Ilovepdf Merged

20AG2009- PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR VEGETABLES
AND SPICES
LEC 1
Role of Vegetables in Human Nutrition & Overview of Production Techniques
Introduction
Vegetables
● Herbaceous edible plants

● Consumed as raw or after cooking
● Rich in vitamins and minerals
● Balanced diet - 300 g of vegetables
Olericulture - Latin words
● ‘Holus-holeris’- Cultivation of culinary vegetables

● ‘Cultura’ = To cultivate
Importance
Rich in vitamins and minerals
Proteins
Vitamin A
Vitamin B
Vitamin C
Carbohydrates
Iodine Iron
Advantages of Cultivating Vegetables
• Short duration - High yield per unit area

• High net returns
• High export potential
• Value addition - processing
• Employment opportunities
Based on plant parts
State wise vegetables
in India
Andhra Pradesh - Tomato, Onion,

Okra, Brinjal, Cabbage, Tapioca
Karnataka - Onion, Tomato, Sweet

potato
Tamil Nadu - Tapioca, Onion,

Tomato, Brinjal & Ladies finger
Vegetables in Tamil Nadu
Villupuram, Namakkal, Dharmapuri,
Tapioca
Salem and Erode
Perambalur, Dindigul, Tiruchirapalli,

Onion
Namakkal and Tirunelveli
Dharmapuri, Salem, Krishnagiri,

Tomato
Dindigul, and Coimbatore
Dharmapuri, Salem, Dindigul, Vellore and

Brinjal
Krishnagiri
Dharmapuri, Salem, Dindigul,

Okra
Tiruvallur and Tiruvannamalai
Dindigul, Krishnagiri, Vellore, Theni and

Beans
Erode
Carrot Dindigul, Nilgiris and Krishnagiri
Dindigul, Erode, Nilgiris, Krishnagiri and

Potato
Tiruppur
Bitter Dharmapuri, Coimbatore, Salem,

gourd Dindigul and Cuddalore
Leafy Salem, Tiruvallur and Dharmapuri

Vegetables
Role of Vegetables in National Economy
❖ India - Contribution of vegetables remains highest (59 – 61%)

❖ Production - 1858.83 lakh MT; Area - 101 lakh Ha (NHB, 2018-19)
❖ Productivity-18.40 MT/ha
❖ Vegetable production - highest in Uttar Pradesh followed by West Bengal (NHB,
2018)
❖ Export - Onion, Peas, Potato
❖ Export of Onion - Bangladesh, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, UAE, Nepal, Indonesia, Qatar,
Vietnam, Social Republic, Kuwait, Oman, Philippines, Singapore, Saudi Arabia
(NHB, 2018)
LECTURE 2
IMPORTANCE OF KITCHEN GARDENING LAYOUT
& CONSTRAINTS
Kitchen garden / Home garden / Nutrition garden
● To grow organic vegetables free from (pesticides and insecticides) residue

chemicals at home
● To utilize the available space
● To grow our own favourite vegetables
● Rare and unavailable vegetables can be grown
● Physical exercise
Site selection for kitchen garden
• Backyard of house, near water source in an open area receiving plenty of sunlight
• To meet the demand of vegetables for an average family of 5 to 6 members, an area of

200 square meters will be sufficient.
• Dieticians recommend 300 g of vegetables

- 125g of green leafy vegetables
- 100g of roots and tubers
- 75g of other vegetables per day
• To produce 300g of vegetables per day, all the year round, about 50 square meters of area
is required
• Depending on the space available and the family size the planning may be done either for
a big or a medium or a small size garden
Steps to follow
● Land is selected usually in the backyard of the house- available space can be
utilized
● One or two compost pits can be dug in the corner of the garden
● Quick growing fruit trees like papaya, banana, lime etc. should be located on
one side preferably on northern side
● Climbing type vegetables like cucurbits can be trained on the fences
● Several sowing or succession of sowing of one particular crop at short
intervals should be done to ensure a steady supply of vegetables
● Ridges which separate the beds should be utilized for growing root
and bulb crops
● Early maturing crops should be planted together in continuous row so

that the areas may be available at once for putting late crop
● The interspaces of slow growing and take long duration to mature should be
used for quick growing crops like radish, turnip, palak, lettuce etc.,
• The area in between the perennial plants may be utilized for short duration
shallow rooted annual vegetables or spices like garlic, coriander, etc.
• If the land is limited preference can be given for growing those vegetables
which are costly, highly perishable and not easily available in the market and
which can produce maximum edible vegetables per unit area
• The irrigation channel from the water source and path should be so planned
and prepared that it covers the whole area of the garden for easy operation
Other Inputs
• Quality seeds from reliable sources like Agricultural Universities, Research
Stations, or any other good seed company
• Good soil free from stones, weeds and other indecomposable materials
• Well decomposed organic manure (compost of FYM) + River sand
• Chemical fertilizers
• Insecticides
• Fungicide
• One or two compost pits may be dug in the shady corner of the garden.
• The plot should be provided according to convenience using minimum

space
• Creeping vegetables like gourds and others may be trailed on the fence
or erected pandals
Guidelines/ Principles in Planning Kitchen Garden
• It is convenient to layout rectangular plot than a square plot
• Garden should be well protected with suitable fence
• Perennial vegetables like curry leaf, drumstick and quick growing

fruits like papaya, banana and lime should be planted along the border
• Perennial vegetables like coccinia, chow-chow, etc., which require

support should be planted at the rear end of the garden
• Long duration vegetables like tapioca, elephant foot yam, etc., may be
planted together
• Suitable short duration companion crops such as radish, beetroot,

carrot, etc., can be grown with the long duration crops
• These crops can be grown on the bunds
• Crop rotation should be followed in such a way so that each plot will
be planted with leguminous vegetable crop at least once in two years
and also see that at least 4-6 kinds of vegetables are always available
• One plot should be kept reserved for raising nursery seedlings
• Knowledge of planting season is essential in planning the cropping

pattern
• The entire plot should be divided into a number of small plots (sub
plots)
• The size and number of sub plots can be decided based on area
available (family size) and crops chosen with convenience
Advantages of kitchen garden
● Raising fresh vegetables rich in nutrients to supply to the family free from
toxic chemicals
● Best utilization of the land, time of the family members - hobby

● Utilization of kitchen water and waste
● Keeping surrounding neat & clean beautifying by growing fruits,
vegetables & ornamental flowers
● Vegetable gardening serves as a healthy hobby & a way of horticulture
therapy
● Economising the food cost
Constraints
➔ Invest time
➔ Initial cost
➔ Routine care till harvest
LECTURE 3
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF TOMATO, BRINJAL AND BHENDI
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF TOMATO
Tomato ( Lycopersicon esculentum)
Origin : Peru, Ecuador – Bolivia
Domesticated in Mexico
Family: Solanaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 24
● Type of fruit: Berry

● Fresh vegetable, salad, Soup, Juice, Ketchup, Puree, Paste, Powder, pickles etc.
● Rich sources of Vit. A & C, Ca, Na
● Alkaloids Tomatine (300 mg/100g of edible portion)
and solanine (5 mg/100g of edible portion)
● Lycopene, carotenoid, prolycopene
● Flavour
Classification based on Growth habit:
Indeterminate: terminal buds ends with a leafy bud and continue its vegetative
growth.
Ex: Pusa Ruby
Determinate: terminal buds ends with floral bud and its further vegetative growth is
checked. Also called as Self topping or self pruning types.
Ex. Pusa Early Dwarf
Semi-determinate: have semi dwarf growth and it is between determinate and

indeterminate. Number of nodes between two consecutive inflorescences will be
around one.
Ex: S-12, Roma
● Varieties:
○ TNAU- PKM 1, CO 1, CO 2,CO 3 (Marutham) and Paiyur 1.
○ IIHR - Arka Saurabh, A. Vikas, A. Alok, A. Ashish, A. Abha
● Soil: Well drained loamy soil, rich in organic matter with a pH range of
6.5-7.5
● Climate: Day neutral, warm season crop
● Temperature: 21-28 °C day / 15 -20 °C night
● Season of sowing: May - June and November - December

Seed Requirement and Treatment
Seed rate
OP Varieties : 300 – 350 g /ha
Hybrids : 100 – 150 g/ha
Seed treatment:
• Trichoderma viride 4g or pseudomonas 10g
or Carbendazim 2 g/ kg for 24 hrs before sowing
• Azospirillum 40g/400g of seeds, shade dry
• Sow the seeds in the raised nursery bed.
• Hybrids : Sow the seed in protrays.
• Transplanted at 25 to 30 days and 10-15cm height
Field Preparation:
• Plough the land to a fine tilth
• Take ridges and furrows
• Transplant 25-30 days old seedlings on one side of the ridges
Spacing: Determinate varieties : 60 x 45 cm
Indeterminate: 75 x 60 cm
CO3 : 45 x 30 cm
Irrigation: After establishment of seedlings irrigate at weekly intervals
Nutrient management
• Apply FYM 25 t/ha
• NPK : 75 : 60 : 60 kg / ha
• Basal dose: Apply FYM- Full , half N, full P and full K – as basal doze
• Borax 10 kg and Zinc sulphate 50 kg / ha as basal dose
• Apply remaining half N /ha on 30th day of planting during earthing up.
• PGR: Spray 1 ppm (1 mg in one lit) Triacontanol, 15 days after

transplanting and at full bloom stage to increase the yield.
• GA (5-25 ppm) – for high yield

• NAA (0.1 ppm) – for increased fruit set
• Pinching: the lateral shoots are pinched to improve more bushy growth but little
foliage is to be kept
• Hoeings: shallow hoeing is necessary to improve the yield
it also reduces the weed growth
• Weed control: Apply Pendimethalin 1.0 kg a.i./ha or fluchloralin 1 kg a.i/ha
as pre-emergent herbicide followed by one hand weeding 30 days after planting
• Mulching: using black LDPE sheets of 25 micron thickness and burry both the
ends into the soil to a depth of 10 cm
• Staking is very essential for indeterminate group of varieties
Harvesting
Harvesting
• Stage of maturity for harvest depends upon the purpose for which they are used and
the distance of transportation
• Immature: means before the seeds have fully developed and before the jelly like
substance around the seeds are fully formed
• Mature green: fully grown fruit shows a brown ring at stem scar. It has light green
colour at blossom end and seeds are surrounded by jelly like substance
• Turning or breaker stage: 1/4th of the surface at blossom end shows pink
• Pink stage: 3/4th of the surface shows pink
• Hard ripe: all the surface turn to pink or red but flesh is firm
• Over ripe: fully coloured and flesh is also soft.

Harvesting and Yield
Harvesting – starts yield from 70 days of planting
Total duration of tomato commercial cultivation - 110 to 140 days
Yield :
• Varieties : 30 - 40 t/ha
• Hybrids : 80 - 90 t/ha
• Seed yield : 150 - 200 kg/ha
Physiological disorders in Tomato
Fruit cracking:
• Reduced transpiration increase cell turgidity and induce fruit cracking
• Reduced transpiration occurs even in summer when fruit are grown in green house
• Cracking also occurs in rainy season when rains fall in long dry spell
• Presence of water on the surface of fruit is more conducive in cracking than high soil
moisture
• Boron deficiency in the soil also causes fruit cracking
• They are two types of cracking.
- Radial cracking: occurs mostly at ripe stage
- Concentric cracking: it is common in mature green stage
Remedies: use of resistant cultivars like Sioux, Punjab Chuhara
• Picking of the fruit before the full ripe stage.
• Soil application of Borax @ 10 – 15 kg per ha.
• Regulation of soil moisture.
• Misting (spray of cool water).
Blossom end rot
• Blossom end rot: discoloration starts in blossom end of the fruit
• Black spot encompass ½ to 2/3 rd portion of the fruit
• Later the tissues shrink and skin becomes dark grey to black
• Causes: Use of Ammonium sulphate, imbalance of Mg & K; deficiency of Ca
Remedies:
• Cultural practices – to conserve soil moisture and maintain uniform moisture
supply
• Foliar spray of 0.5% CaCl2. Apply Nitrogen in the form of Urea

Puffiness: also known as hollowness. As the fruit reaches about 2/3rd normal site outer wall
continues to develop normally but remaining internal tissue growth is retarded. Fruit become
lighter in weight and partially filled.
Very high or very low temperature and low soil moisture conditions will lead to puffiness.
Cat face: A large scar formed at the blossom end portion of the fruit. Such fruits have ridges
and furrows and blotches at blossom end
Reasons: low temperature, faulty pollination, application of nitrogen during transition from
vegetative to reproductive phase
Remedies: balanced fertilizer application; regulation of temperature
Sunscald: when fruits and leaves are exposed to the sun, there is appearance of yellow, white
patches on green and ripen fruits. These patches may have secondary infection of fungus and
start rotting varieties with sparse foliage will suffer more sunscald especially in the month of
May and June.
Remedies: prefer the varieties having more foliage and follow appropriate cultural practices.
Physiological disorders
Radial cracking Concentric cracking Blossom end rot
Suncald Puffiness Cat face

Plant Protection
Pests
• Fruit borer
• Serpentine leaf miner
Diseases
• Leaf spot
• Leaf curl
• Tomato spotted wilt virus

PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF BRINJAL
Brinjal
● Common name: Egg plant
● Scientific Name: Solanum melongena.L
● Family: Solanaceae
● Chromosome No. : 2n=24
● Common, popular and principal vegetable of India
● Grown all parts of India except high altitudes
● Decholestrolizing property
Origin : India – Indo
Burma region
Major
Brinjal growing states
in India
Related species
Bitterness in Brinjal is due to

presence of
Glycoalkaloids
Based on growth habit brinjal can be classified as below:
Solanum melongena var. esculentum; fruit is long, round and oval
Solanum melongena var. serpentine known as snake brinjal. Fruit is extra ordinarily
long. Leaves are prickly
Solanum melongena var. depressum: plant is extensively short and dwarf

Soil and Climate
• Soil: Well drained soil, rich in organic matter, with pH of 5.5-6.6

• Climate : Warm season, day neutral plant, 21 - 27 ℃
• Season of Sowing: December – January ; May – June
Varieties
VARIETIES
Long fruit varieties:

- Pusa Purple Long: evolved as a selection from Mixed Batia
- Pusa Purple Cluster Long: is an early maturing variety
Long green varieties: Arka Kusumakar, Arka Shirish, Krishna Nagar Green Long
Round purple:
- Pusa purple round: is resistant to fruit borer and little leaf of brinjal
- Selection-6, Suphala, Arka Navaneet, Krihsnanagar Purple Round
- Pant Ritu Raj, Vijaya Hybrid, Shyamala.
Round green: Banarasi Gaint, Round Striped

VARIETIES
Roundish white: some varieties under this group have purplish tinge with white
stripes. Ex: Manjeri, Visali
Oval or Oblong fruited varieties: Junagad oblong, Bhagyamati, H4., Pusa Anmol
(Pusa anmol is a hybrid variety between Pusa Purple Long and Hyderpur)
Cluster fruited varieties: fruits born in cluster.

Ex: Pusa Purple Cluster, Arka Kusumakar, Bhagyamathi (APAU variety)
Spiny varieties: H-4, Manjeri.

Brinjal Flowering Fruiting
Plant
Flowers are normally borne solitarily as well as in clusters

Flower Types
1. Long styled
2. Medium styled
3. Pseudo short styled – style rudimentary, no fruit set
4. True short styled – style short, no fruit set.
Seed rate:
● Varieties : 400 g/ha

● Hybrids : 200 g/ha
Seed treatment:
● Apply FYM 10 kg, neem cake 1kg, super phosphate 100 g, furadan 10g per square
metre.
● Treat the seeds with Trichoderma viride @ 4 g/kg of seed.
● Treat the seeds with Azospirillum at 40 g/400 g of seeds using rice gruel as adhesive.
Irrigate with rose can.
● In raised nursery beds sow the seeds in lines at 10 cm apart and cover with sand.
● Transplant the seedlings 30 – 35 days after sowing at 60 cm apart in the ridges.
Spacing :
● Varieties : 60 x 60 cm
● Hybrids : 90 x 60 cm
Preparation of Field:
● Plough the field to a fine tilth

● Apply FYM or compost at the last ploughing and form ridges and furrows at 60 cm apart
● Pre-emergence application of pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg a.i (or) fluchloralin 1 g a.i/ha is

recommended
Irrigation: After establishment, irrigate at weekly intervals

Application of fertilizers:
● Apply 2 kg each of Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria in the mainfield at planting
● Apply FYM 25 t/ha. N 50 kg, P 50 kg and K 30 kg/ha as basal dose, N 50 kg/ha - 30
days after transplanting during earthing up
● Growth Regulator : Spray 2 ppm (1 ml in 500 lit) Triacontanol plus Sodium Borate
or Borax 35 mg/lit of water 15 days after transplanting and at the time of full bloom
to increase the yield
After cultivation:
One hand weeding, top dressing and earthing up on 30 days after planting
Harvesting:
● Harvested at immature stage after attaining full size, but before losing
its glossy appearance
● Dullness of fruit indicates over maturity
● Harvested along with its stalk with a slight twist by hand
Yield:
● Varieties : 20 - 30 t/ha
● Hybrids : 60 - 80 t/ha
● Seed yield : 100 - 350 kg/ ha
Plant Protection
Pests Diseases
● Shoot & fruit borer ● Damping off
● Epilachna beetle ● Leaf Spot
● Whitefly ● Little Leaf
● Ash Weevil
● Aphid
● Red Spider mite
● Nematode
Physiological Disorders
Calyx withering
Poor fruit set
● The symptoms of this disorder become
● Natural drop
apparent 7 days before harvest.
● Unproductive flower types and flower
● The affected fruits become reddish brown in
drop
color and lacking in normal luster and thus
● Spraying the plant with 2 ppm 2,4-D at
marketability of the fruits is hampered.
flowering stage when few flower clusters
appear. ● The affected fruits will have higher
calcium and nitrate contents than healthy
ones.
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF BHENDI
Introduction
• Common name: Bhendi/ Okra/ Ladys finger
• Scientific name: A. esculentus
• Family: Malvaceae
• Chromosome No.: 2n=130.
• Origin: Tropical and SubtropicalAfrica
• Excellent source of iodine & treatment of goitre.
• Dried fruit contain 13-22 % edible oil & 20-24 % protein
• Four species viz., A. esculentus, A. manihot, A. caillei and A. moschatus include both
cultivated and wild forms.
Soil and Climate
• Soil: Sandy loam to clayey loam. pH : 6 - 6.8
• Climate: Typical tropical or sub-tropical crop and cannot tolerate frost.

• Performance is also adversely affected by drought, low night temperature and shade.
• Even though fertilization and seed set are affected during high rainfall, growth of plant
and subsequent productivity is exceptionally good in rainfall areas.
• Under high temperature and low humidity, plant growth is stunted and will be
shorter in stature. Similarly flowers drop when day temperature exceeds 42oC.
Varieties
• TNAU - MDU 1, Bhendi hybrid COBh H 1, CO1(selection), CO2, CO
3 (hybrid)
• IIHR - Arka Anamika, Arka Abhay
• MAU, Parbhani - Parbhani Kranti

Season and sowing
● In areas where winter is mild, bhendi is grown throughout the year. Since it
cannot tolerate frost and low temperature, only two crops are taken in plains of
North India.
● As kharif crop, seeds are sown from May to July and as a spring summer crop,
sowing is done during February-March.
● In hills of North India bhendi is sown during March-April.

Seed rate and Seed treatment
• Seed rate: Summer - 18 - 20 kg/ha

Kharif : 8 - 10 kg/ha
• Seed treatment with Trichoderma viride 4 g/kg of seeds are again treated with 400 g of Azospirillum
using starch as adhesive and dried in shade for 20 minutes.
• Sow three seeds per hill at 30 cm apart and then thin to two plants per hill after 10 days.
• Preparation of field: Plough the land 4 - 5 times and form
ridges and furrows at 45 cm apart.
• Spacing: 45 x 30 cm for non branching types; 60 x 30 cm for

branching types
• Irrigation: After germination, irrigate at weekly intervals.

Application of Fertilizers
● Varieties : Basal dose FYM @ 25 t/ha, N @ 20 kg, P @ 50 kg and K @
30 kg/ha as basal and 20 kg N/ha at 30 days after sowing.
● Hybrids : Basal dose FYM @ 40 t / ha, N @ 100 kg, P @ 100 kg and K
@ 100 kg/ha as basal and 100 kg N / ha 30 at days after sowing.
● Apply Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria each at 2 kg/ha mixed in 100
kg of FYM before sowing.
● Foliar nutrition : 1 % urea (10 g/l) + 1% Muriate of Potash (10 g/l)
on 30 and 45 days after planting.
Weed control
• Spray Oxyflourfen at 0.15 kg ai/ha or Fluchloralin at 1.0 kg ai/ha or
Metolachlor at 0.75 kg a.i/ha as pre emergence application on third day
after sowing.
• Herbicide application should be integrated with one hand weeding on
30 days after sowing.
● Harvest fruits when they attain maximum size but still tender.
● Export purposes - Fruits of 6-8 cm long. This is usually attained by 5-6 days
after opening of flower.
● Harvesting is done in alternate days with a knife or by bending pedicel with a
jerk.
● It is advisable to harvest in morning hours since fruit hairs will be soft.
● Sprinkling water on pods during night will keep them cool and fresh for
market.
● Yield: 6.0 – 8.0 t / ha for spring-summer crop ; 10 – 12.5 t / ha for kharif crop.
Plant Protection
Pests Diseases
• Fruit borers • Yellow vein mosaic virus
• Jassids • Powdery mildew
• Nematode
Stages of Bhendi Crop
Flower- bisexual
Often cross pollinated
Duration - 50 - 53 days flowering

60 days first harvest
Ready for harvest Splitting of fruits Dried fruits
Seeds for storage
Seed yield : 1.0 - 1.5 t/ha

Production Technology of Chilli and Capsicum
Introduction
● Scientific Name: Capsicum annuum L.
● Family: Solanaceae
● Chromosome No. : 24
● Origin : South America
● Chilli is an essential spice in every Indian cuisine
● Pungent forms are used as green chilli, whole dry chilli, chilli powder, chilli
paste, chilli sauce, chilli oleoresin or as mixed curry powder
● Dried fruits are extensively used as spice
● The major chilli growing states are Andhra pradesh, Karnataka, Maharastra, Orissa,
Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal and Rajasthan
Origin
Portuguese
India- leading producer

Chilli Capsicum
Banana pepper/
Yellow Wax
Pepper
Paprika (Capsicum annum var. longum)
Ornamental
Pepper
Medicinal importance
● Chilli is one of the richest sources of vitamin C and its content is more
than tomato
● Fruits accumulate maximum ascorbic acid when it turns to maturity and

it ranges from 100 to 320 mg per 100 g of fruits
● Active principle for pungency is capsaicin (n-Vanillyl-8-Methyl-6
noeamide) and its content in Indian varieties ranges from 0.002 to 1.86%
● The principal colouring pigment of dried chilli is a carotenoid pigment, capsanthin
● Ground powder and oleoresin are primarily used as a spice

Chilli cross section
90 % of pungency – inner pericarp

Climate
● Medium pungent chilli, cultivated for green chilli and dry chilli purpose, prefers a
temperature of 20-30°C for growth.
● Low pungent capsicum prefers a lower temperature of 17-23°C.
● Highly pungent Capsicum frutescens and C. chinense come up well in high rainfall
regions of southern and north-eastern region of India.
Soil
● As an irrigated crop, chilli is best grown in sandy loam soil and as rainfed crop
in black cotton soil
● Ideal soil pH for cultivation is around 6.5 and growth is affected in saline soil
● Chilli is extensively cultivated in black cotton soils of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka

and Tamil Nadu
TNAU Varieties
Varieties
● K 1, K 2, CO 2, CO 4, PKM 1, PMK 1 (for semi-dry conditions in Southern Districts),

PLR1 (for coastal regions of North - East Tamil Nadu) and KKM (Ch) 1.
Hybrids
● TNAU Chilli Hybrid CO 1
Gundu type Samba type

Season
● January - February
● Rainfed crop - June - July (Kharif season)
● September- October
Seed rate
● Varieties: 1.0 kg / ha
● Hybrids: 200 - 250 g / ha
● Nursery area: 100 sq.m / ha
Seed treatment
• Treat the seeds with Trichoderma viride @ 4 g / kg or Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10 g/ kg
and sow in lines spaced at 10 cm in raised nursery beds and cover with sand
• Watering with rose can has to be done daily
• Drench the nursery with Copper oxychloride @ 2.5 g/l of water at 15 days interval against
damping off disease
• Apply Carbofuran 3 G at 10 g/sq.m. at sowing
Protected nursery
● Prepare the nursery area of 3 cents with slanting slope of 2 %
for the seedling production to cover 1 ha.
● Cover the nursery area with 50 % shade net and cover the sides
using 40 / 50 mesh insect proof nylon net.
● Form raised beds of 1 m width and convenient length and place HDPV pipes at 2m interval for further
protection with polythene sheets during rainy months.
● Mix sterilized cocopeat @ 300 kg with 5 kg neem cake along with Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria
each @ 1 kg.
● Approximately, 1.2 kg of cocopeat is required for filling one protray.
● 300 protrays (98 cells) are required for the production of 29,000 seedlings, which are required
for one hectare adopting a spacing of 90 x 60 x 45 cm in a paired row system.
Sowing seeds in Protray
Make a small depression and sow the

Protray and cocopeat Fill the cocopeat seeds
After 6 days, remove polythene sheet and water After sowing, stack the portrays (10-15) for 4-5 Seeds sown
using rose can (Seeds germinated) days, close with polythene sheet
Water with rose can everyday upto seed germination. Drench with 19:19:19 @ 0.5% (5g/l) at 18 days after sowing.
Field preparation
Thoroughly prepare the field with the addition of FYM @ 25 t/ ha and form ridges and
furrows at a spacing of 60 cm. Apply 2 kg/ha of Azospirillum and 2 kg / ha of
Phosphobacteria by mixing with 20 kg of FYM. Irrigate the furrows and transplant 40-45
days old seedlings, with the ball of earth on the ridges.
Spacing
● Varieties : 60 x 45 cm
● Hybrids : 75 x 60 cm
Gap filling done after 7 days of transplanting
Weed control
Apply Pendimethalin 1.0 kg a.i. / ha or Fluchloralin 1.0 kg a.i. / ha as pre- emergence

herbicide followed by hand weeding once 30 days after planting
Irrigation
Irrigate is done at weekly intervals

Paired row system : 90 x 60 x 45 cm
FLORAL BIOLOGY
Flower are bisexual and protogynous

Cross pollination (62 %) or often cross pollinated
Fruit type: Berry
Manuring and fertilizer application
Varieties
Basal dose : FYM 25 t/ha, NPK 30:60:30 kg/ ha.
Potassium as K2SO4 for quality improvement. Application of potassium in the form of
potassium sulphate will increase quality of chilli.
Top dressing : 30 kg N/ha in equal splits on 30, 60 and 90 days after planting.
Hybrids
Basal dose : FYM 30 t / ha, NPK 30:80:80 kg / ha.
Top dressing : 30 kg N / ha in equal splits on 30, 60 and 90 days after planting.
Fertigation: Chilli F1 Hybrid, Recommended Dose: 120:80:80 kg / ha
Growth regulators
• Spray Triacontanol @ 1.25 ml/l on 20, 40, 60 and 80th day of planting.
• Spray NAA 10 ppm (10 mg/l of water) on 60 and 90 days after planting to increase fruit set.
Micronutrient spray
• Foliar spray of Zn SO4 @ 0.5 per cent thrice at 10 days interval from 40 days after planting.
• Spray 19:19:19 + Mn @ 1 % at 60 days after planting.
Intercropping
• Intercrops like onion and coriander can be grown for getting additional income.
• It also helps in weed control.
Harvesting and yield
• Chilli is harvested by hand picking and harvesting extends up to two months. Harvesting can
be done 75 days after transplanting. First two picking yield green chilli and subsequently
yield red ripe fruits.
• Yield of fresh green chilli is 3-4 times more than that of fresh red ripe chilli and 6-8 times
than that of dry chilli.
Yield
• Varieties : 2 - 3 t/ha of dry pods or 10 - 15 t/ha of green chillies.

• Hybrids : 25 t / ha of green chillies.
Plant protection
Pests
● Fruit borer
● Thrips
● Aphids
● Root knot nematode
Diseases
● Damping off
● Leaf spot
● Powdery mildew
● Die-back and fruit rot
● Anthracnose
● Chilli mosaic
Marketing
Capsicum (Bell pepper or sweet pepper)
Varieties
Arka Basant, Arka Gaurav, Arka Mohini, Green Gold, Bharath.

Soil
Well drained loamy soil rich in organic matter.
Season of sowing
September - February
Seed rate
● Varieties : 1.25 kg/ha

● Hybrids : 200 g / ha
Cultural Practices
Preparation of field
Plough the field to a fine tilth. Form ridges and furrows 45 or 60 cm apart. Transplant 40-
45 days old seedlings at 30 cm spacing.
Irrigation
Irrigation at weekly or 10 days interval.
Weed control
On 30th day, hoeing and weeding has to be done
Capsicum under Protected Cultivation
Growth regulator
Spray 1.25 ppm Triacontanol (12.5 mg /10 l of water) on 20th, 40th, 60th and 80th
day after transplanting. Spray NAA 10 ppm (10 mg/l of water) on 60 and 90 days after
planting.
Application of fertilizers
Apply FYM 25 t/ha and NPK 40:60:30 kg /ha as basal and 40 kg N/ha each on 30,
60 and 90 days of planting as top dressing.
Fertigation : Capsicum F1 hybrid - Recommended dose: 250:150:150 kg / ha

Harvest and yield
Harvest fully matured green fruits before ripening. Yield: 15 tonnes/ha
in 150-160 days.
Blossom end
rot
Sunscald
Skin cracking
Flower drop
LECTURE 5
Production Technology of Gourds and Melons
Introduction
Family : Cucurbitaceae
Crop Name Scientific Chromosome Origin Uses Varieties

name No.
Snake gourd Trichosanthes 2n= 22, 24 India Unique smell, fruit CO1,CO 2, PKM 1,
cucumerina. L. harvested at PLR 1 and PLR 2,
tender stage and Snake gourd
used for cooking COH1
Ribbed gourd Luffa acutangula 2n = 26 Central and eastern Contains – CO 1, CO 2 and

(Ridge gourd) Asia Geletanious PKM 1,
compound – Ridge gourd COH1
Sponge gourd Luffa cylindrica South Asia Luffein Pusa Chikni, Pusa
(Smooth Supriya, Pusa
gourd) Sneha
Ash gourd Benincasa 2n = 24 Asia – Java and Japan Mature and CO 1, CO 2, TNAU
(Wax gourd) hispida immature – cooked Ash Gourd Hybrid
CO 1
Ribbed gourd
Ash gourd
Snake gourd
Sponge gourd
Cultivation Practices
Crop Season of Seed rate Seed treatment Spacing Application of fertilizers
Name sowing
Snake July and January 1.5 kg/ha. Sow the seeds (3 seeds/pit) 2.5 x 2m Apply 10 kg of FYM, 100 g of
treated with Trichoderma viride NPK 6:12:12 mixture as
gourd & @ 4 g or Pseudomonas basal dose per pit and N @
Ribbed fluorescens @ 10g/kg of seeds 10 g pit 30 days after sowing.
and thin the seedlings to two
gourd per pit after 15 days.
Ash gourd June – July and Varieties : Pre-sowing seed treatment 2 x 1.5m Apply FYM @ 10 kg/ pit
January – 2.5 kg/ha. Hydropriming for 24 h with seed along with 100 g of NPK
February Hybrids : and water. Treat the seeds with mixture (6:12:12) per
1.50 kg /ha Trichoderma viride @ 4g/kg or pit as basal and 10 g N/pit as
Pseudomonas fluorescens top dress on 30 days after
@10g/kg or Carbendazim 2g/kg sowing - varieties
of seeds
Climate :
• Warm season crop
Soil
• Sandy loam rich in organic matter with good drainage and a pH range of 6.5-7.5.
• Plough the field to fine tilth. Dig pits of size 30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm
Irrigation
• Irrigate the basins before dibbling the seeds and thereafter once in a week.
After cultivation
• Hoe and weed thrice. Provide stakes for the plants to reach the pandal (2 m).
Flowering
 Snake gourd – monecious annual climber with small white flowers (female
flowers – solitary), male in clusters
 Sponge gourd- monoecious vine producing staminate and pistillate flowers

in 14:1 ratio
 Ridge gourd – monecious, yellow flowers

 Ash gourd – monecious crop produces large male flowers with long pedicels,
and female flowers with densely haired ovary and short peduncle on the
same plant
Snake gourd
Female flower
Male flower
Sponge gourd
Female flower
Male flower
Ridge gourd
Female flower
Male flower
Ash gourd
Crop Name Plant growth regulator Fertigation*
(Ethrel spray) (split application)
Snake gourd 100 ppm four times starting from 10 to 15 days after 75:100:100 kg NPK/ha
sowing at weekly intervals.
Ribbed gourd 250 ppm - four times commencing from 15th day of 250:100:100 kg NPK/ha
sowing at weekly interval to increase yield.
Ash gourd 250 ppm at 2 leaf stage and 5 leaf stage enhances 60:30:30 kg of NPK/ha
female flower production. Ash gourd (Hybrid) - 200:100:100 kg/ha
*75% of phosphorus - superphosphate as basal dose

Quality Seedling Production
Sow the seeds in protrays containing well decomposed cocopeat medium. Sow only one
seed per cell. Keep the trays under shadenet house. Water regularly with the help of rose can.
Transplant about 12-15 days old seedlings to main field.

Crop Maturity indices Days to fruit harvest Yield
Name Variety Hybrid
Snake Greenish ash color, heavier weight 2- 3 months (12- 20 days after fruit set) 18 t/ha in 65-70 t/ha in
gourd and size, Harvested at tender stage. 135 – 145 135 – 175
Full mature – fibrous and hard days. days
Ribbed Immature tender stage, 5 – 7 days 60 days after sowing 14 – 15 t/ha 35-40 t/ha in
gourd after anthesis. Overmature – fibrous in 125 days. 135 – 175
– do not harvest at this stage days
Ash gourd Fruits are harvested at immature and 90 – 100 days (continues up to 5 30 – 35 t/ha 91.82 t/ha
mature stage. Immature stage- one months)
week after the anthesis period,
harvesting done at weekly intervals.
Seed Extraction
Crop Name Seed extraction Seed yield
Snake gourd Seeds are extracted when the fruits turn yellow in colour 250 – 300 kg/ha
Ash gourd Seeds attain physiological maturity at 80 - 85 days after anthesis 175 – 200 kg/ha
when fruit stalk becomes dry and ashy coat on the fruit surface is
prominent. Under sized fruits should be rejected.
Plant Protection
Pest : Diseases:
 Leaf miner  Powdery mildew
 Red pumpkin beetle
 Downy mildew
 Aphids
 Thrips
 White fly
 Pumpkin caterpillar
 Fruit fly
 Red Spider mite

Production Technology of Bitter gourd
Introduction
• Scientific Name : Momordica charantia L.
• Family : Cucurbitaceae
• Origin : Indo Burma region
• Chromosome number : 2n = 22
Climate and Soil
Climate
● Warm season crop

● Ideal temperature for growth and flowering - 25 - 30 ℃
● Production of female flowers, fruit set and growth affected > 35 ℃
● Seeds have hard seed coat, germination affected < 10 ℃
Soil
● Sandy loam soils rich in organic matter with good drainage

● pH range of 6.5-7.5
Flower of Bitter Gourd
Male flower
Female flower
Varieties
Varieties : Co 1, MDU 1, COBgoH 1 (Hybrid), Arka Harit, Priya
and Preethi are mainly cultivated.
Co 1: Fruits are medium long and MDU 1: long green white CO BgoH1 - high momordicin
dark green fruits fruits content
Season Seed Field Spacing Sowing Seed Irrigation
rate preparation treatment
July and 1.8 kg/ha Plough the field 2 x 1.5 m 5 seeds/pit Trichoderma Irrigate the
January to fine tilth and spacing and viride 4 g basins before
dig pits of 30 cm form basins. or Pseudomonas dibbling the
x 30 cm x 30 cm fluorescens 10 seeds and
size g or thereafter
Carbendazim 10 once a week.
g/kg of seeds and
thin the seedlings
to two/ pit after
15 days
Apply 10 kg of FYM per pit (20 t/ha) 100 g of NPK 6:12:12/pit as basal and 10 g of
N/pit 30 days after sowing.Apply Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria 2 kg/ha and
Pseudomonas @ 2.5 kg/ha along with FYM 50 kg and neem cake @ 100 kg before last
ploughing.
Quality seedling production

● Bitter gourd is a direct sown vegetable but polythene bag nursery is more
advantageous to get early marketing and to avoid more gap filling.
● Use 200 gauge poly bags of 10 cm diameter x 10 cm height for sowing the seeds.
● Transplant about 15 days old seedlings to the main field.
Field preparation
● Form the raised beds of 120cm width (120 cm) and spread the lateral tubes in the centre of
each bed. Irrigation is done in the beds by operating the drip system continuously for 8-12 hrs.
● Spray pre emergence herbicide like Pendimethalin @ 1 Kg a.i/ha just before planting.
● Planting or sowing is done at the holes made at 2 m distance
Fertigation
Apply a dose of 200:100:100 kg NPK/ha throughout the cropping period through split application.
After cultivation
➔ Hoeing is done thrice to control weeds. Provide stakes to reach the pandal (2 m).
➔ Spray Ethrel 100 ppm (1 ml dissolved in 10 lit of water) four times from 15th day after
sowing at weekly intervals
➔ Application of growth regulators like MH (50 - 150 ppm), Ethrel (150 ppm), boron (3 -
4 mg/ha) at 2 leaf stage and 4 leaf stage increases female flowers and yield in bitter
gourd.
➔ Soaking of seeds with Ethrel or boron (3- 4 mg /kg) also increases yield in bitter gourd
Harvesting
❖ Harvest starts 55 - 60 days after sowing
❖ Fruits harvested when full grown but still young and tender
❖ Seeds should not be hard at the time of harvest.
❖ Good crop, 15 - 20 harvests are possible, harvest twice a week
Yield
❖ Varieties: 14 t/ha in 140 - 150 days.
❖ Hybrids : 40 t/ha in 180 days
Seed Production
• For seed purpose, fruits are harvested when fruits turn yellow in
colour
• Seeds harvested with red placenta, rubbed against hard surface
and washed with running water and dried under shade.
• Seed yield : 200 - 250 kg/ha
Marketing
Plant Protection
Pests
• Mites
• Aphid
• Beetles, fruit flies and caterpillars
Diseases
• Powdery mildew
• Downy mildew
Production Technology of Bottle Gourd
Introduction
• Scientific Name : Lagenaria siceraria
• Family : Cucurbitaceae
• Origin : Tropical Africa
• Chromosome Number : 2n - 22
Climate and Soil
Climate
❖ Tropical warm season vegetable

❖ Cannot tolerate frost though it tolerates cool climate
Soil
❖ Sandy loamy soils rich in organic matter with good drainage

❖ pH ranges from 6.5 to 7.5
Varieties
CO 1, Pusa Summer Prolific long, Pusa Summer Prolific Round, Pusa Manjari,
Pusa Megdoot and Arka Bahar, TNAU Bottle gourd Hybrid CO1
PKM 1:
● The fruits are extra long (180-200 cm)
CO.1:
● Fruits are with prominent bottleneck at the top.

