multidimensional Database
▪ Models data as facts, dimensions, or numerical answers
for use in the interactive analysis of large amounts of
data for decision-making purposes.
▪ A multidimensional database uses the idea of a cube to
represent the dimensions of data. E.g sale
▪ Allows users to ask questions in colloquial language
English, such as “How many type product have been sold
in New Jersey so far this year
▪ Use OLAP (online analytical processing) software to
provide answers to complex database queries
 8.4 Data Mining
▪ DM is the computer-assisted process of sifting through
and analyzing vast amounts of data to extract hidden
patterns and meaning and to discover new knowledge
▪ Data is fed into a data warehouse through the following
steps:
▪ Identify and connect to data sources
▪ Perform data fusion and data cleansing
▪ Obtain both data and meta-data (data about the data)
▪ Transport data and meta-data to the data warehouse
 Process of Data Mining
1. Identify and connect to data sources
▪ Data may come from a number of sources:
▪ 1. point-of-sale transactions in files (flat files)
managed by file management systems on
mainframes,
▪ 2. databases of all kinds, and
▪ 3.other—for example, news articles transmitted over
newswires or online sources such as the internet. To
the mix may also be added
▪ 4.data from data warehouses
 Process of Data Mining
▪ 2. DATA FUSION & CLEANSING
▪ Data from diverse sources, whether from inside the
company (internal data) or purchased from outside
the company (external data), must be fused together
and then put through a process known as data
cleansing, or scrubbing.
▪ cleaned of errors and checked for consistency of
formats.
 Process of Data Mining
▪ 3. DATA & META-DATA:
▪ Meta-data is essentially data about data; it describes
how and when and by whom a particular set of data
was collected and how the data is formatted
▪ Meta-data shows the origins of the data, the
transformations it has undergone, and summary
information about it
▪ The meta-data also describes the contents of the
data warehouse.
 Process of Data Mining
▪ 4. DATA TRANSPORT TO THE DATA
WAREHOUSE: Both the data and the metadata are
sent to the data warehouse. A data warehouse is a
special database of cleaned-up data and
meta-data. It is a replica, or close reproduction, of a
mainframe’s data.
▪ 5. MINING THE DATA:
▪ Searching for patterns & interpreting the results
8.4 Data Mining
 8.4 Data Mining
▪ Methods for searching for patterns in the data and
interpreting the results
▪ Regression analysis
▪ Develops mathematical formula to fit patterns in the data
that has been extracted
▪ Formula is then applied to other data sets of the same type
to predict future trends
▪ Classification analysis
▪ Statistical pattern-recognition process that is applied to data
sets with more than just numerical data
 8.4 Data Mining
▪ DM applications include:
▪ Sports
▪ Marketing
▪ Health
▪ Science
▪ Counterterrorism
▪ Sentiment analysis
▪ Exploring the “deep web”
 8.5 Databases & the Digital
Economy
▪ E-Commerce (Electronic Commerce)
▪ The buying and selling of products and services through
computer networks
▪ Examples of some e-tailers (electronic retailers):
▪ amazon.com sells books and almost everything else
▪ sees.com sells candy online
▪ priceline.com sells airline tickets and hotel rooms
▪ dell.com sells computers and other electronic items
 8.5 Databases & the Digital
Economy
▪ Innovative e-tailer technologies make online shopping
easier
▪ 360-degree images
▪ Allow you to see all sides of an item
▪ Order tracking
▪ Bar codes are assigned to items being shipped that allow
customers to track shipping progress via the internet
▪ Shop bots
▪ Programs that help users search for a particular product or
service and then provide price comparisons
 8.5 Databases & The Digital
Economy
▪ Types of E-Commerce
▪ Business-to-Business (B2B)
▪ A business sells to other businesses using the internet or a
private network to cut transaction costs and increase
efficiencies
▪ Business-to-Consumer (B2C)
▪ A business sells goods or services directly to consumers
▪ Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)
▪ Consumers sell goods or services directly to other
consumers with the help of a third party, such as eBay;
résumé sites are also C2C exchanges, as are dating sites
and online communities
 INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN
ORGANIZATIONS: Using Databases to Help
Make Decisions

▪ How does information flow within an organization,

and what are different types of information systems?
▪
 8.6 Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
▪ Information Systems
▪ What are the qualities of good information?