● Fruits are pale green in colour
TNAU Bottlegourd Hybrid 1

Flowers
Male flower Female

flower
Cultural Practices
Season Seed Seed Field Spacing Sowing Irrigation
rate treatment Preparati
on
July and 1.5 kg/ha Treated Plough the 2.5 x 2 m Sow the seeds Irrigate the field
January with Trichoderma field to fine @ three before dibbling
seeds/pit and the seeds and
viride 4 g tilth and dig thin the thereafter once
or Pseudomona s pits of the 30 seedlings to a week.
fluorescens 10 g or cm x 30 cm x two/pit after 15
Carbendazim 2 g/kg 30 cm size days.
of seeds before
sowing
Cultural Practices
• Application of fertilizers
Apply 10 kg of FYM (20 t/ha), 100 g of NPK 6:12:12 mixture/pit as basal and 10 g of N/pit 30 days after
sowing.Apply Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria 2 kg/ha and Pseudomonas 2.5 kg/ha along with FYM
50 kg and neem cake @ 100 kg before last ploughing.
• Nursery raising
In hi-tech horticulture, plant 15 days old healthy seedlings raised in shade net houses. Raise the
seedlings in protrays having 98 cells or in polythene bags. Transplant about 15 days old seedlings in the
main field.Soaking seeds in water for 24 hours improves germination.
• Fertigation
Apply a dose of 200:100:100 kg NPK/ha throughout the cropping period through split application.
Training and Pruning
● Bower system
● Axillary buds of growing vines should be

removed till vines reach the bower height
● After reaching bower, apical bud is removed

at 10 - 15 cm below the bower to allow 2 or 3
branches to spread on bower
● After formation of 4 - 5 fruits, vines are again

pruned allowing axillary buds only to grow on
primary vines
● Yellow and pale coloured older leaves

should be removed.
After Cultivation Practices
After cultivation
★ Weeding can be done by hoeing as and when necessary.
★ Fruit rot during rainy season can be checked by training the plants over the
bamboo stick or dried branches.
Harvest
★ Fruits are harvested at tender stage and before 100 % maturity.

★ 10 - 12 days after anthesis
★ 55 - 60 days after sowing (done at 3 - 4 days interval)
★ Annual plant & duration of 3 ½ and 4 months
Yield : 15 - 20 t/ha in 135 days

Marketing
Plant Protection
Pests
Diseases
• Mites
• Powdery mildew
• Aphid
• Downy mildew
• Beetles, fruit flies and
caterpillars
Introduction
Crop name Scientific name Chromosome No. Origin Uses
Watermelon Citrullus lanatus 2n =22 South Africa Popular dessert

Deep pink and light pink
colour - Anthocyanin
and lycopene pigments
Muskmelon Cucumis melo L 2n =24 South Africa Dessert purpose

Good source of vitamin
A, B and C
Cultural practices
Crop name Season Seed rate Sowing Varieties/Hybrids
name
Watermelon November – 3.5 kg/ ha Sow the seeds on one side of Varieties: Sugar Baby
December or the channel with a spacing of and Arka Manik.
January – 0.9 m between hills. Hybrids: Arka Jyoti and
February enables Thin the seedlings 2/hill at 15 Pusa Bedana
harvest during days after sowing.
summer months Polyploidy is noticed in
and fetches higher watermelon
price.
Muskmelon November to 3.0 kg/ha Sow the seeds on one side of Varieties: Pusa
February. the channel giving a spacing Sharbati, Hara Madhu,
of 0.6 m between hills. Durgapura Madhu, Arka
Thin the seedlings after 15 Rajhans and Arka Jeet.
days, to maintain two per hill.
Cultural practices
 Soil: Sandy loam rich in organic matter with good drainage and pH range for 6.5-7.5 is ideal for
cultivation of watermelon. This crop requires a moderate warm temperature.
 Seed treatment: Treat with Trichoderma viridi 4g or Pseudomonas fluorescens 10g or Carbendazim
2g/kg of seeds
 Preparation of field: Plough the field to a fine tilth and form long channels at 2.5 m apart.
 Irrigation: Irrigate the field before dibbling the seeds and thereafter once a week. Irrigation should
be given at regular intervals of time. Irrigation after a long dry spell results in cracking of fruits.
 Planting: Spread the lateral tubes in the centre of each bed. Irrigate the beds by operating the drip
system continuously for 8-12 hrs. Spray pre-emergence weedicide (Pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i/ha)
just before planting.
Cultural practices
Crop name Application of fertilizers Fertigation
Watermelon Apply FYM 20 t/ha, P 55 kg and K 55 kg as basal and N 55 Apply a dose of 200:100:100
kg/ha 30 days after sowing. Apply Azospirillum and kg NPK/ha throughout the
Phosphobacteria @ 2 kg/ha and Pseudomonoas @ 2.5 kg/ha cropping period through split
along with FYM 50 kg and neem cake 100 kg before last application
ploughing.
Muskmelon Apply FYM 20 t/ha, NPK 40:60:30 kg/ha as basal and N @ 40

kg/ha 30 days after sowing. Apply Azospirillum and
Phosphobacteria @ 2 kg/ha and Pseudomonas @ 2.5 kg/ha
along with FYM 50 kg and neem cake 100 kg before last
ploughing.
Watermelon
• After cultivation: Spray Ethrel 250 ppm (2.5 ml/10 lit of water) 4 times at weekly intervals
commencing from 15 days after sowing. Weeding is done thrice.
• Flower: Monecious or andromonecious
• Harvest: Fruits are harvested when it produces dull sound upon tapping or the fruits surface on the
ground level produces light yellow colour are the harvest index for water melon.
• Yield: 25 – 30 t/ha of fruits in 120 days can be obtained.

Muskmelon
PGR application: Spray Ethrel 250 ppm (2.5 ml/10 lit of water) – increase yield.
Sprayed twice at 2nd leaf stage and 4th leaf stage.
Flowering : Monecious, gynomonecious, gynoandromonecious and perfect flowers are

present - Highly cross pollination
Harvest: Climacteric fruit, judged by softening of rind starting from blossom end, fruit
skin colour change, nutty flavour, development of abscission layer in between fruit and
pedicel.
Can be stored for two days at room temperature

Harvest :
• Full slip stage : fruit separates or slips from the fruit stalk leaving a circular
depression or scar on the fruit – local market and for home consumption
• Half slip stage: Fruit separated with light force – long distance transport
Yield: 20 t/ha in 120 days

Gherkins
 Gherkins (Cucumis sativus var. anguira) (2n=14)
 Gherkins are small sized ‘cucumbers’ used for pickling purpose.
 Mostly imported hybrids like Calypso and Ajax are grown in India.
 For growing crop, land is ploughed to a fine tilth and furrows of 15 cm width
and 20 cm depth are made at a distance of 90-100 cm.
 Seeds are sown at 30 cm apart along slopes on one side of furrow so that
irrigation water will not touch collar region of growing plants.
• Since tender fruits are harvested, frequent fertilizer application is also done at
10-15 days interval.
• Harvesting starts at 30-35 days after sowing.
• Very small (4-6g) fruits are harvested after 4-5 days of anthesis almost every
day.
• Harvesting is done without fruit stalk in early morning or late evening.
• Harvested fruits are packed in gunny bags and sent to processing factory for
brining on the same day itself.
• Leaving fruits overnight without processing, result in poor quality.
• Average yield obtained in farmers fields at Theni in Tamil Nadu is 20 t/ha.

Physiological disorders in cucurbits
Blossom end rot Hollow heart
Light belly colour Rind necrosis

Sunscald
Misshapened fruits Bursting

General features of Cucurbits
Key features
Crops belonging to family Cucurbitaceae are known as Cucurbits
 Bitter gourd – Vitamin C - 96 mg/100 g
 Pumpkin – Vitamin A – 1600 IU/100 g
 Kakrol (spiny gourd) – high protein – 3.1 g/100 g
 Parwal (pointed gourd) & chow – chow – calcium 531 mg & 140 mg
Seeds – high oil & protein contents
Seed proteins - rich in methionine

Long tap root system
Bottle gourd, ash gourd and parwal – riverbed cultivation
Branched stem – 3 -8 branched and prostrate/climbing
Cucurbita pepo – short internodes & bushy
Cucurbits are cross pollinated crops- pollinating agent is

honey bees & bumble bees.
• Fruits – inferior ovary – Pepo (except chow chow – single seeded)
• Cucurbits – seed propagated; Vegetatively propagated – parwal and coccina
• Most cucurbits - annuals ; Chow chow and little gourd (coccina) – perennial habit
• Cucurbits are characterized by the presence of bitter principle- Cucurbitacin. Pollen also
carries bitter principle. When bitter pollen fertilizes non bitter ovules, the resulting fruit will be
bitter. It is called Metaxenia. Eg: Bottle gourd, Cucumber
Sex forms
• Hermaphrodite - Primitive form (satputia cultivar of ribbed gourd),

cucumber and musk melon
• Monoecious - staminate and pistillate flowers separately produced on same

plant (cucumber, Bottle gourd, Bitter gourd, Watermelon, pumpkin, squash, ash
gourd, ridge gourd , sponge gourd and snake gourd); Most cucurbits –
monoecious
• Andro-monoecious - Male and bisexual flowers (Musk melon & some cultivars
of water melon)
• Gyno-monoecious - Female and bisexual flowers on the same plant
(Cucumber)
• Gynoecious – Female flowers produced alone (rarely noticed in cucumber)
• Trimonoecious – Staminate, Pistillate and perfect flowers in same plant
• Dioecious – male and female flowers separate plant. Eg. pointed gourd
(Parwal), coccinia, kakrol
Flowering :
 Flowering in cucurbits normally starts in 40-45 days after sowing
 Cultural requirements - cultivation practices are mostly similar
 Sequence of flowering - first 4-6 flowering nodes staminate (male) flowers, later
female (pistillate) flowers in few nodes
Pollination :
 Cross pollination - 60 – 80 %
Sex modification
• Majority – monoecious
• Sex ratio range from 25 to 30:1 to 15:1 (more Pistillate flowers)
• Sex ratio sensitive to environment
• High N, long days and high temperature – favours male flowers
• Endogenous level of hormones – determine sex ratio & sequence of

flowering
• Ethrel – Female flowers
• GA –Male flowers
River bed cultivation
 Diara land cultivation - Grow vegetables in river beds having fertile soil
 Mostly cucurbits – planted in Nov. – Dec when the river gets receded
 Day time soil – warm ; compared to other areas
 Cultivation is done and supplied to markets when there is no vegetable

available during – Feb to May
Lecture 6- Production Technology of Pumpkin and Cucumber
Introduction
 Scientific name : Cucurbita moschata
 Family : Cucurbitaceae
 Chromosome No. : 2n = 40
 Origin : Mexico and Peru
 Grown for its mature and immature fruits
 Good source of carotene (50 mg/100 g of edible fruit)
 Mature and ripened fruits – halwa preparation
 Seeds fried after mixing with salt and consumed

Varieties:
 CO 1, CO 2, Arka Suryamuki and Arka Chandan
Climate:
 Warm season crop
 Tolerates higher and lower temperature than other cucurbits
 Cannot withstand frost
 Ideal temperature : 25 – 30 oC
Soil
 Sandy loam rich in organic matter and with good drainage. The pH range from 6.5- 7.5 is found
ideal.
Season and sowing:
 June- July and December- January

 Soak the seeds in double the quantity of water for 30 minutes and incubate for 6 days
 Sow the seeds (3 seeds/pit) treated with Azospirillum just before sowing and thin the
seedlings to two per pit after 15 days
Seed rate:
• 1.0 kg /ha.
Spacing:
• 2 m x 2 m.
• Pit size 30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm.
Apply 10 kg of FYM (20 t/ha) and 100 g of NPK 6:12:12 mixture as basal and 10 g of N per pit
after 30 days of planting.
Apply Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria @ 2 kg/ha such and Pseudomonas 2.5 kg/ha along
with FYM 50 kg and neem cake @ 100 kg before last ploughing.
After cultivation
 Hoe and weed thrice
 Spray Ethrel 250 ppm four times at weekly intervals commencing from 10 to 15
days after sowing – promotion of female flowers.
Flowering
 Monecious, large flowers
 Fruit type – pepo with hard rind and smooth surface

Quality Seedling Production
Nursery raising
 In hi-tech horticulture, use 12 days old healthy seedlings obtained from shade net houses for planting
 Raise the seedlings in protrays having 98 cells
 Use well decomposed cocopeat as medium
 Sow one seed per cell. Water regularly twice a day
Fertigation
 Apply a dose of 60:30:30 kg NPK/ha throughout the cropping period through split application
 Apply 75% of the phosphorus as superphosphate as basal dose

 Harvested at full mature stage when the fruit changes from green to yellowish brown and when
the rind is thick
 Easy detachment of stalks from the stem
 Fruits are often allowed to remain in field till vines are dried during summer months
 Fruit drop - major problem
 Fruits immediately after fruit set, should be covered with paper or polythene sheets to avoid further
attack of fruit flies
Yield:
 Yield in 18-20 t/ha in 140 days

Harvest Stage
45 – 55 days
after pollination
5 – 10 days
7 days after female flowers 8 – 9 weeks after sowing

appear – fruit set will happen
Seed Yield
 Harvest when the vines and peduncle are completely dried
 At this time, the fruits rind will be hard and a grey to white coating will appear on
fruits
 Ripe fruits are then preserved for 2 – 3 months before extraction of seeds
 Seed yield – 150 kg/ha

Plant Protection
Pest : Diseases:
 Red pumpkin beetle  Powdery mildew
 Aphids  Downy mildew
 Thrips
 White fly
 Pumpkin caterpillar
 Fruit fly
 Red Spider mite

Red pumpkin beetle
Raphidopalpa foveicollis
Melon Fly
Bactrocera cucurbitae
Powdery Mildew
Podosphaera xanthii
Downy Mildew
Pseudoperonospora cubensis
Marketing
Production Technology of Cucumber
Introduction
 Scientific Name : Cucumis sativus L.
 Chromosome No.: 2n=14
 Family : Cucurbitaceae
 Origin : India
 Cucumber (‘khira’) - important cucurbit vegetables
 Tender fruits - salad purpose, pickling, cooked vegetables
 Fruits have cooling effect and are used by patients suffering from jaundice,
constipation and indigestion
Varieties
● CO 1
● Japanese Long Green
● Straight Eight (58 days to mature)
● Poinsett
Climate
● Cucumber is a warm season crop and cannot withstand even light frost.
● It prefers dry climate with bright sunshine.
● Compared to other cucurbits, cucumber comes up well in a slightly lower temperature

of 18-24°C.
● Above 30°C, female flower production is reduced considerably.
● Under high humid conditions, incidence of diseases like powdery mildew, downy
mildew, anthracnose and pests like fruit fly, serpentine leaf miner will be severe.
Soil
● Cucumber prefers a well drained sandy loam for early crop and clay for heavy
yield
● The crop cannot withstand water stagnation
● The ideal soil pH is 5.5 to 6.7
Season
● In areas, where winter is mild, cucumber is grown throughout the year
● In river beds, the crop is sown during November-January and in other soils
during middle of February
● In hills cucumber is sown during April –May

Cultural Practices
Land is ploughed 4-6 times to a fine tilth and well rotten farmyard manure @ 20-25 t/ha is incorporated
in the soil at the time of final ploughing
Season of Seed rate Seed treatment Spacing Thinning Irrigation

sowing seeds
June or January to 2.5 kg/ha Trichoderma 0.6 m between Thin the Irrigate the field
April viride 4 g or hills (long furrows seedlings to before dibbling the
(soak seeds Pseudomonas of 60 cm width are two per hill. seeds and thereafter
before sowing) fluorescens 10 g or taken at 2.0-2.5 m once in a week.
carbendazim 2g/kg apart) (Flowering and
fruiting period –
critical stages)
Seeds - polythene bags (10x15 cm size) Transplanted to

main field after two or three weeks without disturbing
root system.
Manures and Fertilizers
Application of fertilizers:
• Apply FYM 40 t/ha as basal and 35 kg of N/ha at 30 days after sowing
• Apply Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria 2 kg/ha and Pseudomonas 2.5 kg/ha along
withFYM 50 kg and neem cake @ 100 kg before last ploughing
Drip irrigation
Field preparation:
Form raised beds of 120 cm width at an interval of 30 cm and the laterals are placed at the centre
of each bed.
Sowing:
Sow the seeds at an interval of 60 cm distance at the centre of the bed along the laterals. Sow the
seeds in polybags @ one per bag for gap filling. Spray pre emergence weedicide like fluchloralin 1 kg a.i.
or metalachlor 0.75 kg a.i./ha on third day of sowing.
Fertigation:
Apply a dose of 150:75:75 kg NPK/ha throughout the cropping period through split
application for F1 hybrid. In respect of phosphorous, 75% has to be applied as a basal dose.
After cultivation: Hoe and weed twice or thrice.

Plant Growth Regulators
● Cucumber responds well to plant growth regulators
● Two sprays of Ethrel (150-200 ppm) at 2-3 true leaf stage and 15 days after
increase female flowers and yield
● Spraying should be conducted in morning hours

 Fruits should be harvested at tender stage but after attaining full size
 Dark green /light green /white skin colour should not change to yellow, brown or brownish yellow
 White spine colour also will be an indication of edible maturity and spines should drop in a gentle
touch
 Fruits need to be harvested every second or third day since over-mature fruits reduce further fruit set and
development of new fruits
 Sowing to fruit maturity: 50 – 70 days

● Good quality fruits should be long and uniformly cylindrical without crook neck and bitterness
● Attractive green or dark green fruits with smooth surface and without prominent spines or prickles fetches
premium price in market
● Yield: 8 – 10 t/ha in 80 to 90 days for salad
● Seed yield – 100 – 120 kg/ha
Male flowers emerge first but do not produce fruits and fall off after pollination is complete.
50-70 days
3 to 10 days Female flowers emerge within one to two weeks.

Postharvest Handling
 Harvested fruits are wiped clean and packed in bamboo baskets or gunny bags
 For prolonged storage life of 10-14 days, optimum temperature is -10°C for prolonged
storage
 In developed countries like USA, cucumber is pickled as whole fruit or as slices in brine
 There are specific varieties for pickling

Plant Protection
Pests
 Fruit fly
 Aphids
 Jassids
Marketing
Gherkin (Cucumis sativus var. angaria)
Cucurbitaceae
A gherkin is a small type of a cucumber that's been pickled. It's a little cucumber that’s
been pickled in a brine, vinegar, or other solution and left to ferment for a period of time.
Production Technology of French
Beans and Peas
Legume vegetables
 Peas and beans belonging to the family Fabaceae (Syn. Leguminosae) are delicious and
preferred vegetables grown throughout the world.
 These include cool season vegetables like Pea, French bean, lima bean, broad bean and
tropical vegetables like cowpea, hyacinth bean, winged bean, sword bean etc.
 These are integral components of sustainable agriculture due to their ability to fix
atmospheric nitrogen and to improve soil properties.
 Legume vegetables are rich in protein and essential amino acids and have significant role
in combating malnutrition among poor people and vegetarians.
 All legume vegetables are self-pollinated due to cleistogamous nature.
 All are direct sown crops and do not respond to transplanting.

French Bean
• Fresh bean is an important cool season legume vegetable grown for its tender pods, shelled green beans
and dry beans (Rajmah).
• In western countries, processed pod consumption is quite high.
• French bean / Snap bean : Phaseolus vulgaris
• Other names : Snap bean, String bean, Kidney bean, Haricot bean, Fresh bean
• Family : Fabaceae
• Chromosome number : 2n =22
• Origin : Southern Mexico and Central America

Origin and taxonomy
 Genus Phaseolus originated in New World.
 Following four species are under cultivation in new World
 Phaseolus vulgaris –French bean
 P. coccineus –Runner or Scarlet bean
 P. lunatus –Lima bean, Butter bean or Madagascar bean
 P. acutifolius var. latifolius –Tapery bean

Varieties
Developing institution Variety Special features
IIHR, Bangalore Arka Komal* Introduced bushy variety from Afghanistan.

Pods straight, flat and green with large
brown seeds. Good transport and keeping
quality. Yield 19 t/ha and 3 t/ha seed in 65-
70 days.
Arka Subidha* Plants bushy and photosensitive. Pods
(IIHR 909) straight and oval, light green, stringless and
fleshy. Yield 19 t/ha in 70 days.
IARI Regional Station, Katrain Contender Plants bushy with pink flowers. Pods green,
round long and stringless. Tolerant to mosaic
and powdery mildew. Yield 20 t/ha.
Pusa Parvati Developed through irrigation followed by

selection from wax podded variety EC 1906.
Plants bushy with pink flowers. Pods green,
round long. Resistant to mosaic and powdery
mildew. Yield 22-25 t/ha.
Developing Variety Special features
institution
TNAU Ooty 1 Moderately resistant to leaf spot, anthracnose and
pod borer. Yield 24 t/ha in 80 days.
TKD 1 A pole type suitable for growing in hills. Pods long,

flat with low fibre. Yield 5-6 t/ha in 90 -100 days.
KKL 1 Moringa bean A pole type suitable for growing in hills. Pods long
(28 cm) with low fibre. Seeds white and flat. Yield 7
t of pods and 3 t of grains/ha.
YCD 1 Bushy dual purpose variety suitable for kharif season.

Pods slightly flat, 15 cm long. Seeds dark purple.
Tolerant to root rot, rust, yellow mosaic and
anthracnose. Yield 9.75 t. of pods or 6.3 t of
grains/ha in 105 days.
Varieties
Bush type
 Hills : YCD 1, Ooty 1, Ooty (FB) 2, Arka Komal (Sel.9), Premier, Arka Bold, Arka Sampoorna and
Arka Karthik are popular varieties.
 Plains : Arka Komal, Premier, (Sel.9), Arka Suvidha, Arka Anoop, Arka Samrudhi, Arka Suman are
under cultivation.
Pole type
 TKD 1, KKL-I, Ooty 1, Murungai bean are popularly cultivated.
In addition to the above improved varieties, cultivars like Kentucky Wonder (pole type with long, flat and
stringless pods), premier, Giant Stringless, Bountiful etc. are also very popular among farmers.
CLIMATE
 French bean is a day neutral cool season vegetable and tolerates high temperature better than peas.
 Optimum monthly temperature for cultivation of French bean is 15-25°C compared to 10-18°C for
peas.
 It is sensitive to high rainfall, frost and high temperature.
 Pole types tolerate high rainfall better than bushy varieties.
SOIL
• Soil requirements are same as that of pea.
• Ideal soil pH for growth of French bean is 5.5-6.0
SEASON
• In plains of North India, French bean is sown during two seasons viz. July-September and January –
February.
• In hills, sowing is done from March to May.

Land preparation and sowing
 Land is ploughed to a fine tilth and divided into plots of convenient size.
 Spacing and seed rate vary with varieties.
 Early varieties are sown at a spacing of 45-60 cm x 10-15 cm and seed rate required is 80-90
kg/ha.
 Pole types are sown at 1.0 m apart in hills @ 3-4 plants/hill and seed rate is much less (25-30
kg/ha).
Manures and fertilizers
Seed Fertilizers (kg/ha) Growth

FYM (t/ha)
rate/ha N P K Micron. Biof. regulators (/ha)
135 135 Rhizo.

135 (U-
Variety 85 kg 25 (SSP- (MOP- - 2 kg -
297)
844) 126) PB 2kg
Intercultural operations
• French bean is a shallow rooted crop and only light inter-cultural operations are
practiced.
• During early stages of crop, weeding followed by fertilizer application of Fluchloralin @

2 l/ha checks weed growth for 20-25 days.
• Water stress influences yield of French bean and crop is most sensitive at flowering and
fruiting stages.
• 6-7 irrigations are required during growing season.

• Staking is an important operation for pole types and bamboo sticks or any locally available
materials should be erected when plants start vining.
• Individual vertical stakes and horizontal canes at 40 cm distance are erected for encouraging
growth and spread of plants.
• Application of plant growth regulators like PCPA (2 ppm) and NAA (5-25 ppm) has
favourable effect on fruit set and yield.
 The crop is ready for first harvest in about 45 days after sowing.
 Pods are harvested at full grown stage but immature and tender.
 Pods are ready for harvest 7-12 days after flowering depending on varieties.
 In bush varieties, 2-3 harvests and in pole types 3-5 harvests are made.
 Quality of beans varies with harvests and best quality fruits are obtained in initial harvests compared to
later harvests.
 Loss of crispness during storage and in last harvest is attributed to loss of water and increase in water
soluble pectin.
 Seed weight is a major indicator of green bean harvest maturity.
 Yield of tender pods varies from 8-10 t/ha in bush varieties and 12-15 t/ha in pole types.
 Dry beans are harvested when majority of pods are fully ripe and colour turns yellow.
 Seed yield varies from 1250 to 1500 kg/ha.
 Storage: The pods stored for 2-3 days in summer and 4-6 days in winter at room temperature. In cold
storage, pods can be stored at 2℃ to 4℃ with 60-70 % RH for about 15-20 days.
Plant protection
Pests Diseases
 Aphids and thrips  Powdery mildew
 Pod borer  Rust
 Ash weevil  Anthracnose
 Whitefly  Leaf spot
 Root rot
Pea
(Pisum sativum L.) (2n=14)
 The famous plant in which G.H. Mendel worked out Mendal Laws and Genetic Principles, is a noble
vegetable.
 The crop is cultivated for its tender and immature pods for use as vegetable and mature dry pods for use
as a pulse.
 In both cases, seeds are separated and used as vegetable or pulse.
 Peas are highly nutritive and contain high content of digestible protein (7.2 g/100g), carbohydrate (15.8g),
vitamin C (9mg), phosphorus (139mg) and minerals.
 Tender seeds are also used in soups.
 Canned, frozen and dehydrated peas are very common for use during off-season.
Varieties
• The cultivars / varieties are grouped based on various characters as given below:
Based on maturity period
• Early types- green pods will be ready for harvest by 65 days after sowing
• Mid season types –pods will be ready for harvest by 85-90 days after sowing
• Late main season types –pods will be ready for harvest by 110 days after sowing
Based on height of plant
• Bush or dwarf type
• Medium tall
• Tall
Usually dwarf types are early and mid season types are medium tall. Late types are tall and require support.
Developing Institution Variety Special features
IIHR, Bangalore Arka Ajit Resistant to powdery mildew and rust. Yield 10t/ha in 90
days.
IARI, New Delhi Arkel* Early season variety introduced from England. Dwarf plants
bearing double pods at lower nodes and single at upper nodes.
Pods 8.8 cm long and sickle shaped. Suitable for fresh market
and dehydation. Susceptible to collar rot at high temperature.
Yield 7.5 t/ha in 50-55 days.
Bonneville* Mid season variety introduced from USA. Medium tall plants
bearing double pods. Pods more than 9 cm long. Yield 8.5
t/ha. Seeds green and wrinkled.
IARI, Regional Station, Lincoln* Early season variety introduced from France. Medium tall
Katrain plants bearing double pods of 8-9 cm length and sickle
shaped. Mature seeds wrinkled. First picking 85-90 days after
sowing (DAS). Yield 8-10 t/ha.
Developing Institution Variety Special features
IIVR, Varanasi Kashi Nandhini* Early maturing variety developed through pedigree
(VRP 3) selection. Plants erect and dwarf. Pods long. Tolerant
to leaf miner and pod borer. Yield 6.5 t/ha with 80%
shelling percentage.
Kashi Shakthi* (VRP Mid season variety. Plants 80 cm tall with attractive
7) pods. Yield 7.5 t/ha.
TNAU Ooty 1 A dwarf variety with a yield of 11.9 t/ha in 90 days.

Resistant to white fly.
Climate
 Pea is typically a cool season crop and thrives well in cool weather.
 Optimum temperature for seed germination is 22 ° C.
 Early stage of crop is tolerant to frost.
 But flowering and fruit development are adversely affected by frost.
 Optimum monthly mean temperature for growth of plants is 10-18.3°C.
 As temperature increases the maturity is hastened and yield is reduced.
 Quality of pods produced is also low at high temperature due to conversion of sugars to hemicellulose
and starch.
Soil
 Crop prefers well drained, loose and friable loamy soil for early crop and clayey soil for high yield.
 Ideal pH is 6.0-7.5 and it grows under alkaline soil.
 If soil is acidic, liming is recommended.
Season
 In plains of North India, pea is sown from beginning of October to middle of November.
 Crop sown in September will be susceptible to wilt disease.
 In hills, pea is sown in March for summer crop and in May for autumn crop.
Sowing and seed rate
 Soil is prepared to a fine tilth by disc ploughing followed by one or two harrowings.
 Seeds are sown in flat or raised beds by broadcasting or by dibbling at 2.5-5.0 cm depth.
 Early varieties are sown at a closer spacing of 30 x 5-10 cm and the seed rate is 100-120 kg/ha.
 Mid season and late varieties are sown at wider spacing of 45x10 cm.
 Late varieties are sown on either edge of raised beds which are 120-150 cm wide with furrows in
between.
 Seed rate for late varieties is 80-90 kg/ha.
 Over night soaking of seeds in water or GA 3 (10 ppm) improves germination.

Fertilizers (kg/ha) Growth

Seed FYM
Micron regulators
rate/ha (t/ha) N P K Biof.
. (/ha)
120 80 70 Rhizo.
Variety 100 kg 20 (U- (SSP - (MOP - 2 kg -
264) 500) -112) PB 2kg
Irrigation
• Light irrigation at 10-15 days intervals is given for pea.
• Flowering, fruit set and grain filling periods are critical stages and care should be taken to irrigate crop
at these stages.
• Four irrigations at pre bloom, pod set and fruit picking stages are recommended for variety Bonneville
under Bangalore conditions.
Weed control
• Care should be taken to remove weeds in early stages of crop.
• Lasso (alachlor) @ 0.75 kg a.i. or tribunil 2 1.5 kg a.i./ha or pendeomethalin 0.5 kg a.i/ha as pre
emergence spray along with one hand weeding at 24-45 days after sowing is very effective for weed
control.
Harvesting
 Since tender peas with high sugar content fetch premium price in market, care should be taken to harvest pods at
correct maturity.
 Peas for fresh market are harvested when they are well filled and when colour changes from dark green to light
green.
 Usually 3-4 harvests at 10 days intervals are possible.
 Green pod yield varies with duration of variety and is 2.5-4.0 t/ha for early varieties, 6.0-7.5 t/ha for mid season
varieties and 8.0-10.0 t/ha for late varieties.
 Shelling percentage ranges from 35-50.
 Seed yield varies from 2.0 to 2.5 t/ha.
 Peas after harvesting are packed in gunny bags or crates.
 Fresh unshelled peas can be stored for two weeks at 10°C and 90-95% RH.
Pest and diseases
Pests Diseases
 Stem fly  Wilt
 Pea aphid  Root rot
 Leaf miner  Powdery mildew
 Pod borer  Rust
 Ascochyta blight
 Pod rot
LECTURE 8
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF CAULIFLOWER AND CABBAGE
Introduction
• Common name: Cauliflower
• Scientific name : Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.
• Family: Brassicaceae
• Hindi: Ful gobhi
• Chromosome number: 2n=18
• West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Assam and Jharkhand are the leading cauliflower producing states of India
• Cauliflower is used as cooked vegetable and a variety of delicious dishes are prepared out of ‘curd’.
The differences between Indian and European cauliflowers as reported by Gill (1993) are given
below
Indian types European types
Tolerant to heat Not tolerant to heat
Curd formation at and above 20°C Curd formation at 5-20°C

Annual Biennial
Yellow curd with loose storage flavour Snow white curd with mild or no flavour
Early Late
Less juvenile phase Long juvenile phase
No need of vernalization but needs cold treatment Need vernalization at 7°C for 8-10 weeks
at 10-13°C for 6 weeks
Varieties

institution
IARI, Pusa Synthetic* Mid season variety with creamy white to white compact curd.
New Delhi Curds available during December –January (12-15°C) from
September transplanted crop. Synthesized from a few good
combiner inbred lines.
Improved Japanese* Introduced variety from Israel. November-December
maturity (16-20°C) group susceptible to heat. Curds white
and compact.
Pusa Deepali October maturity group with compact self blanched and
white curd. Yield 15 t/ha
Pusa Himjyothi December maturity group. Curds white, self blanched and
500-600g. Only variety which can be grown in April-July in
hills.
institution
Pusa Snowball Kt- Tolerant to black rot and Sclerotinia rot. Curds solid, cream
25 with good keeping quality. Curds available during January-
IARI Regional March from October –November transplanting. Yield 10-30
Station, Katrain t/ha.
Pusa Snowball K-1* Late and January maturity variety. Curds snow white and
compact. Moderately resistant to black rot. Yield 20-25 t/ha.
TNAU Ooty 1 Late variety suitable for hilly regions of Tamil Nadu, 1800
m above MSL. Potential yield 40-45 t/ha in 110-120 days.
Punjab Agrl. Early Kunwari* Early variety belonging to September-October maturity

University, group. Curds semi-spherical with even surface. Yield 10
Ludhiana t/ha.
GBPUA&T Pant Gobhi 4 Mid early (November maturity) variety.

CAULIFLOWER SEEDLINGS
Hybrids
 In India, the heterozygous tropical cultivars distributed are basically poor in quality and
productivity.
 Some of the hybrids popular in India are Pusa Hybrid 2 of IARI, New Delhi
 Punam and Priya of Beejo Sheetal Seeds Ltd. Jalna
 Agethi Himalatha of Century Seeds Ltd., New Delhi
 NS 60 and NS 66 of Namdhari Seeds Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore
 Summer King of Sungro Seeds Ltd., New Delhi

 Pawas of Syngenta India Seeds Ltd., Pune
 No. 310 and No. 311 of Mahyco Seeds Pvt. Ltd., Jalna etc.
Climate
 Cauliflower was considered a temperate crop when snowball types only were available.
 With development of tropical Indian Cauliflower, it became possible to cultivate in tropics and
throughout the year in North Indian plains.
 Being a thermo-sensitive crop, temperature plays a key role in the vegetative, curding and
reproductive phases of plants.
 During vegetative phase, temperature should be a few degree higher than optimum required for
curd initiation and development stages.
• During curd initiation and curd development stages, temperature should not fluctuate.
• Otherwise quality adversely affected and results in ricey curds.
• Nearly four weeks vegetative growth is sufficient for transformation to curding stage in snowball
types.
• Optimum temperature for growth of young seedlings of snowball type is 23°C and further it
should drop to 17-20°C.
• If early types are planted late and if temperature drops drastically to 0°C, plant ceases its
vegetative growth and transforms prematurely to curding phase resulting in small curds known as
‘buttons’.
• Typical annual Indian cauliflower produces curds above 20°C and it can grow even up to 35°C.
• It will produce buttons at low temperature.
• Similarly, when temperature is high, i.e., more than for curding, plants remain in vegetative
stage without forming curds.
• That is why late cultivars go on producing vegetative growth when planted early in the season.
Soil
• Early varieties prefer light soils and mid season and late varieties prefer clay loam soils.
• The optimum pH is 6-7 and liming is required when pH is below 5.5
• Cauliflower is sensitive to deficiency of boron and molybednum deficiency will result in

disorders like browning and whiptail respectively.
Season
• Cauliflower is a thermo-sensitive crop.
• Varieties differ in temperature requirement for curd formation and development.
• Hence, their planting is to be adjusted accordingly.
• Early varieties can be sown during May-June and produce curds from August to middle of November in
plains of North India.
• Mid season varieties are sown during July and August for production of curds from middle of November
to middle of January in plains.
• Late varieties yield curds from middle of January to April by sowing seeds from middle of September to
end of October.
• In hills, late Snowball varieties are transplanted in September-October for curd production during March-
April.
Sowing and transplanting
• Seed rate for early mid and late varieties, it is 350-400 g/ha.
• Soil is prepared to a fine tilth.
• Farmyard manure and fertilizers are applied as basal dose at the time of final land preparation.
• Ridge planting will be more ideal during rainy season.
• Generally closer spacing is required for early and mid season varieties and wider spacing for late
varieties.
• Am spacing of 60x40 cm as most ideal for mid season varieties.
• For early varieties, distance within a row can be reduced further to 30 cm.
Fertilizers (kg/ha) Growth regulators

Seed rate/ha FYM (t/ha)
(/ha)
N P K Micron. Biof.
135 135
Variety 135
375 g 30 (SSP- (MOP – - - -
(hills) (U-297)
844) 216)
Plains 375 g 15 100 100 50 Borax + Azo 2 kg -
(U-220) (SSP- (MOP – Molybdenu PB 2 kg
625) 80) m 2 kg
Hybrid 250 g 25 200 125 125 Mn mixture Azo 3 kg -

NC 110kg (U-440) (SSP- (MOP – – 750 g PB 3 kg
CP 720kg 781) 200)
Irrigation
• Maintenance of proper soil moisture is necessary for harvesting good curds.