▪ Correct and verifiable
▪ Complete yet concise
▪ Cost effective
▪ Current
▪ Accessible
 Information Flows within an Organization: Horizontally between
Departments & Vertically between Management Levels

▪ Most organizations have 6 departments within which

information must flow:
▪ Research and development
▪ Production (operations)
▪ Marketing and sales
▪ Accounting and finance
▪ Human resources (personnel)
▪ Information systems (IS)
▪ Information flows horizontally between these
departments
8.6 Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
8.6 Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
 8.6 Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
▪ Besides the 6 departments, many organizations also
have 3 levels of management:
▪ Strategic-level management
▪ Top managers (CEOs )concerned with long-term, or
strategic, planning and decisions
▪ Tactical-level management
▪ Middle level managers who make tactical decisions to
implement the strategic goals set for the organization
▪ Operational-level management
▪ Low-level supervisors who make daily operational decisions
▪ Information flows vertically through management levels
 8.6 Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
▪ A Newer Information Flow: Decentralized
Organizations
▪ The pyramid management structure is flattened
somewhat as employees are given more authority to
make day-to-day decisions
▪ Employees increasingly linked to a central database
▪ Companies use Groupware CSCW (computer-supported
cooperative work) systems to enable cooperative work by
groups of people
▪ Many people can work together from different locations to
manage information
 8.6 Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
▪ 6 computer-based information systems
1. Office information systems
2. Transaction processing systems
3. Management information systems
4. Decision support systems
5. Executive support systems
6. Expert systems
 8.6 Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
▪ 1. Office Information System (OIS)
▪ Also called office automation system
▪ Combines various technologies to reduce the manual
labor required in operating an efficient office and to
increase productivity
▪ Used throughout all levels of an organization
▪ Uses, e.g., fax, voice mail, email, scheduling software,
word processing, desktop publishing
▪ OIS backbone = network (LAN, intranet, extranet)
8.6 Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
 8.6 Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
▪ 2. Transaction Processing System (TPS)
▪ Transactions are recorded events of routine business activities,
such as bills, orders, and inventory
▪ TPS systems keep track of the transactions needed to conduct
a business
▪ Features of a TPS:
▪ Input and output: transaction data
▪ For operational (low-level) managers
▪ Produces detail reports (specific information about routine
activities)
▪ One TPS for each department
▪ Basis for management information systems (MIS) and decision
support systems (DSS)
 8.6 Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
▪ 3. Management Information System (MIS)
▪ Computer-based information system that uses data
recorded by a TPS as input to programs that produce
routine reports as output
▪ Features
▪ Inputs are processed transaction data; outputs are
summarized, structured reports
▪ Designed for tactical (mid-level) managers
▪ Draws from all departments
▪ Produces several kinds or reports: summary, exception,
periodic, and demand
 8.6 Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
▪ 4. Decision Support System (DSS)
▪ Computer information system that provides a flexible tool
for analysis and helps management focus on the future
▪ Features
▪ Inputs are external data and internal data such as
summarized reports and processed transaction data;
outputs are demand reports from top managers
▪ Assists tactical (mid-level) managers in decision making
▪ Produces analytic models
▪ Developed to support the types of decisions faced by
managers in specific industries
 8.6 Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
▪ 5. Executive Support System
▪ Easy-to-use DSS made especially for strategic (top-level)
managers to support strategic decision making
▪ Uses data from internal systems and data from outside
▪ Allows executives to call up predefined reports
▪ Includes capability to browse through summarized
information on all aspects of the organization and drill
down for detailed data
▪ Allows executives to perform “what-if” scenarios
 8.6 Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
▪ 6. Expert System
▪ Also called knowledge-based system
▪ Set of interactive computer programs that helps users to
solve problems that would otherwise require the
assistance of a human expert.
▪ Used by both management and nonmanagement
personnel to solve specific problems
▪ One of the most useful applications of Artificial
Intelligence (AI)
 8.7 Artificial Intelligence
▪ AI is a group of related technologies used to develop
software and machines that emulate human qualities such
as learning, reasoning, communicating, seeing, and hearing
▪ Areas include:
▪ Expert systems
▪ Natural language processing
▪ Intelligent agents
▪ Pattern recognition
▪ Fuzzy logic
▪ Virtual reality and simulation devices
▪ Robotics
 8.7 Artificial Intelligence
▪ Expert Systems
▪ an interactive computer program used to solve
problems that would otherwise require the assistance
of a human specialist.