• Furrow irrigation is a more common method of irrigation in cauliflower.
• Drip irrigation under double row planting system saves water considerably without reduction in
yield.
Interculture
• In cauliflower cultivation, field should be kept weed-free for one month.

• Curd yield is found reduced by 36-39% when weed growth was not checked.
• Weeding is usually done by light hoeing.
• Weeding, side dressing of fertilizers and earthing up can be arranged simultaneously.
• A pre-planting spray of 2-2.5 litres of Basalin (Fluchlorolin) or 3.3 litres of Stomp (pendemethalin)
per hectare is effective for control of weeds up to 45 days.
Harvest
• Cauliflower is harvested with a sharp knife along with a few outer jacket leaves.
• Great care should be taken to harvest curds at maximum size but still compact.
• Delay in harvest for one or two days results in loosening and lead to ricey, fuzzy or leafy curds.
• Hence, it is better to harvest a little early.
CAULIFLOWER HARVEST
Yield
• Yield varies with varieties and temperature.

• At temperatures above 25°C, curds will be small, loose or yellow.
• At this temperature, maximum yield in early varieties is only 10 t/ha.
• Yield in same cultivar will increase to 12-15 t/ha at 20-22°C.
• In mid season varieties, yield may go up to 20 t/ha in cool season.
• In late snowball varieties, curds will be more uniform and compact and yield is up to 20-30 t/ha in
cool seasons.
• Snowball cauliflower can be stored for 7 days at 0-17°C and 85-95%RH.
Processing
• In India, cauliflower is mainly used as fresh vegetable for cooking.

• It is also dried or processed into mixed pickle.
• In glut season frozen cauliflower is also marketed by National Dairy Development Board.
• Considerable amount of cauliflower is frozen in USA.
• Canning is done only on limited scale in the country.
• For dehydration, buttons are separated and cut in to small pieces.
• These are bleached for 4-5 minutes in boiling water, steeped in 0.5% SO2 solution for one hour, then
drained and washed.
• These are then dried at 60°C for about 10-12 hours to 7% moisture in Snowball varieties and to 8-
10% in tropical cauliflower.
Physiological disorders of Cauliflower
1. Ricyness
 This disorder is characterized by premature initiation of floral buds on

curd giving a velvety appearance, which may be due to the higher or lower
temperature during curd development.
 The curd becomes granular and loose.
 It is caused due to warm weather conditions and use of poor-quality seed.
 Grow the crop when temperature is favourable. Use only good quality seed.
Sowing of crop at favorable weather condition.
 Selection of an appropriate resistant and tolerant variety and optimum

application of nitrogen fertilizer helps in minimizing this disorder.
2. Buttoning
 It refers to the production of small exposed curds of cauliflower heads.
 It commonly occurs in early cauliflower that are transplanted after being raised
in green houses or cold frames or when early cultivars are planted late.
 It may also occur due to condition restricting the growth such as frost, bud
damage, poor soil structures, temperature, shortage of N and high soil salinity.
 Right selection of variety, application of recommended dose of N,
transplanting 4-5 weeks old seedlings, healthy and vigorous seedlings having
5-6 true leaves are few remedial measures.
 Sowing at normal sowing time and maintaining adequate supply of nutrients
will reduce the disorder.

3. Fuzziness
 Fuzziness appears as velvety growth due to elongation of flower pedicles of curds.
 It may be hereditary or non-hereditary.
 Cultivation in abnormal times encourages fuzziness.
 Sowing at normal time minimizes fuzziness. It is due to higher temperature and poor-quality seed.
4. Blindness
The term is applied to cauliflower plants without terminal buds and with large, dark
green thick leathery foliage, which do not produce marketable curds.
During the early stage of plant growth, damage to growing point by insects (can be
avoided by spraying insecticides), low temperature or frost causes blindness.
5. Leafyness and bracting
A physiological disorder of cauliflower in which green bracts (small thin leaves) grow
out of the curd due to higher temperature than the optimum required for its
development.
Selection of proper varieties may help to reduce it.

6. Whip Tail
 It is characterized by the lack of leaf lamina and leaf consists of only bare mid rib which looks like whip
tail.
 It is caused due to deficiency of Molybdenum particularly in acidic soils having pH below 5.0.
 Applying 0.5-1.0 kg Sodium or ammonium molybdate/ha at the field preparation or spray the crop with
0.1-0.3 per cent ammonium molybdate along with 0.1 per cent Teepol as sticker will check the disorder.
 Add lime in the soil to raise the pH to 6.5.

7. Pinking
Curds show pink tinge due to exposure of curd to high light intensity.
It occurs due to anthocyanin formation.

8. Hollow stem
Hollowness is caused by boron deficiency and higher supply of nitrogen.
It can be controlled by spraying of borax @ 15-20 kg/ha.

9. Browning or brown rot
• This is caused by Boron deficiency.
• It appears as water soaked areas and later changes into rusty brown.
• Spray one kg of Borax in 500 lit of water 30 days after planting.

Production technology of Cabbage
Brassica oleracea var. capitata L. (2n=18)
 Cabbage is one of the most popular vegetables and occupies fourth position among vegetables in India as
well as the world.
 Original type was non-heading type and later heading types were evolved.
 Traditionally, crop was grown in southern, eastern and coastal areas of India.
 With development of heat tolerant varieties and F1 hybrids, it spread to other sub-tropical and non-
traditional areas for cultivation throughout the year except for one or two months having extreme high
and low temperatures.
 West Bengal, Orissa and Bihar are leading cabbage producing states.
 It is used as boiled vegetable, salad, cooked in curries and processed also.
 Cabbage is also used often for drying, pickling and canning.
 The processed product Sauerkraut prepared out of cabbage leaves is a delicacy and has curative effect
on scurvy disease.
 It is prepared by fermenting shredded leaves under pressure in its own juice and with added salt.
 Cabbage head is rich in vitamins-A (400 I.U./100g), B2 (27 I.U.), C (100 mg) and minerals.
Taxonomy and Botany
 Cultivated cabbage is a biennial crop.

 In vegetable production, it is treated as an annual.
 The edible part, head is formed by thickening of edible bud with tightly packed overlapping leaves.
 Cultivated types exhibit variation in size, shape and colour of leaves and texture of head.
 Nieuwhof (1969) reported three cultivated forms of cabbage
 Brassica oleracea var. capitata L. f. alba – White cabbage
 B. oleracea var. capitata L. f. rubra – Red cabbage
 Brassica oleracea L. f. sabauda –Savoy cabbage
 White cabbage is widely grown in India while red and savoy cabbages are not of much importance in
India.
Varieties
 Most of earlier cabbage varieties were European introductions.
 Varieties differ in colour, size and shape of head, duration of crop, ability to withstand low or high
temperature etc.
 White cabbage is widely grown in India and in this group three shapes viz. round, conical and flat exist,
of which round head is more common.
IARI Regional Station, Pusa Muktha Bacterial rot resistant variety derived from EC 24855 x EC
Katrain (Sel-4)* 10109. Compact and slightly flat-round head weighing 1.5-
2.0 kg with loose wrapper leaves at the top. Yield 20 t/ha.
Golden Acre Early maturing variety with 60-65 days duration from
transplanting. Plants small, with compact round heads.
Suitable for winter season in plains and summer season in
hills. Yield 20-24 t/ha.
Pusa Drum Head Late variety having field resistance to black leg. Heads large
(3-4 kg) and flat. Yield 30 t/ha in 80-90 days after
transplanting.
Pusa Agethi The first tropical variety suitable for high temperature
conditions.
 The open pollinated variety ‘September’ popular in Nilgiris hills is a German introduction.
 It has a large frame with bluish green foliage.
 Heads are compact, flat and large weighing 4-6 kg.
 It takes 110 days for maturation and yields 40 t/ha.
 Based on maturity of heads after transplanting, cabbage varieties are grouped into early season, mid
season and late season varieties.
 Early varieties mature in 55-70 days, late group takes 90-130 and varieties that mature in between fall
under mid season group.
 Most of the late cultivars are flat headed and they require long winter for a good crop.
F1 Hybrids
 In developed countries like Japan, Europe and USA more than 90% of area under cabbage is covered by
hybrids.
 F1 hybrids are preferred mainly due to uniformity of harvest, non-splitting traits and high productivity.
 A large number of hybrids were imported by private sector companies.

 Sri Ganesh Gol and Hari Rani of Indo American Hybrid Seeds, Bangalore
 Nav Kranthi of Mahyco Seeds, Jalna
 Konark of Century Seeds Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
 Bjrang, Sudha and Swarna of Beejo Shetal Seeds Ltd., Jalna
 Manisha of Clause International, Secunderabad
 NS 25 of Namdhari Seeds Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore
 Sumit of Sungro Seeds Ltd., New Delhi
 Quisto of Syngenta India Seeds Ltd, Pune
 Nath Laxmi 401 of Nath Seeds etc. are a few popular hybrids among them.
Climate
 Cabbage tolerates low temperature better than cauliflower and minimum temperature for growth is 0°C.
 Optimum temperature for growth and heading is 15-20°C.
 Above 25°C, growth is retarded and plants remain in vegetative stage.
 Cabbage seedlings can grow at high temperature, but cool season is required for heading.
 However, a few of heat tolerant hybrids like Green Boy and Green Express form compact head under
tropical conditions in day temperature of 30-35°C.
Soil
 Early crops perform better in light soils whereas late crops prefer heavy soils.
 On heavy soils, plants grow slowly and keeping quality is improved.
 Cabbage is slightly tolerant to salt.
 Optimum pH for growth is 6.0-6.5.

Season
• In plains, cabbage is grown as a winter crop from October to January.
• In higher hills, seeds are sown in May-June and transplanted during July for a summer autumn crop.
• In hilly areas which receive heavy rains, seeds are sown in autumn to harvest the crop in late spring or
early summer by over wintering them.
Field preparation and transplanting
• Field is ploughed 3-4 times to a fine tilth and divide land into beds or ridges of convenient size.
• A bed size of 3.0 x 3.0 m or 4.0 x 4.0 m is optimum for irrigation and drainage.
• But in areas of heavy rainfall, ridges and furrows are preferred.
• Well hardened 4-6 weeks old seedlings are ideal for transplanting.
• Early cultivars are transplanted at 45 x 45 cm spacing.
• For getting smaller heads in round and early types, a spacing of 30-45 x 30 cm is followed by many
farmers.
Seed Fertilizers (kg/ha)

rate/ha
FYM (t/ha)
N P K Micron. Biof.
Variety 375g 30 135 135 135 Borax+ - Chlorpyriphos -
(hills) (U-297) (SSP- (MOP- Molybden 500 ml
844) 216) um 2kg Dimethoate-
50 ml
Mancozeb-500g
Plains 375g 20 100 125 25 - Azo 2 kg -do-
(U-220) (SSP- (MOP- PB 2kg
781) 40)
Hybrid 250g 25 200 125 150 Mn Azo 2 kg -do-
(U-440) (SSP- (MOP- mixture - PB 2kg
781) 240) 10 kg
Irrigation
 Depending on climate, irrigate once in every two weeks.

 Irrigate frequently during head formation.
 Heavy irrigation after a dry spell leads to quite firm heads and may burst or split open within 24 hours.
Interculture
 In cabbage, most of feeding roots are concentrated in top 5 cm layer.
 Hence, deep inter-cultural operations are to be avoided.
 Shallow inter-cultural operations by way of 2-3 light hoeing are aimed to check weed growth.
 Only one head is produced in a plant and the head is harvested along with some wrapper leaves when it
becomes firm but tender.
 Delay in harvest may cause bursting and bolting.
 Harvesting is done by use of a sharp knife or tilting by holding head in one hand.
 Yield varies with varieties.
 Average yield of cabbage in growers field is 20 t/ha.

Physiological disorders of Cabbage
1. Tip burn
It is characterized by tan or light brown tissues, which may
later appear dark brown or even black.
High nitrogen and relative humidity are associated causes.
Calcium imbalance - calcium deficiency.
Incidence of tip burn can be reduced by the use of resistant

or tolerant varieties.
2. Black petiole
 As head approaches maturity, the dorsal side of the internal leaf, petiole or midribs turn dark grey or
black at or near the point where petiole attaches to the core.
 This is complex physiological disorder in which environment plays an important role in symptom
expression.
3. Black speck
 Black speck is characterized by dark spots occurring on outer leaves or sometimes

throughout the head, cause is unknown, high rates of fertilizers, cultural conditions,
promoting vigorous growth and temperatures fluctuations are probable causes.
 High rates of potassium in soils reduce the severity of the disorder.

LECTURE 9
Production Technology of Carrot, Radish
and Beetroot
Carrot
Daucus carota L; Umbelliferae
Introduction
 Carrot is an important cool season root crop.
 This carotene rich crop is cultivated almost all over the world.
 The crop is grown in temperate countries during spring, summer and

autumn and in tropical and sub-tropical countries during the winter season.
 This root vegetable is rich in minerals such as iron, vitamins like Thiamine,
Riboflavin, Niacin, Ascorbic acid and Vitamin A (6.46 mg/ 100mg)
Varieties
Hills Plains
• Ooty-1 • India Gold
• Early Nantes • Pusa Kesar
• New Korda • Half Long Danvers

Yellowstone Lange rote
OOTY 1 Carrot
Climate and soil
 Being a cool season vegetable, it suffers in high temperature. Carrot grown at 15°C to 20°C will
develop a good color.
 The optimum temperature for the crop is 15°C. Germination is good at a temperature range of
7.2°C to 23.0°C. It grows well under a wide range of rainfall.
 The carrot crop needs deep loose loamy soil.
 It requires a pH ranging from 6.0 to 7.0 for higher production.

Season
 Hills: At elevation above 1500 metres, Carrot can be grown throughout the year
under assured irrigation. At elevations between 1000 – 1500 metres. Carrot can
be grown in July – February.
 Plains: August.
 Seed rate: 4 kg/ha.
 Mark the rows with a spacing of 25 – 30 cm apart. Sow the seeds mixed with
sand (one part of seed with 4 parts of sand).
 Hills: Prepare the land to a fine tilth and form raised beds of one metre breadth
and convenient length.
 Plains: Two ploughings are given and ridges and furrows are formed at 30 cm
spacing.
 Irrigation: Once in five days.
 Application of fertilizers: 30 t FYM and 90:90:90 kg of NPK per

ha as basal dose and 45:45:45 kg NPK after 45 days. Apply 25
kg of ZnSO4/ha as basal.
 Thinning is an important practice done in carrot to improve the root quality. The
early crop is thinned to 5 cm between two roots whereas, main crop is thinned
to 10 - 15 cm apart.
 Weeding : In India, both manual and chemical weeding's are practiced.

Herbicides like Diuron and Monuron @ 1 kg per hectare applied 40 days after
sowing effectively control the weeds.
After cultivation
 Spray Fluchloralin 1 lit a.i./ha immediately after sowing the

seeds to control weeds or first weeding to be done on 15th day.
 Thinning and earthing up should be given on 30th day.

Harvest and yield
 Harvesting should be done at correct maturity stage viz., 70 - 85 days after sowing.
 Light irrigation should be given just before harvest and the roots are pulled out from
the soil without any damage.
 Yield varies depending upon the varieties and season. Normally it ranges between 20
and 25 t/ha.
Physiological disorder
1. Root splitting:
• Genetical factors.
• Application of heavy doses of nitrogen.
• Sudden increase in soil moisture after prolonged drought.
• Greater moisture fluctuation.
• Wider spacing.
Remedy:
• Application of nitrogenous fertilizers should be optimized.
• Proper spacing should be maintained.
• Regular watering
Root Splitting in Carrot
2. Forking
• Secondary elongating growth in the roots that gives a
look of fork like structure to the root.
• Due to excess moisture and soil compactness
• Keeping the soil moisture at optimum condition will help

to keep the soil also loose thereby help to avoid splits
and forked roots.
• Sowing carrot in sandy loam or light soil having soils of

loose and friable in nature.
3. Cavity spot
 Symptoms: cavity in the cortex due to deficiency of Ca,

accumulation of K.
 Remedy: Follow proper management practices like right spacing

and optimum amount of N application.
4. Bitterness
Storage disorder - deleterious effect of ethylene
It increases the total phenol content of roots and induces the formation of
new compounds
Includes isocoumarin and eugenin - bitter flavour in carrots.

Radish
Raphanus sativus L;
Brassicaceae
Introduction
 Radish is a root crop suitable for growing both in tropical and temperate regions. Leaves
and roots are used as salad and also as cooked vegetable.
 It is rich in Vitamin C (15 - 50 mg/100g) and supplies more minerals. Radish also has
medicinal value in curing piles, liver trouble, enlarge spleen and jaundice.
 Pink color of roots is due to anthocyanin.
 It is an ideal crop to grow as inter crop and catch crop.

Varieties
Hills Plains
• Nilgiris Red • CO 1
• Japanese Long • Pusa Rashmi

• Pusa Chetki
• Pusa Desi
• Japanese White
• Arka Nishant
Climate and soil
 Radish requires a cool and moderate climate.
 The ideal temperature is between 10°C and 15°C. During hot weather the roots become tough
and pungent before reaching the edible size.
 Sandy loam soils with high organic matter.
 The optimum soil pH is 5.5 to 6.8.
 Roots of best size, flavor and texture are developed at about 15°C.
 Season of sowing: June –July in hills and from September in plains.
 Preparation of field: The land should be prepared to fine tilth and levelled.
• Spacing: 15 x 10 cm.
• Irrigation : Once in a week.

 Plains: Apply FYM at 25 t/ha and 25 kg N, 100 kg P and 50 kg K/ha as basal

dressing and 25 kg N/ha after 30 days.
 After cultivation: Weeding and hoeing. At the second weeding, thinning of

thickly sown plants should be done.
 Thinning is to be done for proper plant spacing and for better root
development. Weeds will be effectively controlled when the soil is given
shallow hoeing.
Harvest and yield
 Light irrigation should be given just before pulling out the roots. The tender roots
are pulled out with tops.
 The washed roots are packed and then transported to the market.
 The temperate types yield about 7-9 tIha and the tropical types 20 to 35 t/ha
1. Forking
 Splitting of roots is called forking - common problem in

radish.
 Forking is caused due to hard soil pan, delayed

harvesting and water stress followed by excessive
water application.
 Avoiding these conditions will help minimize forking in

radish.
2. Brown heart
 It is a commonly occurring disorder in radish

caused by boron deficiency.
 Dark spots that first appear on roots characterize it.
 The plants remain stunted due to retarded growth

rate.
 Roots remain small showing distorted and grayish

appearance.
Control
 Brown heart can be controlled by soil application of

borax @ 15-20 kg per hectare or foliar application
of 0.1% boron.
Plant protection
Pests
White rust- Albugo candida
• Aphids
• Flea beetles
• Mustard saw fly
Diseases
• White rust
Beet root
(Syn: Garden beet) (Beta vulgaris L.) (2n = 2x = 18)
 (Hindi : Chukandar) Family : Chenopodiaceae
 Beet root is a popular root crop grown for its fleshy roots which are used as
cooked vegetable, salad and for pickling and canning.
 Young plants along with tender leaves are also used as pot herbs.
 It is very popular in USA. Beet root is a rich source of protein (1.7 g/100 g/100
g), carbohydrates (88 mg), calcium (200 mg), phosphorus (55 mg) and vitamin-
C (88 mg). Leaves are rich in iron (3.1 mg), vitamin-A (2100 I.U.), thiamine
(110 μ g) and ascorbic acid (50 mg/ 100 g).
 Origin : Beet root originated from Beta vulgaris L. ssp. Maritime by hybridization with B.
patula. Crop has its origin probably in Europe. Earlier types were with long roots like that
of carrot. Beet root, sugar beet and palak belong to species B. vulgaris and are cross
compatible.
 Botany : Beet root is a biennial, producing a fleshy elongated hypocotyls and a rosette of
leaves in first year and flowers in second year.
 Root skin colour varies from orange red to dark purple red. Colour of beet root is due to
presence of red violet pigments of β-cyanins and a yellow pigment, β-xanthin.
Varieties
 Detroit Dark Red : Roots perfectly round with smooth uniform deep red skin; flesh dark blood red with light red
zoning; heavy yielder with a duration of 80-100 days.
 Crimson Globe : It produces round to flat round roots. Outer skin is medium red and flesh is crimson red without
zonations; duration 55-60 days.
 Early Wonder : Roots flat globular with dark red skin and dark red flesh and light red zoning.
 Ooty-1 : This TNAU variety has round roots with blood red flesh colour; yields 28 t/ha in 120 days; it sets seeds
under Nilgiris conditions.
 Crosby Egyptian : Roots flat globe with dark purplish red flesh; duration 55-60 days; produces white zoning under
warm weather.
 Madhur, Ruby Queen and Ruby Red are a few of the varieties marketed by private seed industry.
Climate
 Beet root is hardy to low temperature and prefers cool climate.
 Though it grows in warm weather, development of color, texture, sugar content

etc. of roots is the best under cool weather.
 High temperature causes zoning – appearance of alternate light and dark red
concentric rings in the root. Extreme low temperature of 4.5-10.0oC for 15 days
will results in bolting.
 It requires abundant sunshine for development of storage roots.

Soil
 Deep well drained loam or sandy loams is the best for beet root cultivation.
 Heavy clayey soils result in poor germination and stand of crop due to formation of a soil
crust after rains or irrigation.
 Roots may be mis-shaped and will not develop properly in heavy soils.
 Beet root is highly sensitive to soil acidity and the ideal pH is 6-7.
 Beet root is one of a few vegetables which can be successfully grown in saline soils.
 Being a cool season crop, beet root is raised during winter in plains and as a spring-
summer crop in hills by March-April. In plains, sowing is practiced during September-
November.
 Land is ploughed to a fine tilth by thorough ploughing making it loose and friable. Clods
are to be removed completely. Apply well decomposed farmyard manure at the time of
final ploughing. Flat beds or ridges and furrows are prepared. Water-soaked ‘seed
balls’ which contain 2-6 seeds are drilled 2.5 cm deep in rows at a spacing of 45-60 x 8-
10 cm.
 5-6 kg of seeds is required for one hectare.

 On sandy soils, organic manure @ 25 t/ha is recommended.
 For an average soil, 60-70 kg N, 100-120 kg P and 60-70 kg K/ha is recommended.
 Entire farmyard manure, half of N and full P and K should be applied basal at the time
of land preparation prior to sowing and remaining at 30-45 days after sowing.
 Nitrate sources of N are preferred to ammonium sources.
 Beets have a relatively high boron requirement and its deficiency causes internal
breakdown as black rot or dry rot.
Aftercare
 Thinning is an essential operation when more than one seedling germinate from each
seed. Moist soil is essential for seed germination and for further growth.
 Usually 5-6 irrigations are usually given during summer and three irrigations during
winter in North Indian plains.
 Field is usually kept weed-free by light hoeing at early stage of crop. Swollen roots are
also to be covered with soil by earthing up.
Harvesting
 Medium sized tubers are of great demand and tubers are harvested after
attaining a diameter of 3-5 cm.
 Harvesting is done 8-10 weeks after sowing by pulling the top with hand. Later
tops are removed, graded and marketed.
 In European countries, where small sized bunches are in demand, tubers are tied
in bundles of 4-6 with their tops.
 Over-matured and oversized tubers become woody and crack.
 Yield varies from 25 to 30t/ha and the tuber stores well at 0oC and 90% RH.
1. Internal black spot or brown heart
Due to Boron deficiency, plants usually remain dwarf

or stunted having a rough, unhealthy, grayish
appearance.
Their surface often is wrinkled and cracked.
Within the fleshy roots hard or corky spots on the

roots.
10-15 kg of borax per hectare

2. Zoning
Excessive hot weather causes ‘zoning’ – the appearance of alternating

light & dark red concentric circles.
POTATO
BOTANICAL NAME Solanum tuberosum L.

FAMILY Solanaceae
CHROMOSOME No. 2n=48
COMMON NAME Alu, Aloo
ORIGIN AND HISTORY

 The probable centre of origin of potato is in South America in the central Andean
region.
 The first mention of potato in India occurs in Terry’s account of a banquet at
Ajmer given by Asaph Khan to Sir Thomas Ro in 1615.
 Cultivation of potato begun first in the Nilgiri hills in the 1822.
USES
 Potato has proved its worth in feeding the nation in emergency.
 It is an important source of starch.
 It is a rich source of body building substances such as vitamins (B1, B2, B6 and C),
minerals (Ca, P and Fe) and protein.
 It contains all the dietary substances except fat. It is used as staple diet in many
of the countries especially in the west.
 Raw potato should not be consumed as they result in cramps in stomach.
AREA AND PRODUCTION
 The area under this crop in India was 1863 thousand ha having a production
42339 thousand tonnes with a productivity of 22.7 MT/ha (NHB, 2011).
NUTRITIVE VALUE (per 100g of edible portion)
Energy (kcal) 97 Vitamin-B6 (mg) 0.26
Carbohydrate (g) 22.6 Vitamin-C (mg) 17
Starch (g) 15 Calcium (mg) 10
Fibre (g) 2.2 Iron (mg) 0.7
Fat (g) 0.1 Magnesium (mg) 3.8
Protein (g) 1.6 Phosphorus (mg) 40
Thiamine (mg) 0.10 Sodium (mg) 6
Riboflavin (mg) 0.01 Potassium (mg) 421
VARIETIES
Cultivars recommended in different parts of India:
Early Varieties (ready in 70-80 days):
Kufri Ashoka, Kufri Chandermukhi, Kufri Jawahar, Kufri Lauvkar
Main season varieties (ready in 90-95 days):
Kufri Jyoti, Kufri Sutlej, K. Pukhraj, K. Megha, K. Badshah, Kufri Anand, Kufri
Bahar, K. Sadabahar, K. Deva, K. Sherpa, K. Swarna,
Red coloured: Kufri Sindhuri, Kufri Lalima
Late Varieties
K. Jeevan, K. Neelamani, K. Khasigaro, K. Naveen
For Processing:
Kufri Chipsona 1, Kufri Chipsona 2, Kufri Chipsona 3, Kufri Himsona.
Descriptions of the important commercial varieties of potatoes are given here
under:
Kufri Alankar:
 A very early (75 days) photo insensitive variety capable of giving high yields,
suitable for cultivation in the plains of northern India.
 This variety, by virtue of its earliness, can be included in the multiple cropping
patterns which are coming into vogue with the introduction of the short-duration
dwarf, high-yielding varieties of rice and wheat.
Kufri Badshah:
 Medium maturing with large size and round oval shape.
 Other tuber characters are: skin white, eyes flat, flesh dull white, tubers develop
light purple colour on exposure to light.
 It is resistant to late blight. It is suitable for cultivation in Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.
Kufri Bahar:
 Tuber characters of this variety are: size large and shape round to oval, skin
white, eyes medium deep and flesh white.
 It is medium maturing and susceptible to all major diseases.
 It is suitable for cultivation in northern plains of India.
Kufri Chandramukhi:
 Early maturing (matures 10 days earlier than Up to Date) with attractive oval
white tubers. It degenerates slowly and keeps well in storage.
 It gives high yields (higher than Up to Date), cooks easily and does not
degenerate rapidly in the plains.
Kufri Chamatkar:
 An early bulking variety (110-120 days) with uniform sized, shining and smooth
tubers suitable for cultivation in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh.
Kufri Deva:
 It is recommended for growing in the Tarai area of western Uttar Pradesh.
 The tubers are oval round with white yellow flesh and takes about 130 days for
harvest in the plains and 150-160 days in the hills.
Kufri Jeewan:
 A late maturing high yielding variety, possessing high degree of field resistance
to late blight, resistance to the wart and Cercospora leaf spot disease.
 It is recommended for cultivation in Himachal Pradesh.
Kufri Jyoti:
 Tubers of this variety are large oval, flattened, white skinned, eyes flat and flesh
dull white.
 A widely adaptable and fertilizers responsive variety, possessing a high degree
of field resistance to late blight disease in the foliage and also a good degree of
tuber resistance to the same disease.
 This variety is also resistant to the wart and moderately resistant to Cercospora
leaf spot.
 It is recommended for Himachal Pradesh and Kumaun hills of Uttarakhand.
Kufri Kumar:
 A late maturing (41/2 to 51/2 months) variety, with large, white, and oblong
tubers.
 It is a good yielder both in the hills and in the plains and possesses a high degree
of field resistance to late blight.
 It has, therefore, been recommended for the hills, particularly where late blight is
a problem.
Kufri Kuber:
 It is a variety evolved at the Potato Breeding Station, Shimla in 1943 (Now
CPRI).
 It is an early variety, particularly suited for the plains.
 It is extremely quick growing in habit and covers the ground very rapidly.
 As an early crop in the plains, it can be harvested in about 21/2 months after
planting. Its tubers are of uniform medium size.
Kufri Kundan:
 It is a hybrid derived from a cross between Ekishirazy and Katahdin and is
released by the Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla.
 It is particularly promising in the hills where it yields assured crops, especially in
years of late blight epidemics, as it shows considerable degree of field resistance
to blight. Its tubers are white attractive and of a good size.
 This variety is preferred for cultivation in clay soils.
 It is moderately resistant to late blight but susceptible to other disease including
virus diseases.
Kufri Kisan:
 This is a late maturing variety which gives heavy yields in the plains.
 It is particularly suitable for Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi and the
Punjab.
 The tubers are medium in size, with a smooth surface, deep eyes, white skin and
round shape. It has a very good keeping quality.
Kufri Khasi-Garo:
 An early maturing variety possessing a good degree of field resistance to late
blight and moderate resistance to early blight and viruses.
 It is fit for growing in the regions of Assam.
Kufri Lalima:
 Tuber is medium in size, shape round, skin red, eyes medium deep and white
flesh.
 It is medium maturing and moderate resistant to early bright.
 It is suitable for cultivation in entire area of north Indian plains and is gradually
replacing ‘Kufri Sindhuri’.
Kufri Lavkar :
 It is an early maturing variety (matures in 70 days in plateau and 100 days in the
plains) with round white and light creamy firm flesh tubers.
 It is most suitable for growing in the Deccan plateau of Maharashtra.
Kufri Moti :
 It is suitable for growing in the Nilgiri hills where late blight poses problem for
potato multiplication.
 The tubers are oval white and round, take 110-120 days to mature.
 It is field immune to race 1 of late blight.
 Resistance to wart and moderate resistance to Cercospora leaf spot and early
blight.
 It yields about 130 quintals per hectare.
Kufri Naveen:
 A fertilizers responsive variety for the Khasi Hill region of Assam; possess a high
degree of field resistance to late blight, resistance to wart and moderate
resistance to Cerospora leaf spot and early blight.
Kufri Neela:
 A late maturing (41/2 to 51/2 months) verity with round white tubers.
 It is a substitute for ‘Great Scot’ and has several virtues.
 The greatest value of this variety is that it is resistant to late blight, which in
recent years, has limited potato culture in the Nilgiri hills.
Kufri Neelmani :
 Suited for the Nilgiri hills in the South.
 It has given 100 per cent more yield than the variety ‘Great Scot’, which has long
been popular in the Nilgiri area.
 The new variety can be grown in all the three potato crop season in that area.
Kufri Red:
 It is the selection from Darjeeling Red Round isolated and developed by the
Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla.
 It is superior in yield and quality of tubers to Darjeeling Red Round.
 It has substituted Darjeeling Red Round on a large scale in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar
and Punjab.
Kufri Safed :
 A new improved disease free clone of Phulwa and Kufri Safed has been
developed by the Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla.
 The clone resembles Phulwa in most of its morphological features except that the
leaves are slightly bigger.
 This variety yields on an average 25 per cent more than Phulwa.
Kufri Sindhuri :
 Medium maturing (31/2 to 41/2 months) with round, light red and medium sized
tubers.
 It is suitable for cultivation as a main crop variety in the plains, as replacements
to Kufri Red and other late varieties.
Kufri Sheetman :
 A frost resistant variety suitable especially for the Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana,
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal.
 It can be planted late in the northern plains owing to its high degree of resistance
to frost.
Up-to-Date:
 It is an early high yielding variety, having big sized tubers of oval shape and
white colour.
 It has a white flesh which cooks readily and breaks if cooked for longer time than
necessary.
 It is a very popular variety in the Shimla hills, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.
Kufri Muthu:
 Developed by Central Potato Research Institute in 1971 through conventional
hybridization.
 A medium maturing variety producing tall, erect, compact, vigorous plants with
white flowers. The tubers are white, round-oval, large with medium deep eyes.
 The variety is moderately resistant to late blight and has been replaced by Kufri
Jyoti. Suitable for cultivation in South Indian hills.
Kufri Sherpa:
 Developed by CPRI in 1983 through conventional hybridization.
 A medium maturing variety producing tall, erect, medium compact, vigorous
plants with light red-purple flowers.
 The tubers are white, round flattened, medium with medium deep eyes.
 The variety is moderately resistant to early, immune to wart and was resistant to
late blight but is not under cultivation at present.
 Suitable for cultivation in North Bengal hills and Sikkim
Kufri Swarna:
 A medium maturing (130-135 days in summer and 100-110 days in autumn)
variety producing tall, erect, compact and vigorous plants with white flowers.
 The tubers are medium-large, white, round-oval with fleet eyes and unlike Kufri
Jyoti do not show cracking.
 The variety is moderately resistant to late blight and cyst nematodes and heavy
yielder (average yields 25-30 t/ha).
 Suitable for cultivation in South Indian hills.
Kufri Megha:
hybridization.
 A late maturing variety producing tall, erect, medium compact, vigorous plants
with white flowers.
 The tubers are white, round-oval, medium with flat eyes.
 The variety is highly resistant to late blight and yields on an average 22-28 t/ha.
 Suitable for cultivation in North-eastern hills.
Kufri Jawahar:
hybridization.
 A medium-early maturing (80-90 days) variety producing short, erect, compact
and vigorous plants with white flowers.
 The tubers are medium, white, round-oval with fleet eyes.
 The variety is moderately resistant to late blight and suitable for mechanized
cultivation and gives average yields of 35-40 t/ha.
 Suitable for cultivation in North Indian plains and plateau region.
Kufri Sutlej:
hybridization.
 A medium maturing (90-110 days) variety producing medium tall, erect, medium
compact and vigorous plants with white flowers.
 Tubers are attractive, large, white, oval with fleet eyes.
 The variety is moderately resistant to late blight having average yields of 35-40
t/ha.
 Suitable for cultivation in North Indian plains.
Kufri Ashoka:
hybridization.
 An early maturing (60-80 days) variety producing medium tall, erect, medium
compact and vigorous plants with light red-purple flowers.
 Tubers are medium-large, white, oval-long with medium-deep eyes.
 The variety is susceptible to major potato diseases and yields on an average 28-
35 t/ha. Suitable for cultivation in North Indian plains.
Kufri Pukhraj:
hybridization.
 An early maturing (70-90 days) variety producing tall, semi-erect, medium
compact and vigorous plants with white flowers.
 Tubers are large, white, oval, slightly tapered with fleet eyes and develop faint
purple colour on exposure to sun.
 The variety is resistant to early blight and moderately resistant to late blight and
on an average yields of 40-50 t/ha.
 Suitable for cultivation in North Indian plains and plateau region.
Kufri Giriraj:
hybridization.
 A medium maturing (130-135 days) variety producing medium tall, semi-erect,
medium compact and vigorous plants with light-purple flowers.
 Tubers are medium to large, white, oval, with fleet eyes.
 The variety is field resistant to late blight with average yields of 25-30 t/ha.
Suitable for cultivation in North Indian hills.
Kufri Anand:
hybridization.
 A medium maturing (100-110 days) variety producing tall, erect, open and
vigorous plants with light purple flowers.
 Tubers are large, oval-oblong, white skinned with fleet eyes.
 The variety is resistant to late blight and gives average yields of 40-45 t/ha.
Kufri Kanchan:
hybridization.
 A medium maturing (110-135 in summers and 90-100 days in winter) variety
producing medium tall, semi-erect, medium compact, vigorous plants with red
purple flowers.
 Tubers are medium-large, oval-oblong and red with fleet eyes.
 The variety is field resistant to late blight, resistant to wart and slow rate of
degeneration.
 It on an average yields 25-28 t/ha. Suitable for cultivation in North Bengal hills.
Kufri Arun:
hybridization.
 A medium maturing (90-100 days) variety producing tall, erect, vigorous,
medium-compact plants with light red-purple flowers.
 The tubers are medium, oval, red, medium deep eyes with creamy flesh.
 The variety is field resistant to late blight and on an average yields 25-30 t/ha.
Kufri Pushkar:
hybridization.
 A medium maturing (90-100 days) variety producing medium-tall, erect, vigorous,
compact plants with white flowers.
 The tubers are medium, round-oval, white, flat to medium deep eyes with light
yellow flesh.
 The variety is resistant to late blight and early blight and on an average yields 35-
38 t/ha.
 Suitable for cultivation in Indo-Gangetic plains and plateau region.
Kufri Shailja:
hybridization.
 A medium maturing (110-120 days) variety producing medium-tall, semi-erect,
vigorous, semi-compact plants with light red-purple flowers.
 The tubers are medium, round-oval, white, smooth, shallow eyes with pale yellow
flesh.
 The variety possesses field resistance to late blight both in foliage and tubers.
The variety on an average yields 25-28 t/ha.
 Suitable for cultivation in North Indian hills.
Kufri Chipsona-1:
 A medium maturing (100-110 days) variety producing medium to tall, semi-erect,
compact, vigorous plants with white flowers.
 The tubers are medium to large, oval, white with fleet eyes.
 The variety possesses resistance to late blight and is suitable both for
preparation of chips and French fries and on an average yields 35-38 t/ha.
Kufri Chipsona-2:
 A medium maturing (100-110 days) variety producing medium tall, erect, open,
plants with white flowers.
 The variety possesses resistance to late blight and tolerance to frost, suitable for
preparation of chips and on an average yields 32-35 t/ha.
Kufri Chipsona-3:
 A medium maturing (100-110 days) variety producing tall, erect, vigorous, semi-
compact plants with white flowers.
 The variety possesses field resistance to late blight, moderate field resistance to
phoma, early blight, mosaic, severe mosaic and leaf roll.
 The tubers have high dry matter, negligible glycoalkaloid content and
comparatively good protein content, suitable for preparation of chips and on an
average yields 32-35 t/ha.
Kufri Surya:
hybridization.
 An early maturing (75-90 days) variety producing medium tall, erect, semi-
compact, vigorous plants having light red purple flowers with shy flowering.
 The tubers are medium to large, oblong, white, smooth, shallow eyes with pale
yellow flesh.
 This is a heat tolerant variety that can be grown in areas having night
temperature above 20ºC and is field resistant to hopper burn.
 This variety also possesses some resistance to mite damage and late blight.
 The variety on an average yields 35-40 t/ha.
 Suitable for cultivation in North Indian plains and Peninsular India.
Kufri Himalini:
hybridization.
vigorous, semi-compact plants with light purple flowers.
 The tubers are medium, oval-oblong, white, smooth, shallow eyes with pale
yellow flesh.
 The variety possesses field resistance to late blight in foliage and moderate
resistance in tubers.
 The variety on an average yields 27-30 t/ha. Suitable for cultivation in North
western and north eastern hills.
Kufri Himsona:
hybridization.
 A medium maturing (120-140 days) variety producing open, medium, thin stems
with flowers primarily purple/ intense purple with white tip on both sides.
 The tubers are medium, round-oval, white, smooth, shallow eyes with cream pale
yellow flesh.
 It is the 1st high dry matter, low reducing sugar and late blight resistant potato
variety for HP hills.
 The variety on an average yields 20-25 t/ha. Suitable for cultivation in North
Indian hills.
Kufri Sadabahar:
hybridization.
 Medium maturing variety released as an apt replacement of K Bahar in UP and
adjoining areas.
 The tubers are large, attractive, oblong, white with shallow eyes and flesh white.
 The variety possesses resistance to late blight, good keeping quality and dry
matter (20%).
 The variety on an average yields 35-45 t/ha. Suitable for cultivation in Uttar
Pradesh and adjoining areas.
Kufri Girdhari:
hybridization.
vigorous, semi-compact plants with white flowers.
 The tubers are medium, oval-oblong, white, smooth, shallow eyes with pale
yellow flesh.
 The variety possesses high level of field resistance to late blight in foliage and
tubers.
 The variety on an average yields 27-30 t/ha. Suitable for cultivation in hills.
Kufri Khyati:
hybridization.
 An early maturing variety with moderate resistance to late blight.
 The variety yields higher than exiting early cultivars both at 60 and 75 days after
planting.
 Suitable for cultivation in Indian plains.
TPS Population 92-PT- 27:
 Developed by Central Potato Research Institute in 2007. True potato seeds
(botanical seeds) are produced through conventional hybridization.
 Uniform and high yielding TPS population with resistance to late blight.
 Both parents flower under short days in the plains.
 Suitable for cultivation in eastern region.
CLIMATE REQUIREMENTS
 Potato is a cool season crop.
 It grows well from sea level to snow line, where sufficient moisture and fertile soil
are available.
 It is grown in winter in plains of India.
 However, in northern hills, it is grown as summer season crop.
 Potato is a long day plant but cultivated as short day plant.
 It required favourable environmental conditions such as low temperature and
short day conditions at the time of tuberization.
 It is a cool season crop and can tolerate moderate frost.
 It requires 20oC soil temperature for better germination.
 Young plant growth is good at 24oC but later growth is favoured by a temperature
of 18oC.
 No tuberization when the night temperature is more than 23oC.
 Maximum tuberization is encountered at 20oC.
 Tuber formation stops completely at about 29-30oC.
 Planting is done in the hills when the maximum temperatures are about 20-22oC
and minimum temperature are about 12-15oC
SOIL
Potato can be produced on a wide range of soils, ranging from sandy loam, silt
loam and clay soil.
 Soil for potato should be friable, well aerated, fairly well supplied with organic
matter.
 Well drained sandy loam and medium loam soils are most suitable for potato
cultivation.
 Light soil is preferred.
 Alkaline or saline soil is not suitable for potato cultivation. (pH 5.0-6.5)
PLANTING TIME
Region Season Planting Time Harvesting Time

North western hills
Very high hills Summer April-May Sept-Oct
High hills Summer Mid-March-April Sept-Oct
Mid hills Spring Jan-Feb May-June
North central high Summer Mid Feb-March August-Sept.
hills
North eastern high Spring Mid Dec-Mid Jan July-August
hills
Summer March-April July-August
Shillong hills Autumn March-April Dec-Jan
Winter Jan-Feb May-June
North western plains Early Mid-Sept Mid Nov-Dec
(Jammu, Punjab, Autumn Mid-Oct Feb-March
Western U.P., Spring Jan April
Haryana, Rajasthan,
Plains of M.P)
North Central Plains Winter Mid-Oct Feb-March
North Eastern plains
Bihar Winter Oct end to 2nd Jan-Feb
week of Nov.
W.B. Winter Early Nov Jan-Feb
Orissa Winter Early Nov Jan-Feb
Plateu regions Kharif June-July Sept-Oct
Rabi Oct-Nov Feb-March
SEED RATE
 25-35 q/ha
 Potato is traditionally propagated through tubers.
 The eyes on the tuber surface contain axillary buds and the tubers have a
dormancy of nearly 8-10 weeks.
 The axillary buds start germinating when the dormancy is over and produces
sprouts.
 Such sprouted tubers put up fast and vigorous growth when planted in the soil.
 Pre-sprouting of seed stocks, therefore, helps in increasing the number of main
stems and consequently the yield by ensuring quick, uniform and full
germination.
METHODS OF SOWING AND SPACING
Ridge and Furrow Method
 Ridge and furrow method is the most popular method carried out manually or
mechanically
 In this method, the ridges are prepared.
 The lengths of the ridges depend on slope of the plot.
 Too long ridges and furrows are not supplied with irrigation water conveniently.
 The potato tubers are planted on ridges and irrigation water is let into the
furrows.
 In hills, after placement of fertilizer in shallow furrows drawn with hand tools,
tubers are placed and covered with soil to make ridges. Care should be taken
that seed tubers should not come in direct contact of fertilizers.
 In mechanical method, furrows are made with the help of tractor drawn 2-4 row
marker co fertilizer drills so as to apply fertilizer in one sequence. This is followed
by planting of tubers with the help of 2-row planter cum ridger.
Flat Bed Method
 In these methods, the whole plot is divided into beds of convenient length and
width.
 The shallow furrows are opened and potato tubers are planted at recommended
distance.
 The tubers are covered with the original soil of furrows.
 When the germination is completed and plants become 10 to 12 cm height,
earthling should be done.
 Suitable plant spacing in relating to potato seed grades are given in the below:
Diameter of tuber Planting distance

from longer axis (row x plant)
2.5-3.5cm 50 x 20 or 60 x 15
cm
3.5-5.0 cm 60 x 25 cm
5.0-6.0 cm 60 x 40 cm
Seed Size and Spacing

 Proper combination of seed size and spacing is essential to get the required
number of stems per unit area.
 It can be obtained by planting 40-50 g tuber with 40-50mm diameter at a spacing
of 45-60cm between rows and 20-25cm between the tubers with in rows.
 Tubers are sold on weight basis; therefore, planting of large tubers is more
expensive.
 These tubers are cut into pieces, each containing at least 1-2 eyes.
 Tuber cutting is not recommended specially when producing a seed crop
because of danger of transmitting viruses and bacteria.
 Hence, special care is taken to avoid tuber decay when such cut tubers are used
for plantation.
DORMANCY
 Hill tubers can not be used for autumn crop immediately because of dormancy
period which remains for 2-3 months in tubers.
 Similarly, potato minitubers can not be planted immediately after harvest and
during unknown period after that,
 Duration of dormancy in potato minitubers depends on cultivar, ripening time,
growth condition, maintenance condition in store and the tuber size.
 Minitubers’ dormancy period is longer than normal seed tubers.
 In these conditions, it is essential to break down the dormancy period.
 Thiourea solution (Sodium Potassium thiocynate) @ 1-2% which is used as a
treatment to cut tubers for 1-1/2 hours and about 1 kg of thiourea is sufficient for
10 quintals of seed tuber or
 Tubers are kept in 5ppm solution of GA3 for 10 seconds. or
 Treat the tuber with acquous solution of thiourea for one hour followed by dipping
in 2 ppm solution of GA for 10 seconds. Or
 Ethylene chlorohydrine used as a gas treatment. Six parts of water and 4 parts of
chemical is mixed and the tubers are kept in this solution for 5 days in an air tight
chamber and temperature should be kept at 70-80oF.
 The tubers from cold storage are warmed up at 60oF for 10-14 days before
sowing which sprout quickly and give good germination stand.
Treatment of cut seed tubers
 Cut tubers should be treated with 0.2% Dithane Z-78 which help in improving
tuber size and crop yield
 The cut pieces should be allowed to heel at 18-21oC and 85-90% relative
humidity for 2-3 days which prevents rotting of cut tubers as seed
(Suberization/healing).
 Do not treat the tuber with any of the chemical if sprouts are coming out.
 Treat with aglal (0.5%) for 5-10 minutes to control scab disease.
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
 Soil poor in organic matter content should be supplied with 250-500q/ha of Farm
Yard Manure or compost during land preparation.
 When it is grown in medium type of soils, it needs 100-150 kg/ha nitrogen, 80-
100 kg each of phosphorus and potash per hectare.
 Two-third to three fourth quantity of nitrogen along with whole quantity of
phosphorus and potash is applied at the time of planting.
 Remaining one fourth to one third nitrogen is applied 30-35days after planting.
INTERCULTURAL OPERATIONS
 Mulching helps in conserving soil moisture, reducing soil temperature and
inducing quick germination.
 Local available materials such as pine needles or leaf litters are quite effective in
controlling run off losses and conserving moisture.
 Weeds are effectively managed by cultural or chemical methods or combination
of both methods.
 Weeds are effectively controlled by hoeing and weeding when the crop is about a
month old followed by earthing up.
 Pre-emergence application of fluchloralin@ 1 kg a.i. per ha or alachlor@ 1 kg a.i.
per ha or pendimethalene@ 1.8 kg a.i. per ha or atrazine @ 1.0 kg a.i. per ha
can effectively control the weeds.
 Post emergence application (5-10% emergence) of paraquat@ 0.36 kg a.i. per
ha is also effective.
 Application of Tok-e-25 @2.5kg a.i. per ha as post emergence application at
about 2-3 leaf stage is also helpful in managing the weeds.
 The use of weedicides in potato crop in general is not essential because earthing
up operation destroys almost all weeds, if somehow, weed plants are growing on
ridges, they may be pulled out by hands.
 Pre-emergence application of nitrofen @ 1.0 kg a.i. /ha or post emergence
application of propanil @ 1.0 kg a.i. /ha may to be used in 800-1000 litre of water.
Water Management
 Before coming to the planting operation, it should be kept in mind that sufficient
soil moisture is available for satisfactory sprouting.
 Pre-planting irrigation is advantageous for uniform germination.
 The rate of water is low till 30-35 days after planting.
 Further irrigation is done as and when crop needs.
 Second irrigation is given after about a week and subsequent as and when
required. Light and frequent irrigations are better than heavy and less frequent
irrigations.
 Water is applied effectively and economically at critical stages in crop
development i.e. stolon formation, tuber initiation and tuber development stages
of crop.
 The total water requirement varies between 350-500mm depending upon soil
type, climate and crop duration.
 Irrigation is stopped about 10 days before harvesting of crop to allow firming of
tubers skin.
 The crop is harvested when it is fully matured which can be characterized by
when haulms turn yellow and no pulling out of skin on rubbing of tubers.
 At the time of harvesting, field should not be too wet nor too dry.
 Tractor operated potato diggers are available for digging the tubers from the
fields.
 Harvested potatoes are heaped under shade for a couple of days, so that their
skin becomes hard and soil adhering with them is also separated out.
 Under good crop management, 350-450q marketable potatoes of good quality
can be produced from one hectare land.
o Early varieties: 200 q/ha
o Late Varieties : 300 q/ha
GRADING
The tubers are, generally, categorized into 3 grades according to the size and
weight of the tubers.
1. Grade A (Large): Tuber weight more than 75g
2. Grade B (Medium): tuber weight between 50-75g
3. Grade C (Small): Tuber weight less than 50g
 Over sized tubers are great in demand for chips making.
 However, both the over sized and under sized are quite unsuitable for seed
purpose.
Post harvest handling
 Nearly 20% of total potato production is used as planting material in the following
season.
 Therefore, handling of seed stocks is particularly become very important.
 After harvesting, tubers are kept in heaps in cool places for drying and curing of
skin i.e. for 10-15 days.
 Heaps 3-4 m long wide at the base and 1 m in the central height are the best.
 In hills, tubers are spread in well ventilated rooms for drying.
 After grading potato tubers meant for use as seed crop next year are treated with
3% boric acid solution for 30 minutes for protecting against soil borne pathogen
before storing in the bags.
 In the plains, tubers after drying, curing and grading are stored in cold stores
where temperature is maintained at 2-4oC with 75-80% RH.
 Low temperature checks sprouting and rotting and high RH reduces weight loss
in tubers.
 Potatoes can be stored in the cold storage at the temperatures of 1.11-2.7oC and
relative humidity of 90-95 per cent.
Marketing
The factors which make marketing of potato as a complicated process and result in high
fluctuation of prices and often glut situation are:
 Transportation to long distances is problem as potatoes are semi-perishable and
bulky.
 Often potatoes rot during transit because of high temperature at the time of
transport.
 Problem is further compounded due to shortage of transporting wagons.
 Total cold storage capacity in the country is adequate only to store 35-40% of the
total production.
 Functioning of CS many a time is not up to the mark and is marked by various
mal practices.
 The markets in potato producing belts in NI plains are not properly integrated
with major consuming markets of metropolitan cities.
Value added products
 Potatoes can be easily processed into dehydrated and canned products like
Chips, Flakes, French fries, Finger chips, Granules, Disc, Cubes, Flour etc.
 Processing industry is also picking up in the recent past.
 It is desirable to avoid glut and consequent difficulty of storing large quantities of
potatoes during period of high temperature after harvest in the plains.
Diseases
1. Early blight : (Alternaria solani)
 The infection appears on lower leaves with necrotic spots having concentric
rings.
 This fungus survives in the soil in diseased plant debris.
 High moisture and low temperature is favourable for disease.
Control measures
 Follow crop rotation.
 Spray the crop with mancozeb@ 0.2 per cent, 30-35 days after planting and grow
tolerant varieties such as Kufri Jeevan.
2. Late Blight : (Phytophthora infestans)
 The infection appears at the tips or edges of the lower leaves with circular or
irregular water soaked spots.
 White downy fungus growth appears on the underside of the leaves around the
spots.
 Cloudy weather is conducive for very fast spread of the disease.
 Later the disease may spread to tubers and initiate rotting.
Control measures
 Plant only healthy disease free seed tubers.
 Spray the crop with mancozeb @ 0.25 per cent well in advance.
 Avoid applying excess irrigation and nitrogen.
3. Black Leg / Soft Rot : (Erwinia spp.)
 The bases of shoots develop a blackened shrivelled cortex and its growth is
stunted.
 Leaflets become reddish in colour at the tips.
 Branches become stiffened and more upright than normal.
 The affected haulms are jet black in colour at the soil level.
 The tubers become watery and upon rotting give off offensive sulphurous odour.
Control measures
 Obtain healthy tubers for planting.
 Collect and destroy affected plants.
 Wash the tubers with chlorinated water before storage and avoid planting too
early.
4. Wart disease of potato: (Synchytrium endobioticum)
 Affected plants show warty growth protuberances on stems, stolons and tubers.
 The roots are not affected.
 The wart consists of distorted, proliferated, branched structures grown together
into a mass of hypertrophied tissue.
 It is difficult to control once it has been established in a field.
Control measures
 Obtain disease free seed for planting.
 Soil treatment with 5 per cent Formalin is also effective.
Pests
1. Cut worms: (Agrotis spp)
 They feed only at night and cut the sprouts at ground level.
 They also attack tubers and make holes thereby reducing market prices.
Control measures
 Drench the plants with chlorpyriphos (0.04 %) where the damage is noticed.
 Use only well rotten Farm Yard Manure.
2. Leaf eating caterpillars : (Spilosoma obliqua, Spodoptera exigua)
 The caterpillars of both the species cause damage by feeding on potato leaves.
Control measures
 Spray the crop with deltamethrin (0.0025%).
3. Aphids : (Myzus persicae)
 Aphids suck the sap from leaves.
 Affected plants become weak, leaves become yellow and curl downwards.
 Aphid secretes honeydew, which gives rise to sooty mould and other fungal
diseases.
Control measures
 Spray malathion (0.05%) or oxy-demeton methyl (0.025%).
4. Potato tuber moth: (Phthorimaea operculella)
 It is major pest of potato in storage.
 It can also attack in the field.
 It bores and makes tunnel into the potato tubers.
Control measures:
 Sow healthy insect free potato tubers.
 Use only well rotten Farm Yard Manure.
 Do earthing up carefully, so that the tubers are not exposed in the field to
ovipositing female moths.
 Spray the crop with carbaryl (0.1 %).
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS
1. Hollow Heart:
 It is caused by rapid growth of tubers.
 Tubers become oversized and remain empty with in leading to the formation of
cavity in the centre with the death of the small area of pith cells.
 This results in adjacent cracks and hollowness as the centre expands during the
growth of the potato
Management
 Maintain soil moisture conditions to the optimum level. Avoid over fertilization
particularly N.
 Grow those varieties which are less prone to this defect.
2. Black Heart:
 It is caused by sub-oxidation conditions under potato tuber storage in piles as the
air does not get into the centre.
 It occurs due to higher temperature and excessive moisture resulted in
blackening of tissues in the centre.
 The appearance of the tuber affect the consumers otherwise there is no decay.
Management
 Provide proper ventilation. Keep potato tubers in layers. Do not store tubers in
the heap.
3. Greening:
 There are various factors which increases the glycoalkaloid contents such as
mechanical injury, premature harvest, and excessive application of fertilizers or
exposure of tubers to sunlight which leads to solanin production which is slightly
poisonous.
Management
 Proper earthing up of tubers as the tuberization takes place. Store tubers in
darkness after digging up.
4. Knobbiness:
 It occurs due to uneven growth of tuber cells/tissues.
 Uneven watering conditions lead to an obstruction in tuber growth.
 Heavy irrigation after a long dry spell leads to growth of some cells very fast
resulting in knobbiness.
Management
 Frequent and optimum irrigation supply is the remedy
5. Cracking:
 It is due to boron deficiency or uneven water supply
Management:
 Application of Borax @ 20kg/ha. Frequent and optimum irrigation supply is the
remedy
6. Sun Scalding:
 It occurs, generally, in the autumn crop when the temperature is high and
sunshine is more.
 Emergence of sprout and leaflets is drastically effected at that time i.e. tip burn. It
appears when temperature is more than 30oC.
Management
 Water should be passed through the furrows to lower the soil temperature.
7. Translucent End:
 It is related to environmental stress and occurs due to draught and heat.
 It is, generally, found at the proximal end of the tuber.
 Tubers show glossy appearance and are irregular in shape.
 This also results in decay in storage. These glossy areas are high in sugar and
low in total soluble solids
Management:
 Avoid excessive nitrogen supply. Maintain 50% moisture in the field.
8. Black Spot:
 It means the internal browning of potato tubers.
 It occurs in vascular tissues with in 3 days of mechanical injury.
 Phenoles are related to black spot in potato tubers.
Management
 Genetic make up of the varieties. Provide proper storage and growing conditions.
9. Freezing Injury:
 It occurs due to the exposure of tubers to freezing temperature during or after
harvest.
 It takes place at -1.5oC or below temperature.
 There is discolouration of the tissues and affect the vascular tissues at ring called
ring necrosis.
 When fine elements or cells of vascular ring are affected, then it is called as net
necrosis.
 This leads to unmarketable tubers. Tubers show more damage towards proximal
end.
Management
 Avoid exposure of tubers to freezing temperature during storage or harvest.
10. Sprouting:
 It is often a serious problem in storage
Management
 It can be inhibited by spraying maleic hydrazide @ 1000-6000ppm about 2-3
weeks before harvesting.
 Chemicals like Chloro IPC (N-tetra chloro isopropyl carbonate)@ 0.5% and/or
nomyl/amyl alcohol @0.05-0.12mg/ha also help in inhibiting sprouting
11. Swollen Lenticels:
 This disorder is caused by exposure of the tuber to very wet conditions in the
field or in storage due to oxygen deprivation.
 Besides giving an unmarketable appearance to the tuber, the major problem is
that an entrance to pathogenic organisms, bacterial soft rot, pink rot and leak, is
created.
Management
 Avoid over-watering. Avoid harvesting low, swampy spots in the field. Pick fields
with good drainage.
 Avoid condensation in storage. Keep storage well ventilated.
LECTURE 8
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF CAULIFLOWER AND CABBAGE
Introduction
• Common name: Cauliflower
• Scientific name : Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.
• Family: Brassicaceae
• Hindi: Ful gobhi
• Chromosome number: 2n=18
• West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Assam and Jharkhand are the leading cauliflower producing states of India
• Cauliflower is used as cooked vegetable and a variety of delicious dishes are prepared out of ‘curd’.
The differences between Indian and European cauliflowers as reported by Gill (1993) are given
below
Indian types European types
Tolerant to heat Not tolerant to heat
Curd formation at and above 20°C Curd formation at 5-20°C

Annual Biennial
Yellow curd with loose storage flavour Snow white curd with mild or no flavour
Early Late
Less juvenile phase Long juvenile phase
No need of vernalization but needs cold treatment Need vernalization at 7°C for 8-10 weeks
at 10-13°C for 6 weeks
Varieties

institution
IARI, Pusa Synthetic* Mid season variety with creamy white to white compact curd.
New Delhi Curds available during December –January (12-15°C) from
September transplanted crop. Synthesized from a few good
combiner inbred lines.
Improved Japanese* Introduced variety from Israel. November-December
maturity (16-20°C) group susceptible to heat. Curds white
and compact.
Pusa Deepali October maturity group with compact self blanched and
white curd. Yield 15 t/ha
Pusa Himjyothi December maturity group. Curds white, self blanched and
500-600g. Only variety which can be grown in April-July in
hills.
institution
Pusa Snowball Kt- Tolerant to black rot and Sclerotinia rot. Curds solid, cream
25 with good keeping quality. Curds available during January-
IARI Regional March from October –November transplanting. Yield 10-30
Station, Katrain t/ha.
Pusa Snowball K-1* Late and January maturity variety. Curds snow white and
compact. Moderately resistant to black rot. Yield 20-25 t/ha.
TNAU Ooty 1 Late variety suitable for hilly regions of Tamil Nadu, 1800
m above MSL. Potential yield 40-45 t/ha in 110-120 days.
Punjab Agrl. Early Kunwari* Early variety belonging to September-October maturity

University, group. Curds semi-spherical with even surface. Yield 10
Ludhiana t/ha.
GBPUA&T Pant Gobhi 4 Mid early (November maturity) variety.

CAULIFLOWER SEEDLINGS
Hybrids
 In India, the heterozygous tropical cultivars distributed are basically poor in quality and
productivity.
 Some of the hybrids popular in India are Pusa Hybrid 2 of IARI, New Delhi
 Punam and Priya of Beejo Sheetal Seeds Ltd. Jalna
 Agethi Himalatha of Century Seeds Ltd., New Delhi
 NS 60 and NS 66 of Namdhari Seeds Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore
 Summer King of Sungro Seeds Ltd., New Delhi

 Pawas of Syngenta India Seeds Ltd., Pune
 No. 310 and No. 311 of Mahyco Seeds Pvt. Ltd., Jalna etc.
Climate
 Cauliflower was considered a temperate crop when snowball types only were available.
 With development of tropical Indian Cauliflower, it became possible to cultivate in tropics and
throughout the year in North Indian plains.
 Being a thermo-sensitive crop, temperature plays a key role in the vegetative, curding and
reproductive phases of plants.
 During vegetative phase, temperature should be a few degree higher than optimum required for
curd initiation and development stages.
• During curd initiation and curd development stages, temperature should not fluctuate.
• Otherwise quality adversely affected and results in ricey curds.
• Nearly four weeks vegetative growth is sufficient for transformation to curding stage in snowball
types.
• Optimum temperature for growth of young seedlings of snowball type is 23°C and further it
should drop to 17-20°C.
• If early types are planted late and if temperature drops drastically to 0°C, plant ceases its
vegetative growth and transforms prematurely to curding phase resulting in small curds known as
‘buttons’.
• Typical annual Indian cauliflower produces curds above 20°C and it can grow even up to 35°C.
• It will produce buttons at low temperature.
• Similarly, when temperature is high, i.e., more than for curding, plants remain in vegetative
stage without forming curds.
• That is why late cultivars go on producing vegetative growth when planted early in the season.
Soil
• Early varieties prefer light soils and mid season and late varieties prefer clay loam soils.
• The optimum pH is 6-7 and liming is required when pH is below 5.5
• Cauliflower is sensitive to deficiency of boron and molybednum deficiency will result in

disorders like browning and whiptail respectively.
Season
• Cauliflower is a thermo-sensitive crop.
• Varieties differ in temperature requirement for curd formation and development.
• Hence, their planting is to be adjusted accordingly.
• Early varieties can be sown during May-June and produce curds from August to middle of November in
plains of North India.
• Mid season varieties are sown during July and August for production of curds from middle of November
to middle of January in plains.
• Late varieties yield curds from middle of January to April by sowing seeds from middle of September to
end of October.
• In hills, late Snowball varieties are transplanted in September-October for curd production during March-
April.
Sowing and transplanting
• Seed rate for early mid and late varieties, it is 350-400 g/ha.
• Soil is prepared to a fine tilth.
• Farmyard manure and fertilizers are applied as basal dose at the time of final land preparation.
• Ridge planting will be more ideal during rainy season.
• Generally closer spacing is required for early and mid season varieties and wider spacing for late
varieties.
• Am spacing of 60x40 cm as most ideal for mid season varieties.
• For early varieties, distance within a row can be reduced further to 30 cm.
Fertilizers (kg/ha) Growth regulators

Seed rate/ha FYM (t/ha)
(/ha)
N P K Micron. Biof.
135 135
Variety 135
375 g 30 (SSP- (MOP – - - -
(hills) (U-297)
844) 216)
Plains 375 g 15 100 100 50 Borax + Azo 2 kg -
(U-220) (SSP- (MOP – Molybdenu PB 2 kg
625) 80) m 2 kg
Hybrid 250 g 25 200 125 125 Mn mixture Azo 3 kg -

NC 110kg (U-440) (SSP- (MOP – – 750 g PB 3 kg
CP 720kg 781) 200)
Irrigation
• Maintenance of proper soil moisture is necessary for harvesting good curds.

• Furrow irrigation is a more common method of irrigation in cauliflower.
• Drip irrigation under double row planting system saves water considerably without reduction in
yield.
Interculture
• In cauliflower cultivation, field should be kept weed-free for one month.

• Curd yield is found reduced by 36-39% when weed growth was not checked.
• Weeding is usually done by light hoeing.
• Weeding, side dressing of fertilizers and earthing up can be arranged simultaneously.
• A pre-planting spray of 2-2.5 litres of Basalin (Fluchlorolin) or 3.3 litres of Stomp (pendemethalin)
per hectare is effective for control of weeds up to 45 days.
Harvest
• Cauliflower is harvested with a sharp knife along with a few outer jacket leaves.
• Great care should be taken to harvest curds at maximum size but still compact.
• Delay in harvest for one or two days results in loosening and lead to ricey, fuzzy or leafy curds.
• Hence, it is better to harvest a little early.
CAULIFLOWER HARVEST
Yield
• Yield varies with varieties and temperature.

• At temperatures above 25°C, curds will be small, loose or yellow.
• At this temperature, maximum yield in early varieties is only 10 t/ha.
• Yield in same cultivar will increase to 12-15 t/ha at 20-22°C.
• In mid season varieties, yield may go up to 20 t/ha in cool season.
• In late snowball varieties, curds will be more uniform and compact and yield is up to 20-30 t/ha in
cool seasons.
• Snowball cauliflower can be stored for 7 days at 0-17°C and 85-95%RH.
Processing
• In India, cauliflower is mainly used as fresh vegetable for cooking.

• It is also dried or processed into mixed pickle.
• In glut season frozen cauliflower is also marketed by National Dairy Development Board.
• Considerable amount of cauliflower is frozen in USA.
• Canning is done only on limited scale in the country.
• For dehydration, buttons are separated and cut in to small pieces.
• These are bleached for 4-5 minutes in boiling water, steeped in 0.5% SO2 solution for one hour, then
drained and washed.
• These are then dried at 60°C for about 10-12 hours to 7% moisture in Snowball varieties and to 8-
10% in tropical cauliflower.
1. Ricyness
 This disorder is characterized by premature initiation of floral buds on

 The curd becomes granular and loose.
 It is caused due to warm weather conditions and use of poor-quality seed.
 Grow the crop when temperature is favourable. Use only good quality seed.
 Selection of an appropriate resistant and tolerant variety and optimum

2. Buttoning
 It refers to the production of small exposed curds of cauliflower heads.
 It commonly occurs in early cauliflower that are transplanted after being raised
 It may also occur due to condition restricting the growth such as frost, bud
 Right selection of variety, application of recommended dose of N,
transplanting 4-5 weeks old seedlings, healthy and vigorous seedlings having
5-6 true leaves are few remedial measures.
 Sowing at normal sowing time and maintaining adequate supply of nutrients
will reduce the disorder.

3. Fuzziness
 Fuzziness appears as velvety growth due to elongation of flower pedicles of curds.
 It may be hereditary or non-hereditary.
 Cultivation in abnormal times encourages fuzziness.
 Sowing at normal time minimizes fuzziness. It is due to higher temperature and poor-quality seed.
4. Blindness
The term is applied to cauliflower plants without terminal buds and with large, dark
During the early stage of plant growth, damage to growing point by insects (can be
A physiological disorder of cauliflower in which green bracts (small thin leaves) grow
development.
Selection of proper varieties may help to reduce it.

6. Whip Tail
 It is characterized by the lack of leaf lamina and leaf consists of only bare mid rib which looks like whip
tail.
 It is caused due to deficiency of Molybdenum particularly in acidic soils having pH below 5.0.
 Applying 0.5-1.0 kg Sodium or ammonium molybdate/ha at the field preparation or spray the crop with
 Add lime in the soil to raise the pH to 6.5.

7. Pinking
Curds show pink tinge due to exposure of curd to high light intensity.
It occurs due to anthocyanin formation.

8. Hollow stem
Hollowness is caused by boron deficiency and higher supply of nitrogen.
It can be controlled by spraying of borax @ 15-20 kg/ha.

• This is caused by Boron deficiency.
• It appears as water soaked areas and later changes into rusty brown.
• Spray one kg of Borax in 500 lit of water 30 days after planting.

Production technology of Cabbage
Brassica oleracea var. capitata L. (2n=18)
 Cabbage is one of the most popular vegetables and occupies fourth position among vegetables in India as
well as the world.
 Original type was non-heading type and later heading types were evolved.
 Traditionally, crop was grown in southern, eastern and coastal areas of India.
 With development of heat tolerant varieties and F1 hybrids, it spread to other sub-tropical and non-
traditional areas for cultivation throughout the year except for one or two months having extreme high
and low temperatures.
 West Bengal, Orissa and Bihar are leading cabbage producing states.
 It is used as boiled vegetable, salad, cooked in curries and processed also.
 Cabbage is also used often for drying, pickling and canning.
 The processed product Sauerkraut prepared out of cabbage leaves is a delicacy and has curative effect
on scurvy disease.
 It is prepared by fermenting shredded leaves under pressure in its own juice and with added salt.
 Cabbage head is rich in vitamins-A (400 I.U./100g), B2 (27 I.U.), C (100 mg) and minerals.
Taxonomy and Botany
 Cultivated cabbage is a biennial crop.

 In vegetable production, it is treated as an annual.
 The edible part, head is formed by thickening of edible bud with tightly packed overlapping leaves.
 Cultivated types exhibit variation in size, shape and colour of leaves and texture of head.
 Nieuwhof (1969) reported three cultivated forms of cabbage
 Brassica oleracea var. capitata L. f. alba – White cabbage
 B. oleracea var. capitata L. f. rubra – Red cabbage
 Brassica oleracea L. f. sabauda –Savoy cabbage
 White cabbage is widely grown in India while red and savoy cabbages are not of much importance in
India.
Varieties
 Most of earlier cabbage varieties were European introductions.
 Varieties differ in colour, size and shape of head, duration of crop, ability to withstand low or high
temperature etc.
 White cabbage is widely grown in India and in this group three shapes viz. round, conical and flat exist,
of which round head is more common.
IARI Regional Station, Pusa Muktha Bacterial rot resistant variety derived from EC 24855 x EC
Katrain (Sel-4)* 10109. Compact and slightly flat-round head weighing 1.5-
2.0 kg with loose wrapper leaves at the top. Yield 20 t/ha.
Golden Acre Early maturing variety with 60-65 days duration from
transplanting. Plants small, with compact round heads.
Suitable for winter season in plains and summer season in
hills. Yield 20-24 t/ha.
Pusa Drum Head Late variety having field resistance to black leg. Heads large
(3-4 kg) and flat. Yield 30 t/ha in 80-90 days after
transplanting.
Pusa Agethi The first tropical variety suitable for high temperature
conditions.
 The open pollinated variety ‘September’ popular in Nilgiris hills is a German introduction.
 It has a large frame with bluish green foliage.
 Heads are compact, flat and large weighing 4-6 kg.
 It takes 110 days for maturation and yields 40 t/ha.
 Based on maturity of heads after transplanting, cabbage varieties are grouped into early season, mid
season and late season varieties.
 Early varieties mature in 55-70 days, late group takes 90-130 and varieties that mature in between fall
under mid season group.
 Most of the late cultivars are flat headed and they require long winter for a good crop.
F1 Hybrids
 In developed countries like Japan, Europe and USA more than 90% of area under cabbage is covered by
hybrids.
 F1 hybrids are preferred mainly due to uniformity of harvest, non-splitting traits and high productivity.
 A large number of hybrids were imported by private sector companies.

 Sri Ganesh Gol and Hari Rani of Indo American Hybrid Seeds, Bangalore
 Nav Kranthi of Mahyco Seeds, Jalna
 Konark of Century Seeds Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
 Bjrang, Sudha and Swarna of Beejo Shetal Seeds Ltd., Jalna
 Manisha of Clause International, Secunderabad
 NS 25 of Namdhari Seeds Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore
 Sumit of Sungro Seeds Ltd., New Delhi
 Quisto of Syngenta India Seeds Ltd, Pune
 Nath Laxmi 401 of Nath Seeds etc. are a few popular hybrids among them.
Climate
 Cabbage tolerates low temperature better than cauliflower and minimum temperature for growth is 0°C.
 Optimum temperature for growth and heading is 15-20°C.
 Above 25°C, growth is retarded and plants remain in vegetative stage.
 Cabbage seedlings can grow at high temperature, but cool season is required for heading.
 However, a few of heat tolerant hybrids like Green Boy and Green Express form compact head under
tropical conditions in day temperature of 30-35°C.
Soil
 Early crops perform better in light soils whereas late crops prefer heavy soils.
 On heavy soils, plants grow slowly and keeping quality is improved.
 Cabbage is slightly tolerant to salt.
 Optimum pH for growth is 6.0-6.5.

Season
• In plains, cabbage is grown as a winter crop from October to January.
• In higher hills, seeds are sown in May-June and transplanted during July for a summer autumn crop.
• In hilly areas which receive heavy rains, seeds are sown in autumn to harvest the crop in late spring or
early summer by over wintering them.
Field preparation and transplanting
• Field is ploughed 3-4 times to a fine tilth and divide land into beds or ridges of convenient size.
• A bed size of 3.0 x 3.0 m or 4.0 x 4.0 m is optimum for irrigation and drainage.
• But in areas of heavy rainfall, ridges and furrows are preferred.
• Well hardened 4-6 weeks old seedlings are ideal for transplanting.
• Early cultivars are transplanted at 45 x 45 cm spacing.
• For getting smaller heads in round and early types, a spacing of 30-45 x 30 cm is followed by many
farmers.
Seed Fertilizers (kg/ha)

rate/ha
FYM (t/ha)
N P K Micron. Biof.
Variety 375g 30 135 135 135 Borax+ - Chlorpyriphos -
(hills) (U-297) (SSP- (MOP- Molybden 500 ml
844) 216) um 2kg Dimethoate-
50 ml
Mancozeb-500g
Plains 375g 20 100 125 25 - Azo 2 kg -do-
(U-220) (SSP- (MOP- PB 2kg
781) 40)
Hybrid 250g 25 200 125 150 Mn Azo 2 kg -do-
(U-440) (SSP- (MOP- mixture - PB 2kg
781) 240) 10 kg
Irrigation
 Depending on climate, irrigate once in every two weeks.

 Irrigate frequently during head formation.
 Heavy irrigation after a dry spell leads to quite firm heads and may burst or split open within 24 hours.
Interculture
 In cabbage, most of feeding roots are concentrated in top 5 cm layer.
 Hence, deep inter-cultural operations are to be avoided.
 Shallow inter-cultural operations by way of 2-3 light hoeing are aimed to check weed growth.
 Only one head is produced in a plant and the head is harvested along with some wrapper leaves when it
becomes firm but tender.
 Delay in harvest may cause bursting and bolting.
 Harvesting is done by use of a sharp knife or tilting by holding head in one hand.
 Yield varies with varieties.
 Average yield of cabbage in growers field is 20 t/ha.

1. Tip burn
It is characterized by tan or light brown tissues, which may
High nitrogen and relative humidity are associated causes.
Calcium imbalance - calcium deficiency.
Incidence of tip burn can be reduced by the use of resistant

2. Black petiole
 As head approaches maturity, the dorsal side of the internal leaf, petiole or midribs turn dark grey or
 This is complex physiological disorder in which environment plays an important role in symptom
expression.
3. Black speck
 Black speck is characterized by dark spots occurring on outer leaves or sometimes

promoting vigorous growth and temperatures fluctuations are probable causes.
 High rates of potassium in soils reduce the severity of the disorder.