▪ Built by knowledge engineers
▪ Include surface knowledge and deep knowledge
▪ Three components of an expert system:
▪ Knowledge base: an expert system’s database of
knowledge about a particular subject
▪ Inference engine: the software that controls the search of
the expert system’s knowledge base and produces
conclusions
 8.7 Artificial Intelligence
▪ Natural language processing
▪ Allows users to interact with a system using normal language
▪ The study of ways for computers to recognize and understand
human language.
▪ speech recognition, in which computers translate spoken speech
into text.
▪ Intelligent agents
▪ A form of software with built-in intelligence that monitors work
patterns, asks questions, and performs work tasks on your behalf;
shop bots are intelligent agents
▪ Pattern recognition
▪ Involves a camera and software that identify recurring visual
patterns by mapping them against similar patterns stored in a
database (e.g., visual surveillance and ID of suspicious people)
 8.7 Artificial Intelligence
▪ Fuzzy logic
▪ A method of dealing with imprecise data and uncertainty,
with problems that have many answers rather than one
▪ Has been applied in running elevators to determine
optimum times for elevators to wait; used in many
appliances
▪ Virtual reality
▪ A computer-generated artificial reality that projects a
person into a sensation of 3-D space
▪ Often used as simulators to represent the behavior of
physical or abstract systems—e.g., for pilot training
 8.7 Artificial Intelligence
▪ Robotics
▪ The development and study of machines that can
perform work that is normally done by people
▪ Commonly found in manufacturing plants and also in
situations where people would be in danger
▪ Nuclear inspections
▪ Assembly lines, especially paint lines
▪ Checking for land mines and bombs
▪ Fighting oil-well fires
▪ Mars expedition
 8.7 Artificial Intelligence
▪ Weak vs. Strong AI
▪ Weak AI
▪ Computers can be programmed to simulate human
cognition
▪ Strong AI
▪ Computers can think on a level that is equal to or better
than humans and can also achieve consciousness
 8.7 Artificial Intelligence
▪ Strong AI
▪ Cyc approach to strong AI
▪ A database in Austin, TX that holds about 1.4 million basic
truths
▪ Plan is that Cyc will automatically make human-like
assumptions
▪ Hope is that Cyc will learn on its own
▪ Cog approach to strong AI
▪ MIT project that is a humanoid robot with sensory systems
▪ Tries to identify and search for patterns instead of following
rules and facts
 8.7 Artificial Intelligence
▪ Turing Test
▪ In 1950 Allen Turing predicted computers would
eventually be able to mimic human thinking
▪ Turing test determines whether the computer is human
▪ Judge is in another location and doesn’t see the computer
▪ Judge converses via a computer terminal with two entities:
one a person and one a computer
▪ Judge must determine who is the person and who the
computer
▪ If the computer can fool the judge, it is said to be intelligent
▪ No computer system has yet passed the Turing test
 8.7 Artificial Intelligence
▪ Smarter-Than-Human Computers
▪ “The Singularity”
▪ A moment when humans would have created self-aware,
smarter-than-human machines capable of designing
computers and robots that are better than humans can
design today
▪ Also may involve transferring the contents of human brains
and thought processes into a computing environment
 8.7 Artificial Intelligence
▪ Ethics in A.I.
▪ Computer software is subtly shaped by the ethical
judgments and assumptions of its creators.
▪ Will humans lose control of computer systems?
▪ There is no such thing as completely value-free
technology.
 8.8 The Ethics of Using Databases
▪ Privacy concerns
▪ Privacy is the right of people not to reveal information
about themselves
▪ Name migration: your name can migrate to many other
databases—you’ll get endless junk mail and telemarketing
calls, and targeted ads online
▪ Résumé rustling and online snooping
▪ Government prying and spying
▪ Privacy laws have been enacted, but tension continues
between supporters of privacy and supporters of security
▪ Is a national ID card necessary?
▪ Identity theft concerns
▪ Crime in which thieves hijack your identity and use your
good credit rating to get cash, take out loans, order credit
cards, and buy things in your name
▪ Read Experience Box on pp. 448 – 449 about dealing
with ID theft