LECTURE 9
Production Technology of Carrot, Radish
and Beetroot
Carrot
Daucus carota L; Umbelliferae
Introduction
 Carrot is an important cool season root crop.
 This carotene rich crop is cultivated almost all over the world.
 The crop is grown in temperate countries during spring, summer and

autumn and in tropical and sub-tropical countries during the winter season.
 This root vegetable is rich in minerals such as iron, vitamins like Thiamine,
Riboflavin, Niacin, Ascorbic acid and Vitamin A (6.46 mg/ 100mg)
Varieties
Hills Plains
• Ooty-1 • India Gold
• Early Nantes • Pusa Kesar
• New Korda • Half Long Danvers

Yellowstone Lange rote
OOTY 1 Carrot
Climate and soil
 Being a cool season vegetable, it suffers in high temperature. Carrot grown at 15°C to 20°C will
develop a good color.
 The optimum temperature for the crop is 15°C. Germination is good at a temperature range of
7.2°C to 23.0°C. It grows well under a wide range of rainfall.
 The carrot crop needs deep loose loamy soil.
 It requires a pH ranging from 6.0 to 7.0 for higher production.

Season
 Hills: At elevation above 1500 metres, Carrot can be grown throughout the year
under assured irrigation. At elevations between 1000 – 1500 metres. Carrot can
be grown in July – February.
 Plains: August.
 Mark the rows with a spacing of 25 – 30 cm apart. Sow the seeds mixed with
sand (one part of seed with 4 parts of sand).
 Hills: Prepare the land to a fine tilth and form raised beds of one metre breadth
and convenient length.
 Plains: Two ploughings are given and ridges and furrows are formed at 30 cm
spacing.
 Irrigation: Once in five days.
 Application of fertilizers: 30 t FYM and 90:90:90 kg of NPK per

ha as basal dose and 45:45:45 kg NPK after 45 days. Apply 25
kg of ZnSO4/ha as basal.
 Thinning is an important practice done in carrot to improve the root quality. The
early crop is thinned to 5 cm between two roots whereas, main crop is thinned
to 10 - 15 cm apart.
 Weeding : In India, both manual and chemical weeding's are practiced.

Herbicides like Diuron and Monuron @ 1 kg per hectare applied 40 days after
sowing effectively control the weeds.
After cultivation
 Spray Fluchloralin 1 lit a.i./ha immediately after sowing the

seeds to control weeds or first weeding to be done on 15th day.
 Thinning and earthing up should be given on 30th day.

Harvest and yield
 Harvesting should be done at correct maturity stage viz., 70 - 85 days after sowing.
 Light irrigation should be given just before harvest and the roots are pulled out from
the soil without any damage.
 Yield varies depending upon the varieties and season. Normally it ranges between 20
and 25 t/ha.
1. Root splitting:
• Genetical factors.
• Application of heavy doses of nitrogen.
• Sudden increase in soil moisture after prolonged drought.
• Greater moisture fluctuation.
• Wider spacing.
Remedy:
2. Forking

and forked roots.

3. Cavity spot
 Symptoms: cavity in the cortex due to deficiency of Ca,

accumulation of K.
 Remedy: Follow proper management practices like right spacing

4. Bitterness
Storage disorder - deleterious effect of ethylene
It increases the total phenol content of roots and induces the formation of
new compounds
Includes isocoumarin and eugenin - bitter flavour in carrots.

Radish
Raphanus sativus L;
Brassicaceae
Introduction
 Radish is a root crop suitable for growing both in tropical and temperate regions. Leaves
and roots are used as salad and also as cooked vegetable.
 It is rich in Vitamin C (15 - 50 mg/100g) and supplies more minerals. Radish also has
medicinal value in curing piles, liver trouble, enlarge spleen and jaundice.
 Pink color of roots is due to anthocyanin.
 It is an ideal crop to grow as inter crop and catch crop.

Varieties
Hills Plains
• Nilgiris Red • CO 1
• Japanese Long • Pusa Rashmi

• Pusa Chetki
• Pusa Desi
• Japanese White
• Arka Nishant
Climate and soil
 Radish requires a cool and moderate climate.
 The ideal temperature is between 10°C and 15°C. During hot weather the roots become tough
and pungent before reaching the edible size.
 Sandy loam soils with high organic matter.
 The optimum soil pH is 5.5 to 6.8.
 Roots of best size, flavor and texture are developed at about 15°C.
 Season of sowing: June –July in hills and from September in plains.
 Preparation of field: The land should be prepared to fine tilth and levelled.
• Spacing: 15 x 10 cm.
• Irrigation : Once in a week.

 Plains: Apply FYM at 25 t/ha and 25 kg N, 100 kg P and 50 kg K/ha as basal

dressing and 25 kg N/ha after 30 days.
 After cultivation: Weeding and hoeing. At the second weeding, thinning of

thickly sown plants should be done.
 Thinning is to be done for proper plant spacing and for better root
development. Weeds will be effectively controlled when the soil is given
shallow hoeing.
Harvest and yield
 Light irrigation should be given just before pulling out the roots. The tender roots
are pulled out with tops.
 The washed roots are packed and then transported to the market.
 The temperate types yield about 7-9 tIha and the tropical types 20 to 35 t/ha
1. Forking
 Splitting of roots is called forking - common problem in

radish.
 Forking is caused due to hard soil pan, delayed

water application.
 Avoiding these conditions will help minimize forking in

radish.
2. Brown heart
 It is a commonly occurring disorder in radish

 Dark spots that first appear on roots characterize it.
 The plants remain stunted due to retarded growth

rate.
 Roots remain small showing distorted and grayish

appearance.
Control
 Brown heart can be controlled by soil application of

of 0.1% boron.
Plant protection
Pests
White rust- Albugo candida
• Aphids
• Flea beetles
• Mustard saw fly
Diseases
• White rust
Beet root
(Syn: Garden beet) (Beta vulgaris L.) (2n = 2x = 18)
 (Hindi : Chukandar) Family : Chenopodiaceae
 Beet root is a popular root crop grown for its fleshy roots which are used as
cooked vegetable, salad and for pickling and canning.
 Young plants along with tender leaves are also used as pot herbs.
 It is very popular in USA. Beet root is a rich source of protein (1.7 g/100 g/100
g), carbohydrates (88 mg), calcium (200 mg), phosphorus (55 mg) and vitamin-
C (88 mg). Leaves are rich in iron (3.1 mg), vitamin-A (2100 I.U.), thiamine
(110 μ g) and ascorbic acid (50 mg/ 100 g).
 Origin : Beet root originated from Beta vulgaris L. ssp. Maritime by hybridization with B.
patula. Crop has its origin probably in Europe. Earlier types were with long roots like that
of carrot. Beet root, sugar beet and palak belong to species B. vulgaris and are cross
compatible.
 Botany : Beet root is a biennial, producing a fleshy elongated hypocotyls and a rosette of
leaves in first year and flowers in second year.
 Root skin colour varies from orange red to dark purple red. Colour of beet root is due to
presence of red violet pigments of β-cyanins and a yellow pigment, β-xanthin.
Varieties
 Detroit Dark Red : Roots perfectly round with smooth uniform deep red skin; flesh dark blood red with light red
zoning; heavy yielder with a duration of 80-100 days.
 Crimson Globe : It produces round to flat round roots. Outer skin is medium red and flesh is crimson red without
zonations; duration 55-60 days.
 Early Wonder : Roots flat globular with dark red skin and dark red flesh and light red zoning.
 Ooty-1 : This TNAU variety has round roots with blood red flesh colour; yields 28 t/ha in 120 days; it sets seeds
under Nilgiris conditions.
 Crosby Egyptian : Roots flat globe with dark purplish red flesh; duration 55-60 days; produces white zoning under
warm weather.
 Madhur, Ruby Queen and Ruby Red are a few of the varieties marketed by private seed industry.
Climate
 Beet root is hardy to low temperature and prefers cool climate.
 Though it grows in warm weather, development of color, texture, sugar content

etc. of roots is the best under cool weather.
 High temperature causes zoning – appearance of alternate light and dark red
concentric rings in the root. Extreme low temperature of 4.5-10.0oC for 15 days
will results in bolting.
 It requires abundant sunshine for development of storage roots.

Soil
 Deep well drained loam or sandy loams is the best for beet root cultivation.
 Heavy clayey soils result in poor germination and stand of crop due to formation of a soil
crust after rains or irrigation.
 Roots may be mis-shaped and will not develop properly in heavy soils.
 Beet root is highly sensitive to soil acidity and the ideal pH is 6-7.
 Beet root is one of a few vegetables which can be successfully grown in saline soils.
 Being a cool season crop, beet root is raised during winter in plains and as a spring-
summer crop in hills by March-April. In plains, sowing is practiced during September-
November.
 Land is ploughed to a fine tilth by thorough ploughing making it loose and friable. Clods
are to be removed completely. Apply well decomposed farmyard manure at the time of
final ploughing. Flat beds or ridges and furrows are prepared. Water-soaked ‘seed
balls’ which contain 2-6 seeds are drilled 2.5 cm deep in rows at a spacing of 45-60 x 8-
10 cm.
 5-6 kg of seeds is required for one hectare.

 On sandy soils, organic manure @ 25 t/ha is recommended.
 For an average soil, 60-70 kg N, 100-120 kg P and 60-70 kg K/ha is recommended.
 Entire farmyard manure, half of N and full P and K should be applied basal at the time
of land preparation prior to sowing and remaining at 30-45 days after sowing.
 Nitrate sources of N are preferred to ammonium sources.
 Beets have a relatively high boron requirement and its deficiency causes internal
breakdown as black rot or dry rot.
Aftercare
 Thinning is an essential operation when more than one seedling germinate from each
seed. Moist soil is essential for seed germination and for further growth.
 Usually 5-6 irrigations are usually given during summer and three irrigations during
winter in North Indian plains.
 Field is usually kept weed-free by light hoeing at early stage of crop. Swollen roots are
also to be covered with soil by earthing up.
Harvesting
 Medium sized tubers are of great demand and tubers are harvested after
attaining a diameter of 3-5 cm.
 Harvesting is done 8-10 weeks after sowing by pulling the top with hand. Later
tops are removed, graded and marketed.
 In European countries, where small sized bunches are in demand, tubers are tied
in bundles of 4-6 with their tops.
 Over-matured and oversized tubers become woody and crack.
 Yield varies from 25 to 30t/ha and the tuber stores well at 0oC and 90% RH.
Due to Boron deficiency, plants usually remain dwarf

appearance.
Their surface often is wrinkled and cracked.
Within the fleshy roots hard or corky spots on the

roots.
10-15 kg of borax per hectare

2. Zoning
Excessive hot weather causes ‘zoning’ – the appearance of alternating

KNOL- KHOL (Khol Rabi )
Botanical name: Brassica caulorapa
Family : Cruciferae
Origin : Northern Europe
Plant part : Knobs (swollen stem above the ground)
- cultivated for knob

- Leaves are also used for cooking.
AREA AND PRODUCTION
- Knol-khol is not very widely grown in our country except in Kashmir,

West Bengal and some of the South Indian states.
- Late varieties are used as animal fodder.
ORIGIN AND HISTORY
• Originated in Mediterranean Center
• It was developed in Northern-Europe in the fifteenth century.
• According to Encyclopedia Britannica, Khol rabi was first described in

eighteenth century as another cabbage of European origin.
Soil:
• It is a hardy vegetable can be grown variety of soils,
• But, well drained red loamy soil is best suited for its cultivation
• Ideal pH : 5.8 to 6.8.
• Climate:
• Temperature range is 10 – 20oC is ideal.
• Continuous hot weather is detrimental for knob development.
Varieties:
Early Purple Vienna:
Leaves are purplish in colour.

The knobs are globular to round large in size, purple skin with light green flesh.
It takes 55-60 days for knob formation.
Early White Vienna:
It is an early variety.
Plants are dwarf, short topped having medium green foliage.
The knobs are globular to round.
Flesh is tender and crisp.
It takes about 50-55 days for knob formation after transplanting
Large Green:
It is a late variety with vigorous growing plants and dark green foliage.
It has flat round and green knobs.
It has been found quite suitable for growing in Himachal Pradesh.
Purple Vienna:
• It is a late variety having purple coloured leaves and stems.
• Knobs are big in size with purple coloured spots.
• Knobs become ready for harvesting in 55-60days after transplanting
• An average yield of this variety is 150-200q/ha
King of North
• It takes about 60-65days to harvest after transplanting
• It has dark green, flattish round knobs.
• Dark green leaves are well spread over the knobs.
White Vienna:
• It is an early variety.
• Plants are dwarf, short topped having medium green foliage.
• The knobs are globular, round, crisp and having tender flesh.
• It takes about 50-55days to harvest stage after transplanting
Palam Tender Knob:

• Early variety with light green knobs and gives average yield of 250-275q/ha.
• Better shelf life.
Average yield of Knol khol varieties is 20 tonnes/ha

Direct sowing- seed rate: 2.5 to 3.5 kg per ha.
Land preparation:
- by ploughing, harrowing
- crop transplanted with a spacing of 30 x 40 cm spacing
- planting time vary from August to November.
Manuring: Blanket recommendation is 100 : 60 and 40 kg per ha.
Inter cultivation : keep the field weed free.
Irrigation:
• First irrigation is to be given after immediately transplanting.
• There after one irrigation is given every 10 – 15 days.
Harvesting:
• 45 to 80 days after transplanting, depending on the variety.
• tender knobs but fully developed, should be harvested before they
become fibrous.
• Harvesting is done 1 to 3 times per week.
• In preparation for the market the root is cut off.
• Plants are tied together and sold in bulk.
• Leaves are also used ,when they are tender.
Yield: 20 – 30 tonnes/ ha
Storage:
• Stored for 3 – 4 days under ordinary conditions
• Cold storage - can be stored for more number of days
• Wrapped knobs store well with better quality compared to unwrapped
knobs
POTATO
Botanical name Solanum tuberosum L.
Family Solanaceae
Chromosome no. 2n=48

Common name Alu, Aloo
Importance of Potato
• Potato is one of the most important crops of the world,

ranking next to rice, wheat and maize.
• Potato is one of the world’s most important high yield
yielding Horticultural crop.
• Produces more dry matter, edible energy and edible
protein per unit land and time than many other major
crops.
• India ranks third in area and second in production after
China and Russia
ORIGIN AND HISTORY
• Origin: South America in the Central Andean region
• Cultivation of potato begun first in the Nilgiri hills in the 1822
USES
• Potato has proved its worth in feeding the nation in emergency
• It is an important source of starch
• It is a rich source of body building substances such as vitamins (B 1, B2, B6
and C), minerals (Ca, P and Fe) and protein
• It contains all the dietary substances except fat
• It is used as staple diet in many of the countries especially in the west
• Raw potato should not be consumed as they result in cramps in stomach
VARIETIES
Cultivars recommended in different parts of India:
Early Varieties (ready in 70-80 days):
Kufri Ashoka, Kufri Chandramukhi, Kufri Jawahar, Kufri Lauvkar
Main season varieties (ready in 90-95 days):

Kufri Jyoti, Kufri Sutlej, K. Pukhraj, K. Megha, K. Badshah, Kufri
Anand, Kufri Bahar, K. Sadabahar, K. Deva, K. Sherpa, K. Swarna
Red coloured: Kufri Sindhuri, Kufri Lalima
Late Varieties: K. Jeevan, K. Neelamani, K. Khasigaro, K. Naveen
For Processing: Kufri Chipsona 1, Kufri Chipsona 2, Kufri Chipsona,

Kufri Himsona.
Processing varieties
Other varieties released :
• Kufri Alankar
• Kufri Badshah
• Kufri Chamatkar
• Kufri Deva
• Kufri Jyoti
• Kufri Safed
Important Varieties for Southern hills
Popular varieties
1.Kufri Jyoti 1969
2.Kufri Swarna 1985
3.Kufri Giriraj 1999
New varieties
1.Kufri Himalini 2007
2. Kufri Girdhari 2008
3. Kufri Neelima 2011
Kufri Neelima
TPS Population 92-PT- 27:
• Developed by Central Potato Research Institute in 2007
• True potato seeds (botanical seeds) are produced through conventional
hybridization
• TPS Population 92-PT- 27: is a high yielding TPS population with
resistance to late blight
• Both parents flower under short days in the plains.
• Suitable for cultivation in eastern region.
True Potato Seeds
• Potato is a cool season crop and can tolerate moderate frost
• It grows well from sea level to snow line, where sufficient

moisture and fertile soil are available
• It is grown in winter in plains of India.
• However, in northern hills, it is grown as summer season crop
• Potato is a long day plant but cultivated as short day plant
• It requires favourable environmental conditions such as low

temperature and short day conditions at the time of tuberization.
• It requires 20oC soil temperature for better germination
• Young plant – vegetative growth is good at 24oC but later growth is

favoured by a temperature of 18oC
• No tuberization when the night temperature is more than 23oC
• Maximum tuberization is encountered at 20oC
• Tuber formation stops completely at about 29-30oC
• Planting is done in the hills when the maximum temperatures are

about 20-22oC and minimum temperature are about 12-15oC
SOIL
• Potato can be produced on a wide range of soils, ranging from sandy loam,
silt loam and clay soil
• Soil for potato should be friable, well aerated, fairly well supplied with
organic matter
• Well drained sandy loam and medium loam soils are most suitable for
potato cultivation
• Light soil is preferred
• Alkaline or saline soil is not suitable for potato cultivation.
• Optimum pH 5.0-6.5
SEED RATE
• Seed rate: 2.5 - 3.5 t/ha
• Potato is traditionally propagated through tubers
• The eyes on the tuber surface contain axillary buds and the tubers
have a dormancy of nearly 8-10 weeks
• The axillary buds start germinating when the dormancy is over and
produces sprouts
• Such sprouted tubers put up fast and vigorous growth when planted
in the soil
• Pre-sprouting of seed stocks, therefore, helps in increasing the

number of main stems and consequently the yield by ensuring quick,
uniform and full germination.
Planting
Ridge and Furrow Method
• Ridge and furrow method is the most popular method
carried out manually or mechanically
• The lengths of the ridges depend on slope of the plot
• Too long ridges and furrows are not suitable for

irrigation
• The potato tubers are planted on ridges and irrigation

water is let into the furrows
Planting
• In hills, after placement of fertilizer in shallow furrows
drawn with hand tools, tubers are placed and covered with
soil to make ridges.
• Care should be taken that seed tubers should not come in

direct contact of fertilizers.
• In mechanical method, furrows are made with the help of

tractor drawn 2-4 row marker co fertilizer drills so as to
apply fertilizer in one sequence
• This is followed by planting of tubers with the help of 2-

row planter cum ridger
Flat Bed Method
• In this method, the whole plot is divided into beds of convenient length and
width
• Shallow furrows are opened and potato tubers are planted at recommended
distance
• Tubers are covered with the soil of furrows
• When the germination is completed and plants become 10 to 12 cm height,
earthing up is done
• Suitable plant spacing in relating to potato seed grades are given in the
below
Diameter of tuber from longer axis Planting distance (row x plant)
2.5 - 3.5cm 50 x 20 or 60 x 15 cm
3.5 - 5.0 cm 60 x 25 cm
5.0 - 6.0 cm 60 x 40 cm
Seed Size and Spacing
• Proper combination of seed size and spacing is essential to get the required
number of stems per unit area
• It can be obtained by planting 40-50 g tuber with 40-50mm diameter at a

spacing of 45-60cm between rows and 20-25cm between the tubers with in
rows
• Tubers are sold on weight basis; therefore, planting of large tubers is more
expensive
• These tubers are cut into pieces, each containing at least 1-2 eyes
• Tuber cutting is not recommended specially when producing a seed crop

because of danger of transmitting viruses and bacteria
• Hence, special care is taken to avoid tuber decay when such cut tubers are
used for plantation.
DORMANCY
• Hill tubers cannot be used for autumn crop immediately because
of dormancy period which remains for 2-3 months in tubers
• Similarly, potato mini tubers cannot be planted immediately after

harvest and during unknown period of harvest
• Duration of dormancy in potato mini tubers depends on cultivar,

ripening time, growth condition, maintenance condition in store
and the tuber size
• Mini tubers’ dormancy period is longer than normal seed tubers
• In these conditions, it is essential to break down the dormancy

period
• Thiourea solution (Sodium Potassium thiocynate) @ 1-2% which is
used as a treatment to cut tubers for 11/2 hours and about 1 kg of
thiourea is sufficient for 1 tonne of seed tuber
• Tubers are kept in 5ppm solution of GA3 for 10 seconds
• Treat the tuber with aqueous solution of thiourea for one hour
followed by dipping in 2 ppm solution of GA for 10 seconds.
• Ethylene chlorohydrine used as a gas treatment. Six parts of water

and 4 parts of chemical is mixed and the tubers are kept in this
solution for 5 days in an air tight chamber and temperature should
be kept at 70-80oF.
• The tubers from cold storage are warmed up at 60oF for 10-14 days
before sowing which sprout quickly and give good germination
stand.
Potato Planting
Making furrows & Fertilization

Placing Seed Tubers
Furadan application
Closing the furrows
Planting with Potato Planter
NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
• Soil poor in organic matter content should be supplied with 25- 50 t
/ha of Farm Yard Manure or compost during land preparation
• When it is grown in medium type of soils, it needs 100-150 kg/ha

nitrogen, 80-100 kg each of phosphorus and potash per hectare
• Two-third to three fourth quantity of nitrogen along with whole

quantity of phosphorus and potash is applied at the time of planting
• Remaining one fourth to one third nitrogen is applied 30-35days

after planting.
INTERCULTURAL OPERATIONS
• Mulching helps in conserving soil moisture, reducing soil temperature
and inducing quick germination.
• Local available materials such as pine needles or leaf litters are quite
effective in controlling run off losses and conserving moisture.
• Weeds are effectively managed by cultural or chemical methods or

combination of both methods.
• Weeds are effectively controlled by hoeing and weeding when the crop
is about a month old followed by earthing up.
• Pre-emergence application of Fluchloralin@ 1 kg a.i. per ha or

Alachlor@ 1 kg a.i. per ha or Pendimethalin @ 1.8 kg a.i. per ha or
Atrazine @ 1.0 kg a.i. per ha can effectively control the weeds.
• Post emergence application (5-10% emergence) of paraquat@ 0.36
kg a.i. per ha is also effective
• Application of Tok-e-25 @2.5kg a.i. per ha as post emergence

application at about 2-3 leaf stage is also helpful in managing the
weeds.
• The use of herbicides in potato crop in general is not essential

because earthing up operation destroys almost all weeds, if
somehow, weed plants are growing on ridges, they may be pulled
out by hands.
• Pre-emergence application of Nitrofen @ 1.0 kg a.i. /ha or post

emergence application of Propanil @ 1.0 kg a.i. /ha may to be used
in 800-1000 litre of water.
Cultural Practices
Seasons
* Three distinct seasons
1. Summer season: Planting - Apr- May,
harvesting – Aug - Sep
Ist week of April – optimum time
2. Autumn season: Planting in Aug – Sep,

harvesting – Nov-Dec
1st fortnight of August – optimum time
3. Irrigated condition: Planting in Jan- Feb,

harvesting – May – Jun
Last week of January to 1st week of
February – optimum time
• Planting: making furrow across the slope
• Spacing - 60 x 20 cm
• Tuber to be covered by making ridges of 10 cm
• 60 cm gap for every 3 m plot
• Nematicide application – Furadan – 65 kg/ha

Intercultural Operation
• Weeding : manually 20-25 days
• Paraquat @ 2.5 litre/ha (<5% emergence)
• Hoeing: 30-45 days days after planting
• Earthing up: 50-55 days after planting

Nutrient Management in Potato
•Organic manures: FYM – 12 t/ha
•Inorganic sources :
90N : 135 P : 90 K kg per hectare at planting
• Ammonium So4 – 450Kg/ha, 180kg/acre or DAP 293Kg/ha, 117
Kg/acre or CAN – 152 kg/ha, 60 kg/ acre
• SSP - 850 Kg/ha, 340kg/acre;
• MOP - 150 Kg/ha, 60kg/acre
• * Preferably use straight fertilizers
Potato Inter-cropping
Garlic intercropping Wheat intercropping
Barley intercropping
• The crop is harvested when it is fully matured which can be characterized by when
haulms turn yellow and no pulling out of skin on rubbing of tubers
• At the time of harvesting, field should not be too wet nor too dry
• Tractor operated potato diggers are available for digging the tubers from the fields
• Harvested potatoes are heaped under shade for a couple of days, so that their skin
becomes hard and soil adhering with them is also separated out
• Yield under good crop management: 35 – 45 t / ha of marketable potatoes of good

quality
• Average yield:
– Early varieties: 20 t /ha
– Late Varieties : 30 t /ha
GRADING
The tubers are, generally, categorized into 3 grades according to the

size and weight of the tubers.
• Grade A (Large): Tuber weight more than 75g

• Grade B (Medium): tuber weight between 50-75g
• Grade C (Small): Tuber weight less than 50g
• Over sized tubers are great in demand for chips making.
• However, both the over sized and under sized are quite unsuitable
for seed purpose.
Post Harvest Handling
• Nearly 20% of total potato production is used as planting material in the following
season
• Therefore, handling of seed stocks is particularly become very important
• After harvesting, tubers are kept in heaps in cool places for drying /curing of skin
i.e. for 10-15 days
• Heaps 3-4 m long wide at the base and 1 m in the central height are the best
• In hills, tubers are spread in well ventilated rooms for drying
• After grading potato tubers meant for use as seed crop next year are treated with
3% boric acid solution for 30 minutes for protecting against soil borne pathogen
before storing in the bags.
Potato harvester
Potato Grader
Artificial dormancy breaking
Placing the carbon-di-sulphide @ 30 ml/q inside potato seed heaps

2. Placing leaf/straw over the
tubers after keeping the carbon-
di-sulphide
3.Covering the treated

potato seed with soil
Diseases
1. Early blight : (Alternaria solani)

• The infection appears on lower leaves with necrotic spots having concentric rings.
• This fungus survives in the soil in diseased plant debris.
• High moisture and low temperature is favourable for disease.
Control measures
• Follow crop rotation.
• Spray the crop with Mancozeb@ 0.2 per cent, 30-35 days after planting and grow
tolerant varieties such as Kufri Jeevan.
2. Late Blight : (Phytophthora infestans)

• The infection appears at the tips or edges of the lower leaves with circular or
irregular water soaked spots.
• White downy fungus growth appears on the underside of the leaves around the
spots.
• Cloudy weather is conducive for very fast spread of the disease.
• Later the disease may spread to tubers and initiate rotting.
Late blight infected foliage
•Dithane M 45 @
2.5kg /ha,
1 kg/acre Resistant
•Curzate @ 1.5 kg/ha, variety –
600 g/acre
Kufri Girdhari
PCN - Origin and Distribution
• Andes Mountains of South
America
• Europe in 1850s along with

the breeding materials –
secondary distribution centre
• Presently – PCN is
distributed in 65 countries
• In India – F.G.W. Jones first

reported from Ootacamund,
The Nilgiris district in 1961
Symptoms
• Symptoms appear if nematode population is 10 eggs and
larvae/ 100 mg soil
• First above ground symptom – poor growth in small

patches in field
• Yellowing of leaves and wilting
• Falling of leaves – infected plants die prematurely
• Reduction in size and number of tubers – poor yield
• Disease called as ‘potato sickness’

Initial symptoms in field Severely infested field
Healthy and nematode Nematode infection in

infected plant roots
Heavily infected PCN field
Integrated Nematode Management
Chemical control
– Carbofuran@ 2 kg a.i./ha
(or) 65kg/ha
Resistant varieties
• Kufri Swarna
• Kufri Neelima
Crop rotation & Intercropping
• PCN has limited host range – crop rotation is

successful
• 3-4 years rotation with non-solanaceous crops like

cabbage, carrot, radish etc.- reduce nematode build up
• Intercropping with French beans (75:50)

APHIDS
•Myzus persicae: Light to dark green or pink
•Aphis gossypii : Pale yellow to brown, Grey black, or light
to dark green.
•White fly was effectively controlled by two foliar sprays of Imidacloprid or one spray of
Ethion, or two sprays of Imidacloprid plus summer oil in the early (mid September) planted
crop.
CUT WORMS
(Agrotis sp.)
Nature of damage
- At early stage, caterpillars cut the stem
of young plants near ground and feed
on shoots and leaves
- After tuberization, bore and nibble into

tubers
Management
• Fork the soil during period of attack then
expose cutworms for birds etc.
• Spray the crop or ridges with

chlorpyriphos 20EC @ 2.5l/ha at 2.0%
plant damage.
WHITE GRUBS
(Holotrichia longipennis)
Nature of damage:
In two ways
• Initial feeding of grubs on roots
• After tuberisatiion – feed on tubers
• Large, shallow, circular holes on
tubers
Management
•Plough infested fields

•Collect beetles at night and kill them in kerosinized water
•In potato crop, apply Phorate 10G @ 20kg/ha or Chlorpyriphos 20
EC @ 2.5 lit./ha
POTATO TUBER MOTH
(Phthorimaea operculella)
Nature of damage
In Field:
•Larvae make transparent galleries in leaves
•Tunnel the stem leading to wilting
•larvae feed on tubers making tunnels
In Stores:
•Larvae bore near the eyes of tubers
•Tunnels are filled with excrement
•Fungus grows in burrows
•Skin of potato partially dries and sinks
1. Hollow Heart:
• It is caused by rapid growth of tubers
• Tubers become oversized and remain empty with in leading to
the formation of cavity in the centre with the death of the small
area of pith cells
• This results in adjacent cracks and hollowness as the centre
expands during the growth of the potato
Management
• Maintain soil moisture conditions to the optimum level. Avoid
over fertilization particularly N.
• Grow those varieties which are less prone to this defect.
Hollow Heart
2. Black Heart:
• It is caused by sub-oxidation conditions under
potato tuber storage in piles as the air does not get
into the centre.
• It occurs due to higher temperature and excessive
moisture resulted in blackening of tissues in the
centre.
• The appearance of the tuber affect the consumers
otherwise there is no decay.
Management
• Provide proper ventilation. Keep potato tubers in
layers. Do not store tubers in the heap.
Black Heart
3. Greening:
• There are various factors which increases the
glycoalkaloid contents such as mechanical injury,
premature harvest, and excessive application of
fertilizers or exposure of tubers to sunlight which leads
to solanin production which is slightly poisonous.
Management
• Proper earthing up of tubers as the tuberization takes
place. Store tubers in darkness after digging up.
Greening in Potato
ONION
Allium cepa L. (2n = 2 x = 16) (Hindi: Pyaz)
Onion - odour, flavour and pungency is
due to the presence of a volatile oil – allyl-propyl-disulphide.
- formed by enzymatic reaction when tissues are broken.
Use: salad, cooked in curries; fried, boiled, baked ; in

making soups, pickles etc.
Value addition - dehydrated onions and onion flakes.
Onion bulb - rich in minerals like P and Ca
Medicinal uses: diuretic ; applied on wounds and boils

Onion greens are also used- by harvesting at vegetative stage
India : Status of Onion cultivation
- 2nd largest producer of onion in the world, next to China

- third in export of onions, next to Netherlands and Spain
- Maharashtra is the leading onion producing state;

followed by Karnataka and Gujarat
- also grown on extensive scale in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, UP,

TN, Rajasthan and Bihar
Origin :
Onion originated in Asia.

- area comprising Pakistan, Iran and mountain areas to the
North is primary centre of origin of onion.
Types of onion:
1. Common onion (Allium cepa var. cepa)
2. Multiplier onion or potato onion (Allium cepa var. aggregatum)
3. Shallot (Allium cepa var. ascalonicum)
4. Tree onion or Egyptian onion (Allium cepa var. viviparaum /

proliferum)
5. Chive (A. schoenoprasum)
6. A. fistulosum
1.Common onion (Allium cepa var. cepa)
– with large bulbs born singly; propagated through seeds;
mainly used as salad or in curries.

2. Multiplier onion or potato onion
(Allium cepa var. aggregatum)
– producing small bulbs borne in clusters

- generally propagated through small bulbs
-mainly used for seasoning curries
-grown in Tamil Nadu
3. Shallot (Allium cepa var. ascalonicum)
– Produces bulbs in clusters on surface of soil.

-a perennial onion ; rarely produces seeds;
-propagated through bulbs.
4. Tree onion or Egyptian onion
(Allium cepa var. viviparaum / proliferum)
– this is viviparous - plant produces a perennial underground bulb
- not widely cultivated.
-bulblets produced on umbel are used for pickling and seasoning
-bulblets are also used for propagation.
Capsules
Onion sets growing from green stalks

5. Chive (A. schoenoprasum) (2n=16, 24, 32).
•a hardy perennial bunching herb ;

•grown for their hollow green leaves
•propagated by root division
•tolerant to extreme cold and drought.
24. A. fistulosum
perennial bunching species;
very common in China and Japan
grown for edible tops and leaf bases.
Botany
The leaves are tubular

bulbs are formed by the attachment of swollen leaf bases around a small
and rudimentary underground stem
Flowers are produced during second phase after formation of bulbs.
Inflorescence is an ‘umbel’ - an aggregate of many small cymes of 5-10

flowers.
Length of peduncle - known a ‘scape’ - varies with variety.
flowers are hermaphrodite

cross pollinated due to protandry
pollination is by honey bees when they visit flowers for nectar
Stigma becomes receptive 3-4 days after shedding of pollen grains.

Artificial selfing - done by covering all umbels of a plant together with a
muslin cloth; and by shaking or rubbing each other or by introducing flies.
Male sterility IN ONION :
is due to genetic- and cytoplasmic factors.

Jones and Clarke (1943) : there are two types of cytoplasm
normal (N) and sterile (S).
‘S’ cytoplasm : male sterile plants have ‘S’ cytoplasm
- inherited maternally through egg cell of mother plant
[S(msms)] : recessive gene ‘ms’ in homozygous condition (msms) with ‘S’

cytoplasm results in pollen sterility
N cytoplasm; and Ms genes – give male fertility :
[N(MsMs)], N(Ms ms), N(msms) ; S (MsMs) and S (Msms) are fertile.
•modifier genes, environmental factors- cause variations in expression of

male sterility.
•MALE STERILE LINES ARE USED FOR HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION

Climate
- grows well under mild climate
without extreme heat or cold or excessive rainfall
- does not thrive when rainfall exceeds 75 -100 cm in monsoon season
- ideal temperature for vegetative growth is 12.8 – 23 oC

- For bulb formation it requires long days and higher temperature (20-25oC).
- onion is treated as a long day plant,
- But for bulb formation and development - varieties differ in their response
to length of day.
- cultivars grown in plains of North India are short day cultivars
- Long day varieties will not produce bulbs under short day conditions
- SDcultivars if planted under LD conditions will develop early bulbs
- For seed production, temperature has more relevance than photoperiod.
Soil
- Onion prefers a well drained, loose and friable soil rich in humus.
- It is sensitive to high acidity and alkalinity
- ideal pH is 5.8 to 6.5.
Varieties
Onion varieties differ in size, colour of skin, pungency, and maturation etc.
Large sized bulbs - mild in pungency and are sweet in taste
Red coloured cultivars are more pungent than silver skinned varieties
Red coloured cultivars – bulb keep better in storage.
Yellow cultivars have less demand in the market.
local cultivars - are known under names of the locality were they are grown.
Eg: Poona Red, Nasik Red, Bellary Red, Patna Red and Patna White
Most of the improved varieties were developed through

mass selection from local collections of segregating populations.
institution Variety Special features
IIHR, Arka Niketan Bulbs globular and pink; weight of 100- 180g, thin neck,
Bangalore (Sel-13) highly pungent, TSS 12-13%, good storage quality.
Yield 42 t/ha in 145 days.
Arka Kalyan Bulbs globular and pink with a weight of 130- 190 g,
(Sel-14) TSS 11-13%, good storage quality. Suitable for kharif
season only. Moderately resistant to purple blotch.
Arka Bindu Bulbs small, crimson red colour with 12.5%

Rose onion) TSS. Yield 25 t/ha in 90-95 days.
Arka Pragathi Bulbs globular with thin neck and deep pink with high
pungency. Early variety with good storage quality.
Arka Niketan- Good storage
Open pollinated varieties :
:Bulb yield: 40t/ha

Kharif onion-Purple blotch tolerant Bulb yield 35t/ha
IIHR- Developed varieties/hybrids : 14
Arka Lalima: F1 hybrid:

-Uniform , Flat globe,
- Dark red color
-Bulb yield 45 t/ha.
-Good keeping quality.
-Tolerant to disease & pests
Arka Lalima: F1 hybrid
Arka Kirthiman: F1 hybrid:

-Uniform , Oval globe,
Red to light red bulb color
-Bulb yield 40 t/ha.
-Good keeping quality.
-Tolerant to disease & pests
Arka Kirthiman: F1 hybrid
institution Variety Special features
IARI, Pusa Red Bulbs red, globular, 5-6 cm in diameter and 70- 90 g
New Delhi
weight, less pungent, good keeping quality,
TSS 12-13%, yield 25-30 t/ha in 125- 140 days.
Pusa Ratnar Bulbs bronze deep rd, flat globular, less pungent and good
keeping quality, yield 32.5- 35 t/ha in 145-150 days.
Pusa White Round Bulbs medium to large, attractive round, good keeping
quality, suitable for dehydration, yield 32.5 t/ha in 125-
140 days.
Pusa Madhvi Bulbs light red, good keeping quality, yield 30- 40 t/ha.
Pusa White Flat Good for dehydration and green onion, yield 33-35 t/ha.
Introduction from USA with large globular yellow
Early Grano
coloured bulbs having mild pungency, suitable for salad
purpose and for green onion purpose, poor keeping
quality, yield 50-60 t/ha in 95 days.
IARI Regional Brown Spanish Long day type suitable for hills, yield 28 t/ha in
Station, Katrain 160-180 days.
NHRDF, Nasik Agrifound Bulbs dark red, globular 4-6 cm in diameter,
Dark Red moderately pungent, TSS 13%, good keeping
quality, yield 30-40 t/ha in 160-165 days.
Agrifound Suitable for export bulbs dark red,

Rose yield 19-20 t/ha.
VPKS, VL 3 Bulbs medium size, globular, red and pungent.

Almora, UP. Yield 25 t/ha in 145 days.
CSAU&T, Kalyanpur Red Bulbs light red, yield 20 t/ha.

Kanpur. Round
RAU, Udaipur 102

Bulbs white suitable for dehydration, yield 25-
Rajashthan
30 t/ha.
Bulbs brick red, globular, 6.1 cm in diameter,
MPKV, Rahuri N-2-4-1
pungent and firm with good keeping quality,
TSS 12-13%, yield 30 t/ha in 140 days.
N-257-9-1 Bulbs globular and white, suitable for rabi
season, suitable for dehydration. Yield 25 t/ha
in 125 days.
Baswant-780 Bulbs crimson red with 12% TSS.
N-53 Suitable for kharif season. Bulbs shining red,

(Nishad- 53) less pungent, globular, yield 15-20 t/ha.
HAU, Hisar Hisar-2 Bulbs light red, yield 20 t/ha.
PAU, Punjab Naroya Bulbs red, medium to large, round with thin neck,
tolerant to purple blotch, yield 37.5 t/ha. In 123
Ludhiana.
days.
Punjab Selection Bulbs red, globular, 5-6 cm in diameter and 50- 70 g
in weight, good keeping quality, yield 30
t/ha.
Punjab Red Round Bulbs shining red, globular, medium size with thin
neck, yield 28-30 t/ha.
S-148 Bulbs white, flat round, average weight 80 g, TSS 12-
13%, good storage quality, yield 25-30
t/ha in 140 days.
F1 Hybrids from IIHR, Bangalore
Arka Kirtiman, Arka Lalima and Arka Pitamber.
Arka Kirtiman - F1 hybrid of CMS 65 x Selection 13-1-1.

Suitable for kharif and rabi seasons, bulbs medium size and dark red,
yield 45-60 t/ha, good keeping quality, suitable for export to Gulf countries.
Arka Lalima – F1 hybrid of MS 48 x Selection 14-1-1, bulbs globe shaped and

deep red ; weighing 120-130 g, good shelf life of 5 months,
tolerant to purple blotch, suitable for export to Gulf countries.
Arka Pitamber (IIHR Yellow) – Short day variety ; globe shaped yellow bulbs,
average bulb weight 80 g, moderately resistant to purple blotch, yield 35-38 t/ha.
Varieties suitable for exports
Yellow onion:
Rose onion: Arka Bindu, Arka Vishwas
Arka Pitamber: 35t/ha Arka Sona: 42t/ha
Bulb yield: 25t/ha Bulb yield : 30t/ha
Arka Ujjwal-True seed multiplier Arka ujjwal field view

Bulb yield: 30t/ha
Rose onion varieties
1. Arka Bindu & Arka Vishwas
2. Agri found rose
3. Farmers varieties
4. Exporters varieties
5. Local variety
Variability in rose onion types
Purple colour bulbs Deep red colour bulbs
Red colour bulbs

Variability in rose onion and improvement
Bulbs of Arka bindu, Agrifound rose and
Local rose onion
Methods of planting
- three methods of planting are followed depending on soil, topography, climatic
conditions and economic aspects:
Raising seedlings and transplanting
Planting bulbs directly in the field.
Broadcasting or drilling of seeds directly in the field.
1. Transplanting method
- most common method practiced for irrigated crop; give high yield and large size
bulbs. In plains, seeds are sown during October-November for a Rabi crop
- In hills, seeds are sown from March to June.
- sow seeds in nursery beds of convenient length.
- Raito between nursery area and main field is about 1:20.
- Seed rate varies from 8 to 10 kg/ha.
- Seedlings of 8 weeks: 15 cm height are good for transplanting
- Time varies from 6-10 weeks depending on soil, climate and receipt of rain.
- topping of seedlings at transplanting is done if seedlings are over-grown.
- land is brought to a fine tilth by thorough ploughing, leveling and breaking clods.
- field is then divided into small plots of convenient sizes for irrigation and
seedlings are transplanted at 15 x 8-10 cm spacing.
2. Planting of bulbs
This method is practiced in hill slope and in terrace cultivation

since seedlings are easily washed off in rain.
Medium to small sized bulbs alone are used for plating since large sized bulbs result
in early bolting and high cost.
Medium sized bulbs obtained from a seedling planted June crop are used for planting
in September – October after giving a month rest.
Bulbs are dibbled at 15 cm apart on the side of 45 cm wide ridges or in beds or in
furrows depending on soil or climate.
10-12 quintals of bulbs are required to plant one hectare.
3. Broadcasting or drilling method
Direct sowing by broadcasting or drilling at 30 cm apart is practiced in some areas to

save labour for transplanting.
seed requirement is as high as 25 kg / ha.
Care should be taken to remove weeds during initial stages to prevent smothering of
seedlings by weeds.
weeding is done at 10 days interval for the first 1-2 months.
When bulbs are 6-8 weeks old, seedlings should be thinned to proper distance which
usually synchronizes with gap filling.
Manures and fertilizers, in Tamil Nadu :
- Apply FYM 25 t/ha,
- Azospirillum 2 kg and Phosphobacteria 2 kg/ha,
- N PK @ 30 : 60 : 30 kg/ha as basal; and 30 kg N/ha on 30 th day of sowing.
Irrigation
Onion is mainly grown as an irrigated crop in India.
Frequency of irrigation depends on soil and climatic conditions.
Requirement of water varies with stages of crop.
It requires less water immediately after establishment of seedlings and consumption
goes on increasing with maximum requirement before maturity, around 3 months after
transplanting, and thereafter it is reduced.
So irrigate the crop at 13-15 days interval during early stage followed by subsequent
irrigations at 7-10 days interval.
Weeding and inter-culture

During early stages of the crop, plants grow slowly and it is essential to remove weeds.
Pre-plant incorporation of Basalin (2 kg a.i./ha) along with one hand weeding at 45 days
after transplanting is recommended to control weeds.
Being a shallow rooted crop, deep inter-culture operation is likely to injure roots and
reduce yield.
Two hoeings are essential for making soil loose and to cover bulbs.
- ready for harvest in 3-5 months after transplanting depending on variety.
- Harvesting is done by pulling out plants when tops are drooping but still green
- During hot days when soil is hard, bulbs are pulled out with a hand-hoe.
- Yield varies 15-25 tonnes/ ha of bulbs of transplanted crop.
- Yield of kharif crop is comparatively low.
Rainy season onion cultivation

Onion was grown during rabi season only. Development of varieties suitable for
rainy season is a significant achievement in onion breeding and it resulted in
cultivation of onion in kharif season also.
Varieties like N-53, Agrifound Dark Red, Baswant 780 and Arka Kalyan are suitable
for growing in rainy season.
- seeds are sown by end of May or June, transplanted in August and harvested
in December-January.
- In kharif season, yield will be less : ranges from 15-20 t/ha.
Green onion or Spring onion

Both bulb- forming and non-bulb forming types are used as green onion.
For green onion crop, seeds are sown in August, transplanted in October and
harvested after 75-80 days at tender stage.
Varieties : Grano, Pusa White Flat and Pusa White Round are suitable for green
onion purposes. Yield ranges from 40-45 t/ha.
Post-harvest handling
60-65% of onion produced in India is consumed internally, 5% exported and
30-40% lost by post harvest damage.
Curing
Sprouting and rotting - problems in storage since bulbs contain high moisture.
The bulbs should be adequately cured for proper development of skin colour and to remove field
heat before storage of bulbs.
It is done till the neck is tight and outer scales are dried. This will prevent infection of diseases and
minimize shrinkage loss. Bulbs are cured either in field or in open shade or by artificial means
before storage.
During kharif season, bulbs are cured for 2-3 weeks along with top.
In rabi, bulbs are cured in field for 3-5 days; tops are cut leaving 2.0-2.5 cm above bulb and again
cured for 7-10 days to remove field heat.
Storage
cured bulbs are stored in well ventilated rooms by spreading them on dry and damp proof floorings
or on racks. Periodical turning of bulbs and removal of rotten and sprouted bulbs is highly essential.
pre-harvest spray of MH (2000-2500 ppm) prevents rotting and sprouting of bulbs stored at room
temperature. At BARC, Trombay irradiation of bulbs with very low doses (4000-9000 krads) of
gamma rays is effective for preventing sprouting and enhancing storage life of onion bulbs.
Bulbs harvested from kharif crop do not store well for long period. At 0 - 2.2oC under cold
storage, bulbs can be stored for long period.
Storage structures, viz., Panipat type 2- tiered, 3-tier onion store and 2-tier model were established
by Government itself investing heavily.
Dehydrated onion
Popularity of dehydrated onion is increasing now-a-days. Advantages of dehydrated
onion are storage stability and ease of preparation. Commercial processing plants
prescribes a shrinkage ratio of 7:1 to 17:1 with a moisture content of 4% in final
product. Dehydrated onions are sold in many forms as slices, chopped, minced,
granulated and powdered.
Bulbs for dehydration should have the following characteristics:
 Devoid of any green patches so that it may not develop discoloration on

drying. White onions are preferred to red or yellow onions.
 TSS of 15-20o Brix in common onion and 25oBrix in multiplier onion.
 Onion with small neck and root zone and those with tall globe shape are
preferred than flat types to permit greater efficiency in topping.
 Large bulbs are preferred due to economy in harvests.
 Pungency should be high since dehydrated product is primarily sued as
flavouring agent.
 The bulb should have good stability with minimum shrinkage loss and
rotting. Moisture content should be around 80%.
.
Varieties like Pusa White Red, Pusa White Flat, S-48 and N- 257-9-1 and Udaipur-102
are suitable for dehydration purposes.
Seed Production
Onion is a cross-pollinated crop
and isolation distance : 1000-1600 m for foundation seeds
500 m for certified seeds
Two methods of seed production: seed to seed method and bulb to seed method.
Even though seed yield is more under seed to seed method, bulb to seed method
is followed for production of quality seeds.
In bulb to seed method, bulbs are produced as for market and bulbs with desired
quality are replanted for seed production.
Bulbs are replanted in first fortnight of October.
Normally medium sized bulbs of 2.5 to 3.0 cm diameter are planted on the side of
ridges or on beds at 45 x 30-45 cm spacing.
1000 kg bulb is required to plant one hectare.
Flower stalks will be produced during third month after planting of bulbs
seeds ripen within six weeks after formation of flower clusters.
Heads are harvested when seeds turn black in colour, but before seeds are shed.
Seeds are dried in well ventilated rooms under shade and are stored.
Seed yield is 800 – 1000 kg / ha.
Seed production of varieties which do not store well in storage (of bulbs) is done by
seed to seed method.
Varieties identified for dehydration and Paste
Dehydration WPL-245-411
Paste WPL-249-439
34
Evaluation of onion genotype for paste
Moisture, Slice and paste yield in different onion lines

Line Moistur% Slice yield % Paste yield %
Arka Kirthiman 87.3 92.00 96.85
Arka Ujjwal 77.6 89.00 91.10

Arka Lalima 85.5 91.58 93.20
Arka Swadistha 77.6 87.21 92.00
Arka Viswas 79.7 87.00 89.55

Arka Sona 82.3 86.82 92.47
Production technology of GARLIC
(Allium sativum)
Garlic is used as a spice or condiment throughout India
It is also important foreign exchange earner for India.
Garlic has higher nutritive value than other bulb crops.
It is rich in proteins, P. K. Ca, Mg and carbohydrates.
Ascorbic acid content is very high in green garlic.
Garlic
• Garlic (Allium sativum) - one of the important bulb crops
• Used as a spice or condiment
• Garlic - important foreign exchange earner for India
• Garlic - higher nutritive value than other bulb crops
• Rich in proteins, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, magnesium &
carbohydrates
• Ascorbic acid content is very high in green garlic
Garlic
• Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Orissa, Rajasthan, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Bihar - major producers
• Used in varied food preparations - chutneys, pickles, curry powders,

curried vegetables, meat preparations, tomato ketchup, etc.
• It has also been used extensively as a popular remedy for various

ailments and psychological disorders since vedic period
Particular Fresh peeled Dehydrated garlic
garlic cloves powder
Moisture (%) 62.80 5.20
Protein (%) 6.30 17.50
Fat (%) 0.10 0.60
Mineral matter (%) 1.00 3.20
Fibre (%) 0.80 1.90
Carbohydrates (%) 29.00 71.40

Nutritive value of garlic
Composition Quantity
Moisture (%) 62.80
Protein (%) 6.30
Fat (%) 0.10
Mineral matter (%) 1.00
Fibre (%) 0.80
Carbohydrates (%) 29.00
Energy K. Cal 145.00
Calcium (%) 0.03
Phosphorus (%) 0.30
Magnesium (mg/100 g) 71.00
Iron (%) 0.001
Copper (mg/100 g) 0.63
Manganese (mg/100 g) 0.86
Zinc (mg/100 g) 1.93
Chromium (mg/100 g) 0.02
Vitamin A (IU) 0.40
Nicotinic acid (mg/100 g) 0.40
Vitamin C (mg/100 g) 13.00
Vitamin B (mg/100 g) 16.00
Riboflavin B2 (mg/100 g) 0.23
Thiamin (mg/100 g) 0.06
Garlic bulbs
contain allicin - a colourless, odourless and water-soluble amino acid
On crushing garlic bulbs - enzyme allinase breaks down allin to produce allicin
Principal ingredient of allicin is odoriferous diallyl disulpide.
Diallyle disulfide possesses the true garlic odour.
Garlic contains about 0.1% volatile oil –
the chief constituents of oil are diallyl disulfide (60% )
Origin: in Central Asia and Southern Europe especially Mediterranean region.

MEDICINAL VALUE
garlic is a carminative and gastric stimulant - help in digestion and absorption of food
Allicin present in aquous extract of garlic reduces cholesterol in human blood.
Inhalation of garlic oil or garlic juice is recommended by doctors in case of pulmonary
tuberculosis rheumatism, sterility, impotency, cough and red eyes
Insecticidal property
1% garlic extract gives protection against mosquitoes for 8 hours.
Extract of garlic + chilli + ginger has beneficial action against soil nematodes.
Beneficial use of garlic extract has been found against many fungi.
.
VARIETIES
Garlic varieties, developed by NHRDF - notified by the Government of India.
Agrifound White, Yamuna Safed,

Yamuna Safed 2 , and Yamuna Safed 3
Agrifound White
The bulbs are compact, silvery white with creamy flesh.

Bigger elongated cloves with 20-25 in numbers.
Diameter 3.5 to 4.5 cm size index 12-15 cm2.
susceptible to purple blotch and stem phylium blight diseases
TSS 41% ; dry matter 42.78% ; and good storer.
Average yield is 13 t /ha.
recommended for areas where there is not much problem of purple blotch or
stemphylium blight in rabi season.
YAMUNA SAFED (G-1)
bulbs are compact, silvery white skin with creamy flesh.

Diameter 4.0 cm to 4.5 cm.
Sickle shaped cloves, 25-30 in number,
diameter of cloves 0.8 to 1.00 cm.
tolerant to insect pests and diseases
l ike purple blotch, stemphylium blight and onion thrips.
TSS 38%, dry matter 39.5% and good storer.
Yield 15 – 17.5 tonnes/ha.
It is recommended for cultivation all over the country.
YAMUNA SAFED-2 (G-50)
bulbs are compact attractive white creamy flesh,

bulb diameter 3.5-4.0 cm,
number of cloves 35-40, diameter 0.75 - 14 cm.
bulb weight 160- 240 g,
TSS 38-40%, dry matter 40-41%.
Average yield 15 - 20 t/ha
recommended for Northern India.
Common vroety of North and Central parts of India.
developed by mass selection from a local collection

from Dindigul (TN) in 1990.
leaves are wider than other varieties.

Bulbs are creamy white and bigger (5- 6cm dia)
diameter of cloves 1.2-1.5 cm.

15-16 cloves per bulb; TSS 38.42%,
dry matter 39-43%, medium storer
average yield 17.5 - 20.0 t/ha.
The variety is suitable for export.
A notified variety by GoI : notification no.1092 (E) dated 26/10/1999.
AGRIFOUND PARVATI
- developed in 1992 by selection from a collection from Hongkong
- long day type; suitable for mid and high hill of Northern states.
- bulbs are of bigger size (5 - 6.5 cm), creamy white colour with pinkish tinge
- diameter of cloves 1.5 to 1.8 cm, number of 10-16/ bulb
- tolerant to common diseases
- average yield 17.5 - 22.5 t/ha,
- medium storer. Suitable for export

developed by mass selection from a local collection of Jaunpur, UP in 1988.
Leaf wide, Bulb- compact, attractive creamy white colour, creamy flesh,
bulb diameter 4-5 cm, no. of cloves 18-23 per bulb,
diameter of cloves 0.75-1.0 cm,
matures in 165-175 days.
Yield 20 - 25 t/ha.
Storage quality is better than Yamuna Safed-3
Suitable for exports
CLIMATE
Garlic is frost hardy plant
require cool and moist period during growth; and dry period for maturity of bulbs.
Bulbing takes place during longer days and at high temperature,
exposure to low temperature subsequent to bulb formation, favours the process.
The critical day length for bulbing (12 hrs) along with temperature affects bulbing.
Exposures of dormant cloves or young plants to temperature of around 20 0C or lower
depending upon varieties for 1-2 months hasten subsequent bulbing.
SOIL
garlic can be grown on a variety of soils
but prefers a fertile, well-drained loam soils
pH of soil between 6 and 7 is suitable for good crop
highly alkaline and saline soils are not suitable for garlic cultivation.
PLANTING
The time of planting differs from region-to-region.
- planted from August to October in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh,
- September to November in Northern plains of India.
In Gujarat, planting is done during October-November.
season for planting in higher hills of Northern part is March-April; and Sept-Oct.
In West Bengal and Orissa, October-November is best time for planting.
Cloves of 8-10 mm diameter size give high yield of better quality,

care should be taken to select bigger cloves from outer side of bulbs.
About 500 kg cloves of 8-10 mm diameter are required to plant one hectare.
MANURES AND FERTILIZERS
Garlic responds very well to organic manures. FYM : 50 tonnes/ ha
NPK 100 : 50 : 50 Kg/ha
Micronutrients also increase its yield potential.
IRRIGATION
at 8 days intervals during vegetative growth and 10-15 days during maturation
as the crop matures (when the tops first begin to break over or become dry),
stop irrigation to allow field to dry out first.
Continued irrigation after crop maturity causes roots and bulb scales rot.
This discolour the bulbs and decreases the market value of bulbs.
Irrigation after long spell of drought results in splitting of bulbs.
Excessive irrigation results in sprouting.
INTERCULTURE
First weeding is done one month after planting and
second weeding - one month after first weeding.
Hoeing done just before bulb formation (about 2.5 months after sowing)
Hoeing helps in setting of bigger sized well filled bulbs.
Pendimethalin @ 3.5 litres or Goal @ 0.25 kg/ha + 1 hand-weeding gives good

control of broad leave weeds.
HARVESTING AND CURING
becomes ready for harvesting when its tops turn yellowish or brownish; and show
signs of drying up and bend over.
G 282 is early-maturing cultivar.
Bulbs are taken out along with tops and kept in each row for curing.
YIELD
The yields of bulbs vary from 10 to 20 tonnes/ ha

depending upon variety and regions.
SEED PRODUCTION
Garlic is propagated by cloves.

Well-grown compact bulbs of uniform shape and size are selected
The cloves having 8-10 cm size are used for planting.
Select cloves from outer ring/ portions for planting
Agro techniques for production of seed are the same as for bulbs production.
PLANT PROTECTION
Garlic is attacked by many diseases and insects pests. Therefore garlic growers need to know the details of
symptoms of diseases and insect pests attacking garlic and their control measures for getting healthy crop.
Diseases and insects pests, and their control measures attacking garlic crop are described as under:
DISEASES
PURPLE BLOTCH
Purple blotch (Alternaria porri) appears on leaves as small whitish sunken lesions with purple centres that
rapidly enlarge. The leaves fall over gradually. Spraying of Mancozeb @ 2.5 g/litre of water at 15 days
intervals gives good control.
STEMPHYLIUM BLIGHT
Stemphylium blight (Stemphylium vesicarium) appears as small, yellow to orange flecks or streaks on
leaf. These soon develop into elongated, spindle-shaped to ovate elongate, diffused spots, often reaching
the leaf tips. They usually turn gray at the centre, brown to dark
olive brown with the development of conidiophores and conidia of the pathogen. The spots frequently
coalesce into extended patches blightening the leaves and gradually the entire foliage.
CERCOSPORA LEAF BLIGHT
Caused by Cercospora duddiae, this disease appears on leaves as small, ash-coloured and irregular
shaped spots scattered on leaf lamina. The spots coalesce gradually and results in blightening of foliage.
Spraying of ziram or captan @ 2.0 g/litre of water or copper oxychloride @ 3.0 g /litre of water at
fortnightly intervals gives good control.
POWDERY MILDEW
Powdery mildew is caused by Leveillula taurica. Distinct pale-yellow patches of variable size on abaxial
surface of leaf associated with powdery mass are its main characteristics. Sulphur fungicides @ 2.0 g/
litre of water if sprayed at regular intervals of 15 days after disease appearance gives good control.
MOSAIC DISEASE
Garlic plants infected with mosaic virus show typical symptoms of chlorotic mottling and strips on first
emerging leaf followed by pale-yellow broken stripes, resulting in typical mosaic pattern on matured leaves.
Yellowish dots on leaves, whitish leaf margin or twisting of leaves are also recorded on a few cultivars.
Generally symptoms are mild on younger leaves than on matured leaves. Bulbs harvested from mosaic
affected plants after maturity remains smaller in size and cloves are fewer in number. Since virus is
transmitted through aphids, spraying of monocrotophos @ 0.5 ml/litre of water or methyl demeton @ 0.75
ml/litre of water is useful.
INSECT PESTS
THRIPS
Thrips (Thrips tabaci) are perhaps the most important insect pests attacking garlic. They are most common
during warm weather. They feed on leaf surfaces, causing them to whiten or silver. They are slender about 1/25"
long usually hide in angles of leaves. Spraying of Malathion @ 1 ml/ litre or methyldemeton @ 0.75 ml/ litre of
water gives good control if sprayed at frequent intervals. Four sprays of fluvalinate (0.04%) at fortnightly
interval at Karnal and malathion (0.1%) at Nasik gave best performance in controlling thrips. Phorate @ 1 kg
ai/ha at planting and 30 days after planting controls thrips effectively.
STEM AND BULB NEMATODE
Caused by Ditylenchus dipsaci, it is a tiny worm almost invisible to the naked eye which invades the tissues of
garlic, and can seriously reduce the yield. The infestation causes the basal portion of mature plants to swell
and become spongy and frequently broken by
longitudinal splits. The tissue rots, the leaves and stems become rotten and twisted and the plant is stunted. In
severely infested plants, basal plants may be so rotted that it pulls away when the plant is lifted, leaving the
roots in the ground. The nematodes are, however, not common in garlic in India.
Pre-planting soil fumigation with dichloro-propene-dichloropropane mixture @ 500 kg/ha is recommended.
Ethylene dibromide and dibromochloropropane (Nemagon) should not be used as these leave residues in soil.
MITES
The eriophyid mite, Aceria tulipae, a common pest of garlic is so small that its infestations are frequently over-
looked. Young garlic plants injured by mites usually have destroyed and twisted leaves with conspicuous yellow
or light green streaking. The leaves may not emerge readily from the cloves and leaf blades separate poorly
after emergence. Bulbs stored for long period may be severely attacked by mites. The cloves wither and bulbs
lose their firmness.
RHIZOGLYPHUS CALLAE AND GLYCOHAQUS DOMESTICUS

These may attack on bulbs in storage. Fumigation of dry bulbs with methyl bromide after harvesting and before
storage controls the mites. Application of methyl bromide @ 1kg/1000 cubic feet for 2 hours at 26ºC is
recommended.
POST- HARVEST MANAGEMENT
About 15-50% losses occur if proper curing practices are not followed.
The post harvest management differ from place-to-place.
Proper curing, sorting, grading, transportation, storage are essential to minimize
these looses.
DRYING AND CURING
Drying and curing are very essential.

Drying is done to remove excess moisture from outer skin and neck to reduce storage rot,
while curing is an additional process of drying to remove the excess moisture and to allow the
colour development and help the bulbs to become compact and go into dormant stage.
It is done for about a week in the field for drying.
The method and period of curing vary depending on weather at the time of harvesting.
Bulbs are covered along with their tops to avoid damage to bulbs from sun.
These are also cured for 7-10 days in shade either with tops or after curing the tops by leaving
2.5 cm above the bulbs and removing the roots.
Harvesting at 100% neck fall and curing by windrow method have been recommended.
The curing in field till foliage turns yellow should be done.
Artificial curing can be done by passing hot air at 27.35ºC through the curing room.
It takes about 48 hours to complete curing process if humidity is between 60 - 75%.
SORTING AND GRADING
Garlic bulbs after curing are run over a grader or graded manually before their
storage or marketing. The thick- necked, splitted, injured, and diseased or bulbs
with hollow cloves are sorted out. Size grading is done after sorting. It is very
much necessary for getting better price and to minimize losses on account of
drying and decay. Government of India has prescribed certain grade
designations for different qualities of garlic for export. The grade designations
and definition of different qualities of garlic have been prescribed.
PACKAGING
In India, garlic bulbs are packed in open mesh jute bags for domestic use. It is
packed in bags of 90 and 40 kg capacity each in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
and other garlic, growing states respectively. As per the garlic grading and
packing rules, 18 and 25 kg packing are done in perforated 10 ply corrugated
cardboard boxes for export. Nylon-netted bags used for packing and further
storage cause minimum losses in storage. In foreign countries, plastic-wooven
bags are very commonly used. These have good strength and are also
attractive. Since garlic needs less ventilation compared to onion, there is a need
to develop suitable packaging to reduce drying loss.
STORAGE
Thoroughly cured garlic bulbs are stored well in ordinary well-ventilated rooms. Garlic with dried leaves can be
stored by hanging in well-ventilated rooms. This is, however, not possible on commercial scale because space
requirement is more. Storage without tops in nylon-netted bags give better performance at Nasik and Karnal as
such the same has been recommended for storage to minimize loss. In Jamangar area (Gujarat), some pockets
of Indore
and Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh and Manipuri and Etah district of Uttar Pradesh, bulbs are stored for 6-8
months. Since garlic stores well for market under a wide range of temperature, controlled conditioned (low
temperature) storage are not necessary. Cloves sprout quickly at 4.4ºC and prolonged storage in this
temperature range should be avoided. Storage at 0.5ºC is satisfactory, but high humidities often accompany low
temperature storage. Garlic stored at humidity higher than 70% at any temperature develop mould and start
rotting. Cold storage of garlic is possible at 32-36ºF and 60-70% relative humidity. The storage loss of 12.5%
is recorded in garlic stored at 1-5ºC and 75% relative humidity compared to 42.4% losses in ambient
temperature. UV light treatment for 30 minutes further reduces loss to 8% in cold stores for 150 days storage.
Irradiation with 2-6 krad of cobalt 60 gamma rays have also been recommended for controlling sprouting in
storage. The irradiation given to bulbs within 8 weeks of harvesting (before sprout initiation) can inhibit
sprouting effectively, reduce weight loss and can prolong storage life for about one year. Doses higher than 10
Kr reduce diallyl disulfide content which gives typical garlic flavour. Storage life of garlic is prolonged and loss in
eight is also reduced by spraying 3000 ppm MH 3 weeks before harvesting. Yamuna Safed (G 1), Yamuna
Safed-2 (G
and G 323 are better storer. Pre-harvest spraying of 0.1% carbendazim and disinfection of premises for handling
and storage of garlic also reduce post-harvest losses particularly decay loss. Phosphorus and potassium
application reduce weight loss in garlic storage while nitrogen application increases it.
Drying and curing
• Drying & curing - very essential

• Drying - remove excess moisture from outer skin & neck -
reduce storage rot
• Curing - additional process of drying - remove the excess
moisture & allow colour development and help the bulbs to become
compact and go into dormant stage
• Curing - done for about a week in the field for drying
Drying and curing
• Bulbs - covered along with their tops to avoid damage to bulbs from
sun
• Bulbs - cured for 7-10 days in shade
• Artificial curing - passing hot air at 27.35ºC
• Humidity is between 60 - 75%
• 48 hours - complete curing process
Sorting and Grading
• It is very much necessary for getting better price and to minimize

losses on account of driage and decay
• Thick- necked, splitted, injured, diseased or bulbs with hollow cloves
- sorted out
• Size grading is done after sorting
Packaging
• Garlic bulbs - packed - open mesh jute bags - domestic use

• Export - 18 & 25 kg packing - corrugated cardboard boxes
• Nylon-netted bags - packing & further storage - minimum losses in
storage
• Foreign countries – plastic wooven bags - good strength &
attractive
Storage
• Thoroughly cured garlic bulbs - stored - well-ventilated rooms

• Garlic with dried leaves can be stored by hanging in well-ventilated
rooms
• Storage without tops in nylon-netted bags give better performance
• Storage : 0.5 o C & RH - 70 %
Sprouting
• Irradiation - 2-6 krad of cobalt 60 gamma rays - control - sprouting

in storage
• Spraying 3000 ppm MH - 3 weeks before harvesting – increase in
storage life
• Pre-harvest spray - 0.1% carbendazim and disinfection of premises
- reduce post-harvest losses particularly decay loss
Rubberification
• Noticed mostly in fields which are located in low-lying areas of

watershed
• Severe in garlic fields which are more frequently irrigated than the
normal requirements of garlic bulbs
• Due to higher level of nitrogen - in the form of urea
Premature sprouting of bulbs
• High moisture level in soil at maturity - due to heavy rains

• Delayed harvest during rainy season
• Wider spacing of cloves at the time of planting increases uptake of
nitrogen and water by the individual plants which increases
premature sprouting
Garlic Marketing in India
• Cost of seed cloves, labour for planting and harvest makes the
initial investment for garlic production high
• Garlic returns - highly dependent on how the produce of crop is
marketed
• Management and markets - determine the profitability of garlic for
the producer
• Properly cured or dried garlic - stored for a period up to three
months in a standard warehouse
• So as to make marketing decisions with respect to creation of time
and place utility
Major Garlic Wholesale Markets in India
Market District and State

Mahaboob-mansion Andhra Pradesh
Baloda Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh
Mandsaur Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh
Pipliya Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh
Neemuch Neemuch, Madhya Pradesh
Badawada Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh
Jaora Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh
Mumbai sub-urban Mumbai, Maharashtra
Eath Uttar Pradesh
Farukhabad Uttar Pradesh
Bhoagaon Uttar Pradesh
Kuraoli Uttar Pradesh
Bara Bazar II (Raja Katra) Kolkatta, West Bengal
Markets
• Apart from these organized markets, large number of private and

unorganized markets is functioning in all the major garlic producing
states
• These markets handle a significant quantum of garlic bulbs and
acts as wholesale market in those regions
• One such market is functioning over a long period of time at
Vadugapatti in Theni district of Tamil Nadu
Wholesale Auction Market at Vadugapatti
• Vadugapatti - small panchayat town located five kilometers away

from Horticultural College and Research Institute, Periyakulam
towards Vaigai Dam on Andipatti road
• This small township is neither a district nor a taluk head quarters
and a little away from state and national highways
• Lack of these essential market characteristics did not hinder this
market to emerge as hub for garlic marketing in South India due
its historical links and consistency in market functionaries
Map showing the location of Vadugapatti in Tamil Nadu
Source of supply
• Garlic - procured from different parts of the country (Madhya

Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Bihar and Himachal Pradesh)
• Imports from China through Nepal
• Farmers also bring their produce to this market for sale
• Wholesalers get four per cent commission from the farmers and
help them to sell their produce
Transportation
• Trucks (Lorries) - main source of transportation

• Trucks - 10 tonnes capacity are employed for economic handling
• Cost of transportation ranges from Rs. 25,000 to 40,000 per truck
load depending upon the distance from the buying markets
• Trucks take a long trip and reach the market yard a day prior to the
auction
• Male labours are actively engaged in unloading
• A bag may weigh around 100 kg of garlic and different types of
packing materials (gunny, polythene and transparent nylon-net
bags) are used
Cleaning and Grading
• Immediately after the arrival, garlic bags - untied and the process of
cleaning and grading is started for next day’s sale
• Female labours - engaged in cleaning (removal of debris, dried
peel off and infected garlic) and grading (based on the size and
uniformity)
• Clean, whole and uniform garlic lots are displayed on the floor and
kept ready for the bi-weekly auction
Drying and cleaning of garlic near to the market yard
Garlic types and Price
• Two types of garlic are dealt in the market - smoked and white
• Among the types, there are different grades of garlic starting from
malformed, small, broken cloves to premium garlic
Smoked and White Garlic

Price
• Prices - orally quoted by the buyers (wholesalers, retailers and

consumers) for different lots
• The highest (open) bit is accepted for the supply of garlic
• Every grade of the garlic has its consumer
• The refuse / waste of the garlic after grading - purchased by poor
people at the lowest price
THANK YOU
Production Technology of Amaranthus
Amaranthus
• Amaranthus: Amaranthus sp.
• Family : Amaranthaceae
• Chromosome number : 2n = 32 or 34
• Leaf type: Amaranthus tricolor/ganetious, Amaranthus blitum, Amaranthus tristis,

Amaranthus dubius.
• Grain type: Amaranthus caudatus, Amaranthus hypochondriacus, Amaranthus cruentus,

Amaranthus edulis.
• Varieties released: Co1,Co2, Co3, Co4, Co5, Cholti Chaulai, Pusa Chaulai
Leaf type
Amaranthus tricolor Amaranthus blitum
Leaf type
Amaranthus dubius
Grain type
Amaranthus caudatus Amaranthus hypochondriacus
Grain type
Amaranthus cruentus Amaranthus edulis
A. cruentus
NUTRITIVE VALUE OF GREENS
Varieties
 Co 1 (Mulaikeerai and Thandukeerai) – stem and leaves dark green
 Co 2 (Mulaikeerai and Thandukeerai) – stem and leaves green and

slightly elongate type
 Co 3 (Clipping) – ‘Araikeerai’ - 10 clippings can be done in 90 days

period
 Co 4 (Grain) – dwarf plants
 Co 5 (Mulaikeerai and Thandukeerai) – leaves are double coloured with

green and pink.
ARAI KEERAI
THANDUKEERAI
Seed rate
• 2.5 kg/ha of seeds broadcasted evenly on the beds after

mixing with 10 parts of sand.
• The field is prepared to a fine tilth and form beds of 2 x 1.5

m size. After germination thin the seedlings to have a
spacing of 12 – 15 cm.
Irrigation
• Irrigate before and after sowing and at weekly intervals after

germination.
• Apply FYM 25 t/ha, Azospirillum 2 kg and Phosphobacteria

2 kg/ha, N 75 kg and K 25 kg/ha as basal dose.
Bolting
 Premature flowering or bolting – serious problem
 Bolting usually associated with planting of short day varieties during Nov- Dec, def. of N,
extreme high temp., poor soil aeration.
 Raising of crop at ideal time, application of N and manures – prolong flowering

Harvest and yield
Leafy types
 25 days after sowing for Mulaikeerai (10 t/ha)
 40 days after sowing for Thandukeerai (16 t/ha)
Clipping types
10 clippings at weekly intervals (30 t/ha)
Grain types
Co 4: 2.4 t grains/ha + 8 tonnes of tender greens.
Seed production
 Provide isolation distance of 400 m for foundation and 200 m for certified seed
production.
 Seedlings are transplanted at a wider spacing of 30-45 X 30 cm.
 Seed production after one or two cuttings.
 Inflorescence harvested when glumes turn brown in colour and seeds turn black.
 Spikes are initially dried in sun to 15 % moisture.
 After drying, threshed with sticks for seed separation of seeds
 Finally, dried to 7 % moisture and stored
 Seed yield – 450 – 500 kg /ha

Plant protection
Pests
 Leaf eating caterpillar
Diseases
 Leaf spot
 Leaf blight – Co 1 resistant variety
 White rust
PALAK
Spinach/Palak
Botanical name : Spinacia oleracea
Family : Chenopodiaceae
Chromosome no. : 2n = 2x= 12
Origin : South West Asia
• Spinach is the most important highly nutritious green leafy
winter vegetable.
• Rich in vitamin , anti-oxidant and contain considerable amount
of Fe & Ca.
Improved Varieties in India
• Pusa Jyoti: It produces large, green, thick, tender, succulent and crispy
leaves. It gives 6-8 cuttings.
• Pusa All Green: Green tender leaves gives about 6 cuttings depending
upon the time of sowing and management.
• Virginia Savoy: It is a prickly seeded cultivar having blistered
large green leaves with round tip. Plants are upright and
vigorous in growth.
• Early Smooth Leaf: This is a smooth seeded cultivar producing

small light green leaves with pointed tip
• Pusa Harit
• Jobner Green
• Giant Noble
• Prickly seeded
Climate and Soil requirement
• Spinach is strictly cool season vegetable crop
• High temperature and long days caused bolting
• Range for optimum growth and development is 15-25o C
• Best suited to cultivate in hills and temperate regions
• Thrive well in well drained fertile soil
• Soil pH 6-7 ideal for cultivation
Sowing and Seed rate
• In plains, sown Sept-Oct

• In hills, sown during Mar- June
• In high-hills, sown during July-Sept
• Seed rate: 35-45kg/ha
Manures and Fertilizers
• FYM @ 20-25t/ha
• NPK @ 70:50:50 kg/ha
• Irrigation- being shallow rooted, frequent irrigation at 5-6 in
summer and 8-10 days in winter.
• Weed Control: 1-2 shallow hoeing
Diseases
Anthracnose Colletotrichum spp.
Symptoms
• Small water-soaked spots on leaves which enlarge and turn tan or brown in
colour with a papery texture; if infection is severe, lesions may coalesce and
cause severe blighting
Management
• Only plant seed from disease-free plants;
• avoid sprinkler or overhead irrigation where possible, watering plants from
the base to reduce leaf wetness;
• copper fungicides are sometimes used in the case of an epidemic.
Mosaic and other viruses
• Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) Beet curly top virus (BCTV)
• Tobacco rattle virus (TRV) Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV)
Symptoms
• Chlorotic leaves which may have necrotic spots, mosaic patterns or ring spots; leaves may be
puckered and overall growth of plant is poor and stunted
• Transmitted by various insects such as aphids and thrips; Tobacco rattle virus is transmitted
by nematodes in the soil and is not a common disease of spinach
Management
• Practice good weed management around plants; insecticide applications are
generally not effective at preventing the disease but can prevent secondary spread to
neighbouring fields
Mites
Spinach crown mite- Rhizoglyphus spp.
Symptoms
• Leaves deformed; small holes in newly expanding leaves; mites are
tiny and transparent, living deep in the crown of the spinach plant;
damage can be done to newly emerged seedlings or to older plants
Management
• Destroy crop debris immediately after harvest; application of
appropriate acaricide may be required if mites are damaging and
weather conditions are cool and wet
Aphids, Peach aphid, Potato aphid- Myzus persicae, Macrosiphon euphorbiae
Symptoms
• If aphid infestation is heavy it may cause leaves to yellow and/or distorted, necrotic spots
on leaves and/or stunted shoots; aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance called honeydew
which encourages the growth of sooty mold on the plants
Management
• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves or shoots then the infestation can be
pruned out to provide control; check transplants for aphids before planting;
• Reflective mulches such as silver coloured plastic can deter aphids from feeding on plants;
• Insecticidal soaps or oils such as neem is usually the best method of control; always check
the labels of the products for specific usage guidelines prior to use
Harvesting & Yield
• First cutting ready at 3-4 WAS Total 4- 5 cuttings at 15days interval
• Harvesting in early morning to be avoided as dew makes the leaves

brittle and spoil
• Leaves yield: 100-150q/ha

Bolting
• Spinach begins to bolt in warm weather, give bitter taste
• The plants look tall with thick stalks when they start
flowering
LECTURE 13
Production Technology of
Perennial Vegetables
Coccinia, Ivy gourd
Coccinia grandis
Family: Cucurbitaceae,
Chromosome number: 2n= 24

Synonyms
Bryonia grandis L. (1767),
Coccinia indica Wight & Arnott (1834),
C. cordifolia (auct. non L.) Cogn. (1881).
Vernacular names
Ivy gourd, small gourd, scarlet gourd
Hindi : Kundru
Uses of
Coccinia
MEDICINAL VALUE
Irrigation, Weeding, Earthing up
• Irrigate during summer months, once in a week
• Provide drainage during rainy season
• Weeding, topdressing of manures and earthing up are the other cultural operations
TNAU - Package of Practices
Coccinia (Coccinia indica) : Padappai
Propagation - Stem cuttings from pistillate plants
Spacing : 2 x 2 m
Manuring : 10 t/ha FYM, 75 kg N, 40 kg P and 75 kg K/ha
Erection of pandal or trellis and training the vines
Yields 6 months after planting ; continues throughout the year
Yield : 10 - 15 t/ha
KAU - PoP for Ivy gourd
Variety – Sulabha
Local varieties are grown in May-June and September-October
by trailing over pandals and stakes.
Plant stem cuttings with three or four nodes and 30-40 cm length,
selected from high yielding female vines are used as planting material.
These are planted in pits at a spacing of 4 m x 3 m.
FYM @ 25 kg per pit is given in two doses.
Pests : mild attack of fruit flies and galls;
Diseases : Fungal leaf spots, powdery mildew, mosaic

Coccinia Diseases
Powdery mildew Mosaic

Basella
Kashi Poi-1
Kashi Poi-2
Procumbent growth habit with soft and
lush green shoots, Fast growing variety with bush type,
Early picking with delayed flowering, green stems and leaves.
Green vines/stem with green succulent Suitable for making saag, pakode,
leaves, soup etc.
Tolerant to water lodging upto 4-5 days. Excellent source of Antioxidant 24.8 μ
Excellent source of Antioxidant 26.5 μ mol TE/g FW with slightly lower
mol TE/g FW oxalate content 566.0 mg/100g FW.
First picking starts 38-40 days after
transplanting
POI/ INDIAN SPINACH
Kashi Poi-3
Released from IIVR, Varanasi.
Fast growing plant with twinning growth habit
Red stem and mid ribs, high betalain content
Suitable for year round cultivation.
Excellent source of Carotenoids

635.9mg/100g FW
Lower oxalate content (522.3 mg/100g FW).
First picking starts 40 days.

TNAU- Agro techniques for Basella
Basella : (Green : Basella alba) (Pink: Basella rubra)

-
Propagation: Stem cuttings and seeds
Spacing : 2 x 2 m in pits
Manuring: 10 kg FYM per pit
Cultivation : Train the vines on trellis or pandals
Harvest : starts from 2 months after planting ;
obtain yield throughout the year
Yield : 4 - 6 tonnes/ha
Agathi (Sesbania grandiflora)
Fabaceae
It is of two types mainly:
1. variety with white flower
2. Variety with red flower
Nutritional value
Fiber : 1.9 %
Fat : 1.3
%
Calories : 90
Protein : 7.5
%
Calcium : 120 mg
Iron : 3.5 mg
Vitamin C : 165 mg
Minerals : 3.4 %
Water content : 74.5 %
Benefits of Agathi Leaves
• It has cooling properties and is rich in fibre, so it helps in digestion.
• It helps to cure acidity related issues.
• Strong bones are the main contribution of agathi leaves.
• Daily consumption of agathi leaves prevent weak bones in older ages and arthritis.
• Agathi leaves strengthen the nerves of eyes; and cure night blindness.
• Wound healing exfexts - with the help of this leaf extracts. Apply this extracts on the
marks of the skin and after few days the marks will vanish.
• It acts as a blood purifier and pain reliever.
• The juice of the leaves cure piles, blood piles and kills germs that causes this disease.
• Uses of Agathi Flowers
• The flowers can be used as edible fries.

• This will cure giddiness, eye-sore, yellowish urination etc.
• It is a boon to the smokers who want to give up smoking.
• The toxic element will be cleared through stools.
• It has properties to take care of heart palpitation, inflammation,
• Used to cure kidney related diseases and cancer
• Propagation by Seeds
• Grown throughout the year
• Comes up in soils with good drainage.
• Require irrigation in summer
• Seed rate is 7.5 kg /ha

• Sow the seeds at a spacing of 1m x 1 m
• First harvest – at 8 months
• Subsequent harvests at 60-80 days
interval .
Lettuce tree - Pisonia alba
Family- Nyctaginaceae
• It is a small, evergreen foliage tree or a large shrub. 4-7 m height

• The pale green leaves are long and pointed and about 10-12" in length. In
good sunlight, the leaves acquire a light yellow color,
• Grown for its leaves.
• Medicinal properties- cures rheumatism or arthritis
• Young leaves are used as a leafy vegetable.
• Plant grows well in any soil, prefers sandy soil.
• Propagated through cuttings, which root easily in sand.
• Planted singly in large compounds to make it grow into trees or planted
closely and trimmed to make a pleasant looking hedge.
Chekurmanis
Multi vitamin-multi mineral plant
Sauropus androgynus
Family : Euphorbiaceae
Chekurmanis (Sauropus androgynus) belonging to Euphorbiaceae,
is a perennial shrub, growing wildly in Southeast Asia.
Nutritionl values:
• The leaves of chekurmanis are highly nutritious
• A very rich source of micronutrients and protein
• Leaf protein : 22.0 g/100 g
• Total dietary fibre content of the leaves : 34 to 36%
• Fully matured leaves contain - high amount of Ca, than the tender
leaves
• Fe content of leaves range from 3.89 to 4.50 mg /100 g
• Zinc content of the leaf : between 1.26 and 1.48 mg/100 g
• Niacin content of leaves : 69- 74 mg/100 g
• β-carotene content : range from 7400 to 9250 µg/100 g
• Vitamin E : range between 15.6- 17.6 mg/100 g
TNAU PoP
Chekurmanis (Sauropus androgynus)

-
• Plant - Stem cuttings
• Spacing : 45 x 60 cm
• Mnuring : 5 - 10 kg FYM/plant
• Weeding, pruning - once in a year
• Harvest start from four months after

planting
•
Yields throughout the year
• 5 kg leaves/ plant/yr
KAU Pop for Chekkurmanis ( Sauropus androgynus )
6-12 months old stem cuttings of 20-30 cm length are

to be planted in May-June.
These are usually grown on borders of kitchen gardens.
To check the height of the plant and to get frequent harvests, the
tips are clipped off intermittently.
FYM @ 5 kg per plant per year and

N:P:K (7:10:5) mixture @ 30 g /plant are recommended
Average yield : 2 – 5 kg/ m2 / per year

Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis)
Family: Moraceae
Bread fruit : (Artocarpus altilis)
Seedless and seeded types
Root cuttings/air layering of root suckers/seedling
Spacing : 12 x 12 m
First harvest 5 to 6 years after planting.
During February - March, June – August
Yield : 300 - 500 fruits/tree

Chow-chow / Chayote
(Sechium edule) Cucurbitaceae
• Chow-chow is a single seeded viviparous cucurbit.
• It is important in dietary system of people of NE region.
• It is found in every kitchen garden of Meghalaya.
• It is a perennial rooted vine that bears edible fruits.
• The plant bears male flowers in clusters and solitary female
flowers.
• The fruit is light green and elongated with deep ridges lengthwise.
Varieties
• Two types: Green fruited and White fruited.
• Meghalaya Local, Broad Green, Pointed Green and
• Oval Green are the recommended varieties for NE region.
Soil
• Requires well drained acidic soil with a pH of 5.5 - 6.5
Climate :
• It thrives best in a temperature range of 18 - 22°C and
at an altitude of 1200 - 1500 m.
• In plains it comes up well during winter season.

Sowing
Fully matured and sprouted fruits collected from high yielding vines are
planted in pits @ 2 – 3/pit.
After cultivation
Weeding is done as and when necessary. At initiation of vine growth,

stake the plants. Provide pandal at a height of 2 m. Prune the plants to
ground level during winter from second year after planting.
In hills, pruning is done during January. Apply 250 g of urea for each
vine after pruning and at the time of flowering.
Season
Planting is done during April – May
Dig pits of 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm at a spacing of 2.4 x 1.8 m and fill up the pits
with 10 kg of FYM, 250 g of urea, 500 g of Super phosphate and 500 g of
Muriate of Potash.
• Vines are trailed over Pandals or trellis
• Two fruiting season in a year - October-December and May-June.
• Vines are pruned at end of each season at 1.5m of stem
• Chow-chow should not be allowed to become over mature
• Harvest fruits prior to seed development.
• Average yield : 20-25 t /ha has been recorded in Meghalaya.
Plant protection
Pests
For controlling scales, mealy bugs and aphids spray Dimethoate 30 EC @ 1 ml/lit.
Fruit fly
1. Collect the damaged fruits and destroy.
2. The fly population is low in hot day condition and it is peak in rainy season.
Hence adjust the sowing time accordingly.
3. Plough the field to expose the pupae.
4. Use polythene bags fish meal trap with 5 g of wet fish meal + 1 ml Dichlorvos in cotton
50 traps are required/ha, fish meal + Dichlorvos soaked cotton are to be refilled once in 20 and
7 days respectively.
Diseases
Mosaic
Vectors can be controlled by spraying Dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/lit or
Methyl demeton 25 EC @ 2 ml/lit thrice at fortnightly intervals.
Yield
Av. yield : about 25 - 35 tonnes/ha
Production Technology of Moringa
Moringa
Scientific Name : Moringa oleifera (Drum stick)
Family: Moringaceae.
Chromosome no.: 28
Origin: North West Indian and African tropics
Climate and soil:
 It is a tropical plant. Adapted to subtropical climate also.
 It is predominantly a crop of dry and arid track where it has been
found to perform well with higher yields.
 The optimum temperature is 25-35 0C.
 It is highly susceptible to frost, water logging & high
temperature exceeding 400C causes flower shedding.
Propagation
 The perennial types are propagated by limb cuttings.
 Limb cutting of 1-1.5m length and 15-16 cm circumference obtained
from selected trees are planted in-situ during June-October in Tamil
Nadu.
 Annual types are propagated by seeds.
 Seeds @ 625 g/ ha can be either sown in pits or transplanted.
 Transplanting of seedlings can be made one month after sowing.
Varieties
 Jaffna moringa - a perennial type bears 60-90 cm long pods with soft flesh
and good taste.
 Chavakacheri muringa - a perennial type producing 90-120 cm long pods.
 Chemmuringa - This perennial type flowers throughout year and bears red
tipped fruits.
 Yazhpanam muringa – same as Jaffna type
 Pal muringai – Pods having thicker pulp and better taste
 Puna muringa – Thinner fruits.
 Kodikal muringa – produces short pods of 15-20 cm long and is used as

support for betel vine plants. Propagated by seeds.
Varieties
 KM-1 (Kudumianmalai 1) – Bushy variety propagated through seeds. Plants come to bear 6
months after planting.
 PKM – 1 – This “seed moringa”, propagated through seeds is developed at Horticultural College
and Research Institute, TNAU, Periyakulam. Plants grow to a height of 4-6 m and come to flower in
90-100 days after planting. The first harvest starts 160-170 days after planting and on an average
each tree bears 200-225 fruits / year. Pods are 65-70 cm long with 6.3 cm girth and 150 g weight.
Fruits are green coloured and highly pulpy.
 PKM 2 – This “seed moringa”, propagated through seeds, is also developed at Horticultural
College and Research Institute, TNAU, Periyakulam. Pods are extra long (125-130 cm), pulpy and
suitable for homesteads.
PKM – 1 PKM – 2
Planting
 The limb cuttings are planted in well prepared pits of 60 x 60 x 60 cm at
spacing of five metres for perennial types.
 For annual types pits 45 x 45 x 45cm are dug with 2.0 x 2.5m or 3.25
spacing.
 The pits are filled with a mixture of top soil and 120 kg FYM.
 Seeds can be either sown in-situ in the prepared pits or can be

transplanted after raising the seedlings in PE bags.
 The seedlings are ready for planting in one month after sowing.
 An additional numbers of 75 to 100 plants are to be raised in PE bags

separately for gap filling after one month of planting.
Manuring and Fertilizers
• Add 25 tonnes of FYM per hectare.
• A fertilizer dose of 45:15:30 g of NPK/pit may be applied 3 months after
sowing.
• Apply 45 g of N/pit after 6 months when the crop is in bearing.
• For ratoon crops above schedule with FYM is recommended.
After care
• When the seedling reach 75 cm height, the shoot tips are nipped off to
encourage side shoots.
• In young plants inter-crops like cowpea or bhendi or ground nut can be
cultivated till the moringa plants become dense and cover the interspace.
Ratooning
 After harvest of main crop, annual types are cut back to 1m height from ground level for
ratooning.
 These plants develop new shoots and start bearing from 4-5 months.
 Likewise three ratoon crops can be taken.
 At each and every ratoon, plants are supplied with N, P and K nutrients as already
mentioned along with 20-35 kg of FYM and irrigate.
Irrigation
• Generally drumstick does not require much irrigation and it is a drought tolerant crop.
• Irrigation is given in the pits before sowing and on the third day after sowing.
• Care should be taken to avoid moisture stress till the germination.
• Later on, irrigation is done once in 10 to 15 days according to soil type.
• There should not be any water stagnation.
• There will be flower drop when the soil is dry or wet.
• Hence optimum moisture should be maintained.

• Can be harvested in six months after sowing, while perennials types propagated through limb
cuttings take 8-9 months for bearing.
• Fruits are ready for harvest in 60 days after flowering.
• Each plant bears 200-250 fruits in annual types.
• In perennial types, the yield will be generally low (80-90 fruits/plant/year) in the first two year
of bearing.
• Then it increases to about 500-600 fruits/plant/year in 4th and 5th year and the pods are
harvested mainly in march-June.
• 50 - 55 tonnes of pods/ha (220 pods/tree/year).
• Life time – 12-15 years.

Plant Protection - Pests
Moringa pod fly:
 Placement of fermented tomato fruit trap @ 25 / ha; and need based foliar spray of
Spinosad 45 SC @ 56g a.i./ha followed by Profenophos 50 EC@ 250g a.i. / ha.
Bud worm, leaf caterpillar and leaf webber:
 Dust Carbaryl 10 D @ 25 kg/ha or spray.
Hairy caterpillar:
 Use flame torch when the caterpillars settle on the tree trunk.
Moringa pod fly- Gitona distigma Hairy caterpillar- Eupterote mollifera
LECTURE 14
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF
TURMERIC AND GINGER
INTRODUCTION
• Scientific name: Curcuma longa
• Family: Zingiberaceae
• Herbaceous plant
• Economical part: dried rhizome
• Area in India: 1,04,500 ha
• Annual production in India: 3,28,800 tonnes
BOTANY
• Herbaceous perennial with a thick under ground rhizome
• Primary and secondary rhizomes called fingers
• Leaves are broadly lanceolate with long stalks
• Flowers are born on separate peduncle
Important species
• Curcuma longa- widely cultivated type
• Curcuma aromatica- Cochin turmeric or Kasturi manjal
• Curcuma angustifolia- East Indian arrow root- having plenty of starch in
rhizome
• Curcuma amada- mango ginger- flavour of raw mango
Cochin turmeric or Kasturi manjal
Curcuma aromatica
• East Indian arrow root
• Curcuma angustifolia
• Plenty of starch in rhizome
• Mango ginger
• Curcuma amada
• Flavour of raw mango
CLIMATE
• Grown in diverse tropical condition from sea level to 1500m in the
hills
• Temperature range: 20 to 300 C
• Rainfall: 1500 to 2250 mm per annum
SOIL
• It is grown in different types of soil from
- lights black
- loam
- red soils
- clay loam
• Thrives best in a well drained soil rich in humus content
VARIETIES
TNAU VARIETIES
PLANTING
• Kerala and West coastal areas: April – May with the receipt of pre-
monsoon showers
• Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu: May – June or July – August
• Turmeric is a shade loving plant
• Castor or Sesbania grandifolia may be raised along the borderlines in

the field
PLANTING
• Whole or split mother rhizomes weighing 35 to 44g
• Rhizomes are treated with 0.3 percent Malathion for 30 minutes before storing
• Two system of planting: flat beds and ridges and furrows (45cm) methods are
adopted in India
• Small pits are made with hand hoe in ridges with a spacing of 15cm
• Pits covered with soil or dry powdered cattle manure
• Optimum spacing : 45 x 15cm
• Seed rate: 1500-2000 kg of rhizomes/ha

MANURING
• Farm yard manure @ 10t/ha is applied as basal dressing
• Neem cake 200 kg/ha
• N- 125kg/ha
• N - 25kg each at basal, 30,60,90 and 120 days after planting respectively
• P2O5: 60 kg as basal
• K2O: 60 kg (60 kg – half as basal and half at 90 days)
• After planting: FeSO4 @ 30 kg/ha
MULCHING
• The crop is to be mulched

immediately after planting with
banana leaves
• Pseudostem or sugarcane trash

@ 12-15 tonnes per hectare
• Repeated for second time after

50 days
PESTS
Shoot borer (Conogethes punctiferalis)
• Larvae bore into pseudo stems and feed on

internal tissues
• Frass is extruded and the withered central shoot is

a characteristic symptom
• Malathion (0.1%) at 21 day intervals

Rhizome scale (Aspidiotus hartii)
• Appear as encrustations on the

rhizomes
• They feed on sap and when the

rhizomes are severely infested, they
become shrivelled and desiccated
affecting its germination
Root knot nematode Burrowing nematode
Meloidogyne sp. Radopholus similis
DISEASES
Leaf Blotch
• Taphrina maculans
• Small, oval, rectangular or irregular
brown spots on either side of the
leaves
• Scorched appearance and the
rhizome yield is reduced
• Mancozeb @ 0.2%
Leaf spot
• Caused by Colletotrichum capsici

• Appears as brown spots of various sizes
on the upper surface of the young leaves
• The spots are irregular in shape and
white or grey in the centre
• Later, two or more spots may coalesce
and form an irregular patch covering
• The affected leaves eventually dry up
• The rhizomes do not develop well
• Controlled by spraying Zineb 0.3% or
Bordeaux mixture 1%
Rhizome rot
• Caused by Pythium graminicolum or P.
aphanidermatum
• The collar region of the pseudo stem

becomes soft and water soaked, resulting
in collapse of the plant and decay of
rhizomes
• Treating the seed rhizomes with

Mancozeb 0.3% for 30 minutes prior to
storage and at the time of sowing prevents
the disease
• When the disease is noticed in the field,

the beds should be drenched with
Mancozeb 0.3%
HARVEST
• Depending upon the variety, the crop becomes ready for harvest in 7-9
months
• Usually it extends from January – March
• Early varieties mature in 7 to 8 months
• Medium varieties mature after 9 months
• The land is ploughed and the rhizomes are gathered by hand picking or
the clumps are carefully lifted with a spade
• Harvested rhizomes are cleaned of mud and other extraneous matter
adhering to them
• The average yield per hectare is 20 to 25 tonnes of green rhizome
Washing of rhizome
Curing Drying
Polishing
Colouring
INTRODUCTION
• Scientific name: Zingiber officinale

• Family: Zingiberaceae
• Herbaceous perennial
• Rhizome is used as a spice
• India is a leading producer of ginger in the world
• Cultivated in most of the states in India
• 70% of production: Kerala, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram,
Sikkim, Nagaland and Orissa
BOTANY
• Herbaceous perennial with underground rhizomes
• Serial leafy shoots, sheathy and linear
Flowers
• Borne on a spike, condensed, oblong and cylindrical with numerous
scar bracts
• Yellow with dark purplish spots
• Bisexual, epigynous, stamens only one, ovary inferior, three carpellary
Fruit
• Oblong capsule, seeds glabrous and fairly large
CLIMATE
• Grows well in warm and humid climate
• Cultivated from sea level to an altitude of 1500 m above sea level
• Ginger can be grown both under rain fed and irrigated conditions
• For successful cultivation of the crop
- a moderate rainfall at sowing time till the rhizomes sprout
- fairly heavy and well distributed showers during growing period
- dry weather for about a month before harvesting
SOIL
• Ginger thrives best in well drained soils like sandy loam, clay loam,
red loam or lateritic loam
• A friable loam rich in humus is ideal
• Exhausting crop- not desirable to grow ginger in the same soil year
after year
VARIETIES
• Prominent indigenous cultivars: Maran, Kuruppampadi, Ernad,

Wayanad, Himachal and Nadia
• Exotic cultivars: Rio-de-Janeiro
• High Altitude Research Station, Pottangi, Orissa- Suprabha, Suruchi

and Surari
Indigenous collections
S.No Cultivar Special features
1 Assam Rhizome bold, highly flavoured, highly fibrous
2 Burdwan-1 Bold, pungent, flavoured
3 Ernad Chernad Bold, highly pungent and fibrous
4 Gurubathani Bold, highly pungent and fibrous
5 Himachal Pradesh Bold, lemon flavoured, dry ginger production
6 Nadia Slender rhizome, lemon flavoured and less fibrous
7 Wyanad local Bold, pungent and less fibrous
8 Tura Rhizome slender, pungent, flavoured and fibrous
SEASON
• West Coast of India- first fortnight of May with the receipt of pre monsoon
showers
• Irrigated conditions- middle of February or early March
• Burning the surface soil and early planting with the receipt of summer
showers results in higher yield and reduces disease incidence
LAND PREPARATION
• The land is to be ploughed 4 to 5 times or dug thoroughly with receipt of early
summer showers to bring the soil to fine tilth
• Beds of about 1 m width, 15 cm height and of convenient length are prepared

with an inter-space of 50 cm in between beds
• Irrigated crop: ridges are formed 40 cm apart
• In areas prone to rhizome rot disease and nematode infestations, solarization of

beds for 40 days using transparent polythene sheets is recommended
PLANTING
• Propagation: portions of rhizomes known as seed rhizomes
• Seed rhizomes are cut into small pieces of 2.5-5.0 cm length weighing 20-25 g each
having one or two good buds
• Kerala- seed rate: 1500 to 1800 kg/ha

• Higher altitudes: 2000 to 2500 kg/ha
• Seed rhizomes are treated with Mancozeb 0.3% for 30 minutes, shade dried for 3-4
hours and planted at a spacing of 20-25 cm along the rows and 20-25 cm between
the rows
• The seed rhizome bits are placed in shallow pits prepared with a hand hoe and
covered with well rotten farm yard manure and a thin layer of soil and levelled
MANURING
• Well decomposed cattle manure/ compost @ 25-30 tonnes/ha
• Neem cake @ 2 tonnes/ha at the time of planting helps in reducing the

incidence of rhizome rot disease/ nematode and increasing the yield
• RDF: 75 kg N, 50 kg P2O, 5 and 50 kg K2O per ha
• Beds are earthed up, after each top dressing with the fertilizers
• Zinc deficient soils: basal application of zinc fertilizer up to 6 kg

zinc/ha gives good yield
MULCHING
• Mulching the beds with green leaves/organic

wastes is essential to prevent soil splashing and
erosion of soil due to heavy rain
• Adds organic matter to the soil
• Checks weed emergence and conserves

moisture during the latter part of the cropping
season
INTERCULTIVATION PRACTICES
• Weeding is done just before fertilizer application and mulching

• 2-3 weedings are required depending on the intensity of weed growth
• Proper drainage channels are to be provided when there is stagnation
of water
• Earthing up is essential to prevent exposure of rhizomes and provide
sufficient soil volume for free development of rhizomes.
• It is done at 45 and 90 days after planting
Diseases
Soft rot
• Pythium aphanidermatum, P. vexans and P.

myriotylum
• Fungus multiplies with build up of soil
moisture
• Collar region becomes water soaked
• Light yellowing of the tips of lower leaves
• Drooping, withering and drying of pseudo
stems
• Mancozeb 0.3% for 30 minutes applied before
storage
HARVEST
• The crop is ready for harvest in about 8

months after planting when the leaves turn
yellow, and start drying up gradually
• The clumps are lifted carefully with a

spade or digging fork
• Fresh ginger: 6 months
• Dry ginger: after 8 months
• Yield: 12 - 15 t/ha
HARVEST
HARVEST
USES
Production Technology of
Pepper
Scientific name: Piper nigrum

Family: Piperaceae
Origin : Southwest Asia/ India
Common names:
Tamil: Milagu
Malayalam: Kurumalaku, Nallamalaku
Species- Common name -Uses
Telugu: Miriyalu
Sanskrit: Hopusha
Hindi : Kali Mirch
Uses
• Dyspepsia, malaria, delirium tremors, haemorrhoids

• Embalming
• Preserving meat and culinary purpose
• Pungency – piperine- alkaloid
• Aroma – rotundone- sesquiterpene
Species :
P. betle: betelvine
P. methysticum- pepper, intoxicating- bitter, root
P. rectrofractum : Balinese long pepper or Javanese long pepper
P. longum : Tippli
P. chaba- Thai long pepper- root, stem berries are used- Tripura, West Bengal
P. cubeba: tailed pepper or Java pepper

Area, Production, Export and Import Area:
Total : 135920 ha
Production :
Karnataka: 21MT
Kerala: 17MT
Tamilnadu:3MT
Total: 62,144 (70,878T)-Flood, landslides in Kerala and Karnataka
Top five producers of pepper in the World
Rank Country Production (in thousands of tons)

1 Vietnam 163
2 Indonesia 89
3 India 53
4 Brazil 42
5 China 31
Export
2017-18 2018-2019
ITEM QTY VALUE QTY VALUE QTY VALUE
PEPPER 12,000 40,599.50 10,750 44,304.50 12% 8%
 Global production was high

 Competition fro Vietnam, Indonesia and china
 Top 5 countries importing pepper- USA, Sweden, UK, Italy, Canada
 Value- 19.74 USD million (2019-2020)
 Cochin port exports highest
Import
2017-18 2018-2019 2016 - 2018-2019
17(Rs/kg) (Rs/Kg)
29,650 24,080 15.9% 624 378.21
Increased the minimum import price to Rs.500/kg

Vietnam(11129L/23653L), Srilanka, Indonesia, Brazil and others
Total-10,990MT, 23535L
Price fall-
High import
Global production is high
Propagation
Botany of the plant:
Perennial climber- 10m
Cross pollinated-
 wild dioecious, cultivated is gynomonoecious
(female+hermaphrodite) or
 trinomonoecious (Protogynous)
 pollination-geitonogamy (gravity)
 Fruit is berry
Three type of branches
Runner: The branches which have long internodes
and strike roots when in contact with soil
Terminal shoots (Orthotropic ) : it may result in producing
fruit bearing laterals from the bottom of the stem,
but yield is less
Lateral branches (Plagiotropic): fruit bearing, if used for
propagation leads to bushy pepper plant.
Propagation methods
 Traditional
 Rapid Multiplication method
 Trench method
 Serpentine method
 Column method
Traditional method
 Wooden peg is fixed at the base of the pepper plant

 Runner shoot is coiled around the peg to prevent rooting
 During Feb the shoot is cut, leaves are removed
 2-3 node cutting are made and planted in polybags
or nursery (soil, sand, FYM : 2:1:1)
 May –June they are planted in main field
Serpentine method
 Single node cutting with the leaf is removed
 Potted in potting mix
 As the cutting put forth new shoot with nodes
 Under the node polybags are placed and the node is gently pressed into the soil
 After 20 nodes (3m), the first 10 polybags are cut and removed and allowed
 to grow auxillary shoots
 After 20 days the rest of the nodes formed are cut and separated.
 After 2-3 months transplanted to main field

Trench method
 Single node cutting from runner
 Planted in polybags (200g) filled with potting mix (S:S:Coirpith:
FYM:1:1:1:1)
 Placed in trench of size 2m x 1m x 0.5m
 Covered with polythene sheet
 Water 5 times a day and drench with COC @ 2g/l
 Roots put forth after 1m
 Polybags kept open for an hour and watered 2-3 times
 After 2.5m transplanted to main field
Column method
 Polyhouse propagation- Temp: 25-280C, RH: 70%

 All three branches can be used
 Column of l-2m length and 0.3m width using wire mesh is
constructed
 Filled with coirpith and vermicompost (3:1)
 Drench with Trichoderma harzianum
 Plant single node cutting 8-10 around the column
 3-4 m to reach the top
 150 single nodes, 10 top shoots, 10-15laterals obtained
 Rooted in polybags and after 2m ready for planting in main field
 Three harvesting can be done in a year
Rapid Multiplication Method
 Developed in Srilanka, modified to Indian conditions
 Single node cuttings from runners
 Trench of convenient length, 30cm w is made and filled with rooting mix
(Forest soil: Sand: FYM:1:1:1)
 Bamboo splits or PVC of same length are placed at 45 degree angle and
crossed with the split from opposite side and tied.
 The splits or pipes are filled with coir pith and vermicompost (1:1)
 The cutting are allowed to grow on the splits. The splits are separated using
small bamboo piece at 30cm spacing.
 As the nodes are formed the splits are filled with coir mix and the nodes are
pressed into the mix for rooting
After care
 The nodes are later cut with the roots and planted in polybags with solarized potting mix and
Trichoderma harzianum 1g and VAM (100cc/kg)
 After 2-3 weeks new nodes put forth and maintained in shade till planting
Advantages
 1:40 plants
 Well developed root system
 More vigorous growth
 Better establishment in the field
Varieties
Panniyur 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, Karimunda, Sreekara, Subhakara, Panchami,
Pournami, IISR Thevam, IISR Malabar Excel, IISR Girimunda, IISR
Sakthi, PLD-2.
•Lower elevation and less shady areas- Panniyur 1
•Higher elevation and more shady areas - Karimunda
•Inter cropping in Arecanut – Panniyur 5

Soil and Climate:
Virgin soil, Red laterite or alluvial soil rich in humus
pH-5.5-6.5
Hot humid
RF-150-250cm
Elevation-1000-1500MSL
Temperature-10-400C
Too much shade=fruiting and flowering will be affected

Planting in east direction to avoid direct sunlight
Planting
June- July
Pit method of planting: 50X50X50cm
Fill with top soil
FYM-5-10kg/pit
Spacing-2-3m eastward direction
Avoid SW direction
Standards: Silver oak (Grevillea robusta), Dadap (Erythrina indica ), Jack, Garuga pinnata (ara nelli),
Mangifera indica, Anacardium occidentale, Marudha maram Terminalia sp., etc.
When grown as intercrop in multi tier cropping system- no need of standards
Manuring
10kg FYM
100: 40:140 g NPK/vine – split doses (May- June, Oct-Nov from 3rd yr)
1yr-1/3rd, 2nd yr- 1/2
Azospirillum:100g/vine- 1m after chemical fertilizer
Slaked lime- 500g/vine alternate years
INM: Inorganic N 50 % of the recommended dose + FYM 10 kg + 50 g Azospirillum +
50 g Phosphobacteria + 200 g VAM per plant.
Intercultural Operation
 Weeding twice- June- July, Oct- Nov
 Training and pruning of standards- trained to 6m
 Mulching using cover crop or mulches (saw dust, straw)
 Irrigation during Dec- May (10d interval)- protective irrigation
 Tying the vines to the standards at 30cm distance
 Spray Diammonium Phosphate 1.0 % 4 times to prevent fruit drop-
before flower initiation (may), flower and new leaves production (June),
spike initiation (July) and pinhead berry (August)
 Spray NAA (40ppm) to increase berry size
 Pollu Beetle (Longitarsus nigripennis)
 Severe in plains and lower altitudes
 Lays eggs in the rind and the grub enters the berry
Pest and Diseases
 Drying and blackening of berries with small hole

 Grubs fall down and pupate
 Control:
 Raking or earthing up, spray
 Endosulfan (0.05%), Quinalphos (0.025%),
 twice a year during July and September
 Leaf extract of Strychnos nux-uomica- anti feed, sprayed on berries
 Predators: Spider (Araneae), Oecophylla smaragdina (weaver ant)
Top-shootborer (Cydia hemidoxa)
Caterpillar bore holes into the terminal succulent shoots during Aug- Dec (new shoots appear)
Drying of tips, vine growth affected
Endosulfan or Monocrotophos at 0.05%
Natural enemies of top shoot borer

Parasitoid: Apanteles cypris, Eudederus sp. (Hymenoptera), Goniozus sp.
Parasitic mite: Clinotrombium sp.(on larvae).
Entomopathogenic nematode: Hexamermis sp.
Leaf gall thrips (Liothrips karnyii)
• Severe in high altitudes and nurseries
• Leaf curl, crinkle and fold inward
• Spray Endosulfan or Monocrotophos at 0.05%
Montandoniola moraguesi and Androthrips flauipes are the biocontrol agents for this pest
•Scale insects and mealy bugs (18sp)
•The Mussel scale (Lepidosaphus piperis) and Coconut scale (Aspidiotus destructor)
•Sap feeders - cause yellowing and wilting, dry up
•The infestation is more severe during summer
•Spray Endosulfan or Monocrotophos at 0.01% in January at 15 day interval

•Chilocarpus sp., Encarsia lounsburyi and Pseudoscymnus sp could be employed for the biocontrol of scale
insects.
Mealy bug:
Parasitoid: Parasitic wasps,
Predators: Hover flies, coccinellid (Cryptolaemus montrouzieri), praying mantis
Root knot nematode
 Larva affects the roots
 Root knots or galls are formed
 Profuse roots at galls
 Shortened root system and plant
 Plant wilt during dry season
 Secondary infection due to bacterial and fungal
 Control:
 Nursery spray- Methyl bromide
 Mainfield- Phorate 10 G or Carbofuran 3 G @ 3 g a.i. per vine
 Resistant variety- CLT-P-812
Quick wilt or foot-rot disease (Phytophthora palmivora Var. Piperis)
 Leaf rot: water soaked lesions, necrotic spots with halo, coalesce and rot
 Collar rot: junction of root and stem till 1m- water soaked lesions and rotting
 Root rot: fine root to main roots-rotting occurs
 Control:
 0.1% solution of methoxy ethyl mercuric chloride (Agallol G 3%) or Copper
oxychloride (0.2%).
 Drenching the vine with Bordeaux paste on stem (10% Bordeaux mixture)
 Metalaxyl 500 ppm - systemic fungicide
 Application (per vine) of neem cake (1 kg) + Trichoderma harzianum (50 g),
Ridomil MZ (metalaxyl) + garlic and mustard seed extract (2 kg garlic + 1/2
kg mustard, crushed and volume made upto 200 lit) + mulching the wet soil
with transparent polythene sheets during the hot summer
 Soil treatment with VAM
 Resistant varieties- P-24 and P-603 varieties and Piper colubrinum and Piper
arboreurn
Slow wilt
 Caused by nematode, fungi, soil and nutritional factors
 Fusarium, Colletotrichum, Rhizoctonia bataticda, Diploida
 Lose turgid and look pale- Leaf and stem yellow and wilt (nematode)- leaf fall
 SW monsoon symptom disappear
 Reappear again during NE monsoon
 2-3 years to die
 Yield and quality of the vine decreases over the period
 Control
 0.1% mercurial fungicide or 1% Bordeaux mixture(5-10 l/ 2 times during monsoon)
 Phorate 10 G or Carbofuran 3 G @ 3 g a.i. per vine
 Soil application of neem cake @ 2 kg/vine during May-June and October- November.
•Pollu disease (Anthracnose)
Berry disease caused by Collectotrichum gloeosporeoides
Control
Two rounds of spraying with 1% Bordeaux mixture or Captafol (1.0%) once before
flowering and at berry formation stage
Spraying 0.2% Carbendazim before the onset of monsoon and subsequently at

monthly intervals till September.
Stunting disease
This disease is caused by the cucumber mosaic virus (CMV).
The symptoms are:
(i) stunting, crinkling, cupping and narrowing of leaves,
(ii) scattered chlorosis flecks on the leaves,
(iii) chloratic flecks along veins, leading to interveinal chlorosis,
(iv) vein banding, severe interveinal chlorosis with dark green veins,
(v) leathering of leaves with mosaic pattern and vein banding.
No effective measure has been recorded against this disease.
Phyllody -caused by phytoplasmas
Leaf-spot diseases -increasing importance
Yellow disease : reported to be a serious disease of black pepper in

Indonesia
Harvesting
 Flowering to harvest 6-7m

 Nov- Jan – plains, Jan- Mar (hills) is harvesting season
 Berries turn yellow and red – right stage to harvest
 Removed with the spike, left for a day then rubbed to remove the
berries
 Berries are dried until the outer skin becomes dark brown or
black
 Yield: 110-335kg/ha
Commercial grades of pepper
•Malabar Black Garbled (MG) - light green in colour with 11.7% Oleoresin content.
•Malabar Black Ungarbled (MUG 1-4)- light green in colour with 10.1% Oleoresin content.
•Tellichhery Special Garbled Extra Gold (TSGEG)
•Tellichhery Garbled Extra Gold (TGEG)
•Tellichhery Garbled Gold (TG)
Light Berry means berry that has reached an apparently normal stage of development
but the kernel does not exist.
Broken berry means berry that has been separated in two or more parts and
Pinhead means berry of very small size that has not developed.
• It is mandatory that the Black Pepper products shall be free from mold, living
and dead insects, insect fragments and rodent contamination.
• They shall also be free from added color, mineral oil, and any other harmful
substances.
Organic Inorganic Light Broken and pin Bulk Moisture Volatile oil Nonvolatile Piperine
extraneous extraneous berries head berries Density , %(m/m) % (ml./ ether extract content
matter % matter % %(m/ m) %(m/ m) (Max.) g/1 (Max.) 100 gm) %(m/m). %(m/m)
(m/m) (m/m) (Max.) (Min.) (Min.) (Min.) (Min.)
(Max.) (Max.)
Special 0.8 0.2 5 4 490 11 6 2.5 4
Standard 1.2 0.3 10 5 470 12 5.5 2 6
Tellicherry -Sp 530
Tellicherry -s 500
Malabar 550
Grade Size mm
MG 3.7
MUG 3.75
TG 4- 4.25
TGEG 4.25
TSGEG 4.75
Sorting
ADULTERANTS
Adulterants Detection
Whole pepper Dust, stones visual
Paprika seeds Greenish brown, shrunken,
oval in shape
Coated with mineral oil Smell
Mixed with light pepper Floats on alcohol
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF
TREE SPICES
CINNAMON
INTRODUCTION
• Scientific name: Cinnamomum verum/ old: C.zeylanicum
• Family: Lauraceae
• Origin: Sri Lanka and the Malabar coast of India
• Common names: Sweet wood or true cinnamon (Dalchini or dorchini) or
Ceylon cinnamon, Pattai
• Species: Cinnamomum cassia (True cassia or Chinese cassia)
Cinnamomum burmanni (Indonesian cassia)
Cinnamomum lourneirii (Saigon cassia)
Cinnamomum tamala (Indian cassia)
• The other economically important species include C. camphora, C. oliven
and C. malabaricum
BIO ACTIVE COMPOUND:
• Bark oil contains- cinnamic aldehyde (Phenolpropanoid 60-75%), eugenol (10%) and is light
yellow in color
• Leaf oil : 70% eugenol (Camphorous aroma), root bark and bud
USES:
Bark: spice, powder is used to flavor confectionaries, cakes, candy gums, dentifrices,
incenses, liquor, vanilla preparations
Root oil: flavouring agent
Leaf oil: cheap soaps, perfumes, toothpastes etc
Wood: used for preparing soft wood boards
MEDICINAL USES: Stimulant, carminative, anti-emetic

VARIETIES
Cassia germplasm has 262 accessions

• India: pat or mat-pat and Kurunchi
Improved varieties:
• Navyashree (both in hills and plains) – superior, high bark recovery, high cinnamldehyde
• Nityasree – Eugenol content is high 78% in 3% essential oil
• YCD1 (Yercaud 1) (Karnataka and TN) : bark yield is high-3 78Kg/ha, good regeneration
• Konkan Tej (Konkan regions)
• Srilanka: Sweet cinnamon and Honey cinnamon
Sidi Menggala
Top 4 Producers of Cinnamon:
Indonesia: 1,024 000MT

China: 77, 000MT
Vietnam: 35, 000MT
SriLanka: 16,000MT
Leading exporter: China, Sri Lanka (Kandy, Matale, Belihull Oya, Sinharaja hills)
India: Naga hills of Assam, Kerala and Karnataka

Kerala: Lower altitudes of Cannanore, Calicut and Kottayam districts of Kerala
TamilNadu: Lower Nilgiris
Largest estate: Randathara estate of Auyarakandy near Telicherry in Kerala with an area of 85 hectares
Area: 2,000ha
Production: 5,000 MT
SOIL AND CLIMATE
• Evergreen hardy tree
• Grown in various soil types: Laterite soil, sandy soils- best is sandy loam soil
• Rainfall: 150-250cm
• Elevation: sea level to 1500MSL
• Temperature: 27oC, hot moist climate
• Prolonged drought is not good

Propagation
Seed
Flowers in Dec- Jan
Fruit ripening in May- June
Ripened fruits are collected, heaped and allowed to rot till pulp turns black
Seeds separated by trampling and then washed
Sowing:
• Nursery beds or poly bags filled with 3:3:1 soil mix
• Shade needs to be provided
• Frequent irrigation should be provided to maintain humidity
• Takes 15-20 days to germinate
• Transfer to poly bags after 4 months from nursery bed
• After 10-12 or 18 months transfer to field
Other methods: Layering, cutting (semi hardwood) of young 3 leaved shoots
Land preparation:
Planting: pit method, 50cm
Spacing : 2-3 X 2-3m
Pits are filled with FYM, top soil and planting is done
MANURING
Recommended doses Per plant
Before planting 20 kg
Fertilisers (NPK)
First year 20:20: 25 g
After 10 years 200:180:200 g
The fertilizers should be applied in two split doses, in May-June and September-November
INTER CULTURAL
OPERATIONS
• In the initial 2-3 years, watering is done twice a week during summer months
• Weeding: June-July and October-November in a year
• Digging the soil around the tree base once in Aug –Sep
• Mulching with dry weeds, spent cinnamon leaves is done to conserve

moisture
• Coppicing: 2 year old plants of 2m height are cut down to 15cm . This is
done to encourage side shoots. Done until the tree attains a small bush shape
PESTS
Cinnamon Butterfly (Chilasa clytic)
- defoliator
- feeds on young leaves
- control: 0.05% Quinolphos
Other pests
Leaf minor- Monocrotophos
Termites, Red ants, Leaf webber, Pink Shoot borer
DISEASES
Pink disease
❖ Caused by the fungus Corticum javanicum, during the rainy season
❖ It develops a pale pinkish-white crust on the stems of the plants destroying the corky layer and causing the
death of the shoot or twig
❖ Controlled by spraying 1% Bordeaux mixture
Seedling Blight
❖ Diplodia sp.
❖ Stem with light brown patches
❖ Results often in the death of seedlings
❖ Spraying the plant with 1% Bordeaux mixture and 0.3% Copper oxychloride
Nursery leaf-spot and die-back disease (Colletotrichum gloeosporoides)
❖ On young nursery seedlings, small brown specks appear which gradually enlarge
resulting in the drying of the leaf.
❖ From the leaves, the infestation spreads to the stem, resulting in necrosis from the
apex downwards.
❖ On old seedlings and mature trees, light and dark brown concentric zonations occur
on the stem.
❖ The central portion of the necrotic tissue causing shot-hole symptoms also appear in
certain cases in seedlings. Spraying 1% Bordeaux mixture during the rainy season
controls the disease.
Leaf-spot - Gleosporium sp.

❖ Dark brown leaf-spots, which appear brittle and sunken, are noticed in some trees
❖ Algal leaf-spot, caused by Cephaleuros sp, grey blight caused by Pestalotiopsis

palmarum and sooty mould (Phargmocapnius betle)
❖ Foliar spray with 1% Bordeaux or 0.3% Copper oxychloride controls the diseases.
Harvesting:
❖ After 3 years
❖ Young branches of 2m long and 2-2.5cm are cut
❖ The branches are given a slant cut and peeled, if peel easily the shoots are ready for harvest
❖ Harvesting done in May and December
Yield:
3rd year: 65-125Kg/ha
10-11 years: 200-300Kg/ha
POST HARVEST OPERATIONS
POST- HARVEST PROCESSING
Peeling:
❖ The outer bark is scrapped with sharp round edge knife
❖ Longitudinal cut is given and in both ways the inner bark

(Quill) is peeled
❖ If difficult it is rubbed to separate the bark from the stem

and then peeled
Rolling
❖ The peeled barks are allowed to roll (outer edges curves inside)
❖ The length of the bark slip is reduced to 20 cm
❖ The barks are packed together and placed one above the other and pressed well
❖ Then piled up in small enclosures made by sticks
❖ They are then covered with dry leaves or mats to preserve the moisture and also to
aid in the slight fermentation
❖ Preservation of moisture is very important for the subsequent operation, known as

piping
Piping
• The slips (quills) are bundled and taken to the piping yard for the piping operation
• Three sticks are driven into the ground in such a way that they cross each other at a height of 30 cm from the
ground level
• This serves as a support to keep the fourth stick resting on the knot
• The operator sits down and places the slips one by one on the fourth stick to scrape off the outer skin with a
small curved knife to make it smooth
• Inserts the next smoothed quill into the first
• Like wise inserts 4 -5 quills to make a compound quill or pipes
• The scraped slips are sorted into different grades according to their thickness
Piping
Grades:
❖ Finest : Thin 0.5cm, fractured sound when broken, light in color – 0000
❖ Lowest – 0
❖ Quills: inner bark
❖ Quilling: broken quills
❖ Featherings : inner bark of twigs and twisted shoots
❖ Chips: scraped pieces of outer bark or scraping of thick greenish bark

PRODUCTION
TECHNOLOGY OF CLOVE
CLOVE
•Syzygium aromaticum [Syn. Eugenia carryophyllus (Spregal)
•Family: Myrtaceae
•The term 'clove' is derived from the French word 'cloy' and the English word 'clout', both
meaning 'nail’.
COMPOSITION OF DRIED CLOVE
• Phosphorus-0.11%
• Moisture-5.4%
• Iron-0.01%
• Protein-6.3%
• Sodium-0.25%,
• Volatile oil-13.2%
• Potassium-1.2%
• Non-volatile ether extract (fat)-15.5%
• Vitamins-(mg/100 g), B1-0.11, B2-0.04,
• Crude fibre-11.1% C-80.9, A 175 I.U,
• Carbohydrates-57.7% • Niacin-1.5,
• Mineral matter-5.0% • Calorific value: 430 calories/100 g
• Ash insoluble in HC1- 0.24% • Volatile oil - Eugenol (80-90%) and
• Calcium-0.7% Caryophyllene (4-8%).
USES
• Culinary purpose
• Baked goods, cakes, confectionery, chocolates, puddings, desserts, sweets, syrups, preserves, etc.
• Flavouring curries, gravies, ketchup and spice mixtures
• The inferior culls are used for the production of clove oil - synthetic preparation of vanillin
• The antiseptic property of eugenol in clove oil is invariably an ingredient in chewing gums,
toothpastes and mouthwashes
• In dentistry: Eugenol is used in combination with zinc oxide for the temporary filling of cavities
• It is also used for flavouring of `Kretek' cigarettes in Indonesia
• It is reported to aid in digestion and is also used as an antispasmodic and counter irritant
DISTRIBUTION
•Clove is indigenous to the Molluccas Island of Eastern Indonesia
•Later, it was introduced to Mauritius and later on established in the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba
•The important clove-producing countries in the world are Tanzania (Zanzibar), Pemba, Madagascar and Indonesia
•Clove is also grown in Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Haiti and India
•France, USA, India and West Germany are the major importers of clove
•Tanzania accounts for roughly 75% of the world output
•The world's annual production of clove is 40-50,000 tonnes, out of which nearly 15,000 tonnes are used for
the production of `Kretek' cigarettes
•In India, clove was introduced in 1800 AD by the East India company and is now cultivated in Tamil Nadu, Kerala
and Karnataka
BOTANY
•Commercial clove is the fully grown but unopened, aromatic, dried flower bud of an evergreen tree
•The clove is an evergreen tree growing to a height of 7-15 m
•The trunk is conical when young, later becoming roughly cylindrical
•It begins to fork near the base, into two or three main erect branches
•The leaves are simple, opposite, exstipulate, glabrous and aromatic owing to plenty of oil glands on the
lower surface
•The hermaphrodite flowers are borne on a terminal, corymbose, trichotomous panicle
•The inflorescence is shortly pedunculate, branched from the base and shorter than the leaves
•The bracts and bracteoles are narrow, acute and fall quickly
•The number of flowers varies from 3 to 50; a fleshy hypanthium is present, surrounded by the sepals
•The hypanthium is green in the young bud, flushed pink at anthesis and turns deep red after the stamens
fall
•Above the sepals, there are four dome-shaped whitish petals
•After fertilisation, the stamens and styles invariably fall.
•The lower part of the flower along with the calyx develops into a fleshy, dark, one-seeded drupe
•The sepals are reduced to triangular projections and this is popularly known as the 'mother of clove’
•The stamens are numerous, the anthers are pale yellow, with a small, pale brown, inconspicuous
connective gland
•The style is very stout, swollen at the base, pale green and dotted with glands. The two-celled,
multi-ovate, inferior ovary is embedded at the top of the hypanthium
Climate
• Clove grows best in the climates of the tropics
• Annual rainfall - 150-300 cm
• relative humidity of 70% and above.
• Altitude of 700- 900 m
• Temperature range of 20-32°C
• The clove cannot withstand high winds
• Providing shade during the early period of growth is necessary for its good growth
Soil
• Deep red or acidic loam and laterite soils rich in humus, having a pH
between 4.0 and 5.6, are found best for clove cultivation
• Sandy soils and water-logged conditions are unsuitable for clove

cultivation.
• It can be grown well in both sloping and levelled ground

VARIETIES
• Clove plantations in India are reported to have originated from a few
seedlings obtained originally from Mauritius
• The germplasm collections (215) made within the country and from
abroad have not yielded any appreciable variability, mainly due to the
self-fertilising nature of clove.
• Although there are no named cultivars as such, in trade the differences

of the spice are recognised on the basis of the places of their cultivation
VARIETIES
• The large, plump and bright reddish 'Penang Cloves' are considered
the best in appearance, followed by the Zanizibar and Madagascar
types
• India
- Burliar-1: one of the two high yielding progenies selected in Tamil
Nadu
- Odetham estate
- Amboyan clove
Propagation
• Clove is only propagated through seeds
Seed propagation
• To raise the seedlings, the seeds are extracted from the ripe fruits (mother-of-clove) obtained
from regular bearing trees
• The fruits for seed collection are allowed to ripen on the tree itself and drop down naturally
• The seeds are then soaked in water overnight prior to sowing, in order to dehusk them
• Afterwards, only fully-developed, uniform-sized seeds, which show signs of germination by the
presence of pink pedicle, are used for sowing and the remaining are discarded
• Raised nursery beds of 90-100 cm width, 15 cm height and of convenient length, at 2
cm depth at a spacing of 12-20 cm both ways
• The seeds sprout in about two weeks depending on the individual vigour of the seeds
• Germination is completed in 40 days
• If fresh seeds are sown, seed germination to the extent of over 90% may be obtained
• The seedlings are very slow in their initial growth and when they are 50-60 cm tall
they start branching and are transferred to polythene bags (30 cm x 15 cm) containing
a mixture of good soil, well decomposed cowdung and sand (in the ratio of about
3:3:1)
Planting
• The area selected for raising the clove plantation should be cleared of wild growth before monsoons
• For planting, pits of 60-75 cm3 are dug 6-7 m apart in rows spaced 6 m apart, about a month or two prior
to planting
• If planted as an intercrop, the spacing should be adjusted based on the spacings of the major crop
• The pits are filled with a mixture of top soil, burnt earth and FYM or compost
• Transplanting should preferably be done during June-August, and in low-lying areas towards the end of the
monsoon in September-October
• Clove prefers partial shade

• Under Indian conditions, it is best suited for mixed-cropping in older coconut or
arecanut plantations or in coffee estates
• In order to provide a cool, humid micro-climate, intercropping with banana is found

to be very good
• Under conditions in Kerala, such gardens will contain coconut, banana, jackfruit,
mango and miscellaneous crop plants
• Cloves can be fitted into this system without much of a problem
• The sites should be selected based on the availability of light

Manuring
Recommended doses Per plant Per hectare
Organic Manure FYM OR Compost
Before planting 15 kg 3.5 tonnes
After planting 15 kg 3.5 tonnes
Fertilisers (NPK)
First year 20:18:50 g 4.64:4.17:11.6 kg
After 2nd year 40:36:100 g 9.28:8.34:23.2 kg
After 5 years 100:90:250 g 28.20:20.85:58.0 kg
After 10 years 200:180:150 g 46.40:41.70:116.0 kg
After 15 years 300:250:750 g 69.60:58.12:174.0 kg

Irrigation
•In the first 3-4 years, extreme care should be taken especially during the summer months.
•Plant-based water application has to be very scrupulously followed.
Interculture
•Immediately after transplanting, shade is provided by planting banana, Cassava, Acacia sp., Albizzia sp.,
Erythrina sp., Subabool, etc.,
•In between the rows and the plants are irrigated till their establishment
•protection from heavy rains and winds are required during the early stages of growth
•Clove is generally grown along with orange and mangosteen
•The plots should be kept weed free by regular weeding
•Usually, the young plants are ring weeded
•The pruning of diseased branches should be done regularly. It also helps in preventing overcrowding of the
branches
• The basins of the trees are mulched with dry leaves to conserve the soil moisture.
PESTS
Shoot borer (Sahyadrassus malabaricus)
• The adult female lays eggs on the branches or weeds below
• The larvae, on hatching, bore into the branches making long galleries, and may reach the main trunk
• In severe cases, it leads to die-back
• Careful inspection of the base of the tree is important
• The plants should be sprayed with 0.05% dimethoate or Methyl demeton should be injected into the bore
hole.
• Swab the base of the stem with Fenvalrate paste
• Egg parasitoids like Tricogramma chilonis @1.2lac/ha
• Weed free
• Termites can be controlled by drenching the soil with
• 0.05% Chlorphyriphos EC.
Sooty mold formation due to honey dew
secretion
Sumatra disease:
Common in Indonesia
Symptoms:
Twig drying from the tip(die back)
Leaves turn brown and stay on the tree giving burnt appearance and
later on fall
Caused by bacterium Ralstonia syzygii. Only host is Clove
Antibiotics injection is of no use - oxytetracycline
Hindola striata and H.fulua are reported to be the vectors of the Sumatra
disease.
Spraying insecticide is to some extent prevents the spread of the

disease
Sudden death of cloves (Valsa eugeniae)
• This disease is characterised by heavy leaf-fall, coupled with wilting symptoms, usually during prolonged drought periods
• This wilting can be arrested by providing copious irrigation to the trees
Die-back (Cryptosporella eugeniae)

• This disease is commonly observed in neglected clove plantations and is associated with low soil fertility, weed competition
and algal infection.
Symptoms
Dark red spots on both sides of the leaves, which gradually spread and increase in size.
The leaves turn chlorotic and ultimately fall off
The young leaves are more prone to this disease.
These diseases can be controlled by adopting proper management practices along with spraying the trees with
1% Bordeaux mixture
Other diseases:
Seedling wilt ,leaf-spot, leaf rot (Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum), twig blight [Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes
grey leaf blight (Pestalotiopsis versicolor)
To control these diseases, the plants could be sprayed with Bavistin (0.2%) or 1% Bordeaux or 0.30% COC.
Infected plant should be removed and the remaining seedlings should be drenched with the copper fungicides.
Problems
• Very low percentage and slow germination of seeds and slow seedling growth
• Difficulty in harvesting due to the inaccessible heights of the plant which results in
nearly 30 to 35% loss of the crop and which deserves attention
• There is also the need to develop short¬statured plants with early yielding
habits
Harvesting
• Starts to flower from 4-6 years of their planting
• Economic yield: 18-20 years from the time of planting and the production continues for 80 years or
more
• Bumper crop can only be expected about once in every 4 years because of weather and the previous
crop load
Flowering season
- September-October in the plains
- December-January at high altitudes
• Cloves, which are the unopened flower buds, are produced on the terminal shoots of the twigs
• The buds are collected when they are dull red or pink in colour and less than 2 cm
long
• The inflorescence is harvested without damaging the branches when the buds have
reached their full size, but before they open so that the petals together with the
stamens inside form the head of the dried clove
• Delayed picking, i.e., after the opening of the buds, will devalue the spice
Yield
• Burliar is 2 kg per tree (500 kg/ha) per year
• Zanzibar is very high (40 kg/year)
• Yields upto 80 kg/tree/ year have also been recorded
• About 11,000-15,000 dried cloves weigh one kilogram
Drying:
Sun dried in heaps
Base becomes dark brown and head is light brown
Weight becomes 2/3th of the fresh clove
Should not be left to dry in heaps for long, it will ferment (khoker cloves)
Packing:
•Cloves are normally packed in double jet sacks of 50-60 kg capacity each.
Grading
Whole cloves are graded as
Special (Hand-picked): no adulterants, moisture 12-13%
Grade-2 : Clean cloves with 1% adulterants
Grade-3 – Standard size with 3% max adulternats
Ground (powdered) cloves
Defective cloves
Khoker cloves
Headless cloves
Mother cloves
Extraneous matter
Headless Cloves: A Clove consisting of only
the receptacle and sepals and which has lost the
dome shaped head.
Khoker Cloves: A Clove which has undergone

fermentation as a result of incomplete drying as
evidenced by its pale brown colour whitish
mealy appearance and other wrinkled surface.
Mother Cloves: A fruit in the form of an ovoid

brown berry surmounted by four incurved
sepals.
Clove Oil:
Steam Distillation
8-25hours
The essential oil yield is 17- 19% from clove buds, 6% from the clove stems
and 2-3% from the leaves
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-MXDDR33RJc
Production technology of Nutmeg
Scientific name: Myristica fragrans

Family: Myristicaceae
English name: Nutmeg
Indian name : Jaiphal (Hindi), Jayikai (Kannada),

Jathikka (Malayalam), Jathikai (Tamil), Jajikai (Telugu).
Species : Myristica fragrans Hout., M. malabarica,

M.beddonnei, M. argentea, M. otaba
Origin: Moluccan Island of Indonesia

Active compound: 80% pinene and camphene, 4% myristicin which is poisonous
The aromatic oil has a butter-like consistency and is orange in colour.
Uses: Culinary spice, flavouring
Pericarp: pickles, jelly
Medicinal use: carminative, anti inflammatory (urinary tract and liver)
Nutmeg butter: scented soaps, oils, ointments, confectionaries
Propagation
Seeds: 1Kg fruit -125 average size seeds

sown immediately- June - July
Same as clove
Patch-budding and Epicotyl grafting
Mainly done to convert male plant into female plant
After 4years
https://youtu.be/sUDKsNskdyU
Planting:
0.9m3 pits
8x8m spacing
can be intercropped with coconut (middle of 4 coconut) or arecanut
(every 3rd row we plant)
June – July
Hot humid- 20-30C
Rainfall – 150-250cm
Elevation – sea level to 1500m MSL
Shade trees should be planted before planting
Manuring
Recommended doses Per plant
Before planting 10 kg
After 10 years 50Kg
Fertilisers (NPK)
First year 20:18: 50 g
After 10 years 500:250:1000 g

Intercultural Operations
• Manuring: should be applied 1-5m away from base
• Weeding: shallow rooted crop, so weeding should be done carefully
• Gramaxon
• Irrigation : Rainfed crop, during summer – special care should be
given
Pests of Nutmeg
•Scales: Shield scale, Black scale, White scale
•Young shoots and leaves in nursery
Control:
•Dimethoate: 0.05%
Diseases
Die-back (Diplodia natalensis)
Fruit-rot (Colletotrichum gloeosporoides and Botrydeplodia

theobromae)
• Leaf blight caused by Botrydiplodiea theobromae

• Shot-hole by Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes
• Leaf-spot by Alternaria citri
• Algal leaf-spot by Cephaleuros sp.
• Sooty mould caused by Phragmocapinus betle
• Thread blight (Marasmius pulcherima, Marasmius equicrinus)
• Controlled by repeated spraying of 1% Bordeaux mixture
Harvesting
• 6-9 months from flowering, throughout the year
• June-August or December—May are the peak periods
• From 6th year onwards harvesting starts but peak from 15yrs to 60 years
• Yield: 2000-3000frts/tree ie 800kg nutmeg, 100kg mace, rest – pericarp, mace : nutmeg = 3:20
(60g fruit: 6g)
Processing:
Fully ripe fruit allowed to dry
Mace- 4-8 days for drying
Seed : 4-8 weeks until the seed rattles inside the shell
Artificial drying:
Drier/Oven :55-650C
Mace: 4hr, first blanched by boiling in water 75c for 2min
done to retain color
Seed: 14-16 hrs
Grades of mace
• Banda Mace is considered to be the finest It has a bright orange colour and a fine aroma
• Jaye Estate Mace is golden yellow, interspersed with brilliant crimson streaks.
• Siauw Mace is of a lighter colour than Banda mace and contains less volatile oil
• West Indian Mace, often regarded as the fourth grade of East Indian mace, is derived from
M. argentea
• It contains less volatile oil with an undesirable turpentine-like aroma
• It is unsuitable for distillation purposes
• Whole mace, broken mace, unassorted, siftings

Grades of Nutmeg
.
• Whole and sound nutmeg (ABCD): This is used in spice trade as: (a) large (b) medium and (c) small
•
• Sound shrivels: These are employed for grading, but are usually too expensive for oil distillation
•
• Rejections: Considerably low-priced, this grade can be used for the distillation of oil
•
• Broken and warmy : This grade is also suitable for oil distillation
Adulterants: 'False' nutmegs (M. malabarica) or 'Bombay nutmegs‘

Oil: Turpentine oil
Oleoresins
Mace: 10-12%
Nutmeg:10-13%
Nutmeg butter:
crush the nuts in between plates and distilled in steam oil
has butter like consistency, 25-40% oil
Nutmeg oil: Pale yellow in color, 7-16% oil
Mace oil : 4-17% oil yield, pale yellow in color

LECTURE 17
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS IN
VEGETABLES AND SPICES
Physiological disorders
Radial cracking Concentric cracking Blossom end rot
Suncald Puffiness Cat face

Physiological disorders in Tomato
Fruit cracking:
• Reduced transpiration occurs even in summer when fruit are grown in green house
• Reduced transpiration increase cell turgidity and induce fruit cracking
• Cracking also occurs in rainy season when rains fall in long dry spell
• Boron deficiency in the soil also causes fruit cracking
• They are two types of cracking.
- Radial cracking: occurs mostly at full ripe stage
- Concentric cracking: it is common in mature green stage
Remedies: use of resistant cultivars like Sioux, Punjab Chuhara
• Picking of the fruit before the full ripe stage
• Soil application of Borax @ 10 – 15 kg per ha
• Regulation of soil moisture
• Misting (spray of cool water)
FRUIT CRACKING OF TOMATO
• Cracking on the surface of the

fruit at the stem end is a common
occurrence.
• It is developed mostly in fully
ripe fruit than in mature green or
breaker stage.
• Sudden water availability causes
rapid fruit expansion leading to
fruit cracking.
FRUIT CRACKING OF TOMATO
Causes: Management:
• High temperature and high light intensity • Soil application Borax @ 15-20
• Excessively rapid fruit growth-cracking kg/ha
• Some cultivars crack more than other
because of genotypic differences • Spraying of borax 0.25% 2-3 times
• Boron deficiency (especially calcareous fruiting stage to ripening stage
soil)
• Fruit exposed to sunlight leads to more • Maintaining plants at low to
concentric cracking medium soil moisture so preferable
to grow in the greenhouse.
Blossom end rot
• Blossom end rot: discoloration starts in blossom end of the fruit
• Black spot encompass ½ to 2/3 portion of the fruit
• Later the tissues shrink and skin becomes dark grey to black
• Causes: Use of Ammonium Sulphate, imbalance of Mg & K; deficiency of Ca
• Remedies:
• Cultural practices – to conserve soil moisture and maintain uniform moisture
supply
• Foliar spray of 0.5% CaCl2. Apply Nitrogen in the form of Urea

BLOSSOM ENDROT IN TOMATO
Puffiness: also known as hollowness. As the fruit reaches about 2/3rd normal site outer wall
continues to develop normally but remaining internal tissue growth is retarded. Fruit become
lighter in weight and partially filled.
Very high or very low temperature and low soil moisture conditions will lead to puffiness.
Cat face: A large scar formed at the blossom end portion of the fruit. Such fruits have ridges
and furrows and blotches at blossom end
Reasons: low temperature, faulty pollination, application of nitrogen during transition from
vegetative to reproductive phase
Remedies: balanced fertilizer application; regulation of temperature
Sunscald: when fruits and leaves are exposed to the sun, there is appearance of yellow, white
patches on green and ripen fruits. These patches may have secondary infection of fungus and
start rotting varieties with sparse foliage will suffer more sunscald especially in the month of
May and June.
Remedies: prefer the varieties having more foliage and follow appropriate cultural practices.
PUFFINESS OF TOMATO
• Puffiness refers to the existence

of open cavities between the
outer walls and the locular
content in one or more locules
and is also known as hollowness
or boxiness.
PUFFINESS OF TOMATO
Causes: Management:
• Non fertilization of ovules • Maintenance of normal
• Embryo abortion after normal temperature.
fertilization • Spraying of Borax or Solubor
• High temperature and high soil 10-15 ppm at the peak flowering
moisture are predisposing time.
factors.
SUNSCALD
OF TOMATO
HEAT INJURY OF
TOMATO
Physiological Disorders in Brinjal
Calyx withering
Poor fruit set
● The symptoms of this disorder become
● Natural drop
apparent 7 days before harvest.
● Unproductive
flower types and flower
● The affected fruits become reddish brown in
drop
color and lacking in normal luster and thus
● Spraying the plant with 2 ppm 2,4-D at
marketability of the fruits is hampered.
flowering stage when few flower clusters
appear. ● The affected fruits will have higher
calcium and nitrate contents than healthy
ones.
Blossom end
rot
Sunscald
Skin cracking
Flower drop
Physiological disorders in Cucurbits
Blossom end rot Hollow heart
Light belly colour Rind necrosis

1. Ricyness
✔ This disorder is characterized by premature initiation of floral buds on

✔ The curd becomes granular and loose.
✔ It is caused due to warm weather conditions and use of poor-quality seed.
✔ Grow the crop when temperature is favourable. Use only good quality seed.
✔ Selection of an appropriate resistant and tolerant variety and optimum

2. Buttoning
✔ It refers to the production of small exposed curds of cauliflower
✔ It commonly occurs in early cauliflower that are transplanted after being raised
✔ It may also occur due to condition restricting the growth such as frost, bud
✔ Right selection of variety, application of recommended dose of N, transplanting
4-5 weeks old seedlings, healthy and vigorous seedlings having 5-6 true leaves
are few remedial measures.
✔ Sowing at normal sowing time and maintaining adequate supply of nutrients will
reduce the disorder.

3. Fuzziness
✔ Fuzziness appears as velvety growth due to elongation of flower pedicles of curds.
✔ It may be hereditary or non-hereditary.
✔ Cultivation in abnormal times encourages fuzziness.
✔ Sowing at normal time minimizes fuzziness. It is due to higher temperature and poor-quality seed.
4. Blindness
✔ The term is applied to cauliflower plants without terminal buds and with large, dark
✔ During the early stage of plant growth, damage to growing point by insects (can be
✔ A physiological disorder of cauliflower in which green bracts (small thin leaves) grow
development.
✔ Selection of proper varieties may help to reduce it.

6. Whip Tail
✔ It is characterized by the lack of leaf lamina and leaf consists of only bare mid rib which looks like whip
tail.
✔ It is caused due to deficiency of Molybdenum particularly in acidic soils having pH below 5.0.
✔ Applying 0.5-1.0 kg Sodium or ammonium molybdate/ha at the field preparation or spray the crop with
✔ Add lime in the soil to raise the pH to 6.5.

7. Pinking
✔ Curds show pink tinge due to exposure of curd to high light intensity
✔ It occurs due to anthocyanin formation

8. Hollow stem
✔ Hollowness is caused by boron deficiency and higher supply of nitrogen
✔ It can be controlled by spraying of borax @ 15-20 kg/ha

• This is caused by Boron deficiency
• It appears as water soaked areas and later changes into rusty brown
• Spray one kg of Borax in 500 lit of water 30 days after planting

1. Tip burn
✔ It is characterized by tan or light brown tissues, which may

✔ High nitrogen and relative humidity are associated causes.
✔ Calcium imbalance - calcium deficiency.
✔ Incidence of tip burn can be reduced by the use of resistant

2. Black petiole
✔ As head approaches maturity, the dorsal side of the internal leaf, petiole or midribs turn dark grey or
✔ This is complex physiological disorder in which environment plays an important role in symptom
expression.
3. Black speck
✔ Black speck is characterized by dark spots occurring on outer leaves or sometimes
promoting vigorous growth and temperatures fluctuations are probable causes
✔ High rates of potassium in soils reduce the severity of the disorder

1. Root splitting:
• Genetical factors
• Application of heavy doses of nitrogen
• Sudden increase in soil moisture after prolonged drought
• Greater moisture fluctuation
• Wider spacing.
Remedy:
2. Forking

and forked roots.

3. Cavity spot
✔ Symptoms: cavity in the cortex due to deficiency of Ca,
accumulation of K.
✔ Remedy: Follow proper management practices like right spacing

4. Bitterness
✔ Storage disorder - deleterious effect of ethylene
✔ It increases the total phenol content of roots and induces the formation of
new compounds
✔ Includes isocoumarin and eugenin - bitter flavour in carrots.

1. Forking
✔ Splitting of roots is called forking - common problem in

radish.
✔ Forking is caused due to hard soil pan, delayed

water application.
✔ Avoiding these conditions will help minimize forking in

radish.
2. Brown heart
✔ It is a commonly occurring disorder in radish

✔ Dark spots that first appear on roots characterize it.
✔ The plants remain stunted due to retarded growth

rate.
✔ Roots remain small showing distorted and grayish

appearance.
Control
✔ Brown heart can be controlled by soil application of

of 0.1% boron.
✔ Due to Boron deficiency, plants usually remain dwarf

appearance.
✔ Their surface often is wrinkled and cracked.
✔ Within the fleshy roots hard or corky spots on the

roots.
✔ 10-15 kg of borax per hectare

2. Zoning
✔ Excessive hot weather causes ‘zoning’ – the appearance of alternating

1. Hollow Heart:
• It is caused by rapid growth of tubers
• Tubers become oversized and remain empty with in leading to
the formation of cavity in the centre with the death of the small
area of pith cells
• This results in adjacent cracks and hollowness as the centre
expands during the growth of the potato
Management
• Maintain soil moisture conditions to the optimum level. Avoid
over fertilization particularly N.
• Grow those varieties which are less prone to this defect.
Hollow Heart
2. Black Heart:
• It is caused by sub-oxidation conditions under potato
tuber storage in piles as the air does not get into the
centre.
• It occurs due to higher temperature and excessive
moisture resulted in blackening of tissues in the
centre.
• The appearance of the tuber affect the consumers
otherwise there is no decay.
Management
• Provide proper ventilation. Keep potato tubers in
layers. Do not store tubers in the heap.
Black Heart
3. Greening:
• There are various factors which increases the
glycoalkaloid contents such as mechanical injury,
premature harvest, and excessive application of
fertilizers or exposure of tubers to sunlight which
leads to solanin production which is slightly
poisonous.
Management
• Proper earthing up of tubers as the tuberization takes
place. Store tubers in darkness after digging up.
Greening in Potato
Bolting in Spinach
• Spinach begins to bolt in warm

weather, give bitter taste
• The plants look tall with thick

stalks when they start
flowering
Bolting in Amaranthus
▪ Premature flowering or bolting – serious

problem
▪ Bolting usually associated with planting of

short day varieties during Nov- Dec, def.
of N, extreme high temp., poor soil
aeration.
▪ Raising of crop at ideal time, application

of N and manures – prolong flowering

Ilovepdf Merged

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Ilovepdf Merged

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ilovepdf Merged

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

20AG2009- PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR VEGETABLES

● Herbaceous edible plants

● ‘Holus-holeris’- Cultivation of culinary vegetables

• Short duration - High yield per unit area

Andhra Pradesh - Tomato, Onion,

Karnataka - Onion, Tomato, Sweet

Tamil Nadu - Tapioca, Onion,

Perambalur, Dindigul, Tiruchirapalli,

Dharmapuri, Salem, Krishnagiri,

Dharmapuri, Salem, Dindigul, Vellore and

Dharmapuri, Salem, Dindigul,

Dindigul, Krishnagiri, Vellore, Theni and

Carrot Dindigul, Nilgiris and Krishnagiri

Dindigul, Erode, Nilgiris, Krishnagiri and

Bitter Dharmapuri, Coimbatore, Salem,

Leafy Salem, Tiruvallur and Dharmapuri

❖ India - Contribution of vegetables remains highest (59 – 61%)

● To grow organic vegetables free from (pesticides and insecticides) residue

• To meet the demand of vegetables for an average family of 5 to 6 members, an area of

• Dieticians recommend 300 g of vegetables

● Early maturing crops should be planted together in continuous row so

• Well decomposed organic manure (compost of FYM) + River sand

• The plot should be provided according to convenience using minimum

• Garden should be well protected with suitable fence

• Perennial vegetables like curry leaf, drumstick and quick growing

• Perennial vegetables like coccinia, chow-chow, etc., which require

• Suitable short duration companion crops such as radish, beetroot,

• These crops can be grown on the bunds

• Knowledge of planting season is essential in planning the cropping

● Best utilization of the land, time of the family members - hobby

● Type of fruit: Berry

Semi-determinate: have semi dwarf growth and it is between determinate and

● Climate: Day neutral, warm season crop

● Temperature: 21-28 °C day / 15 -20 °C night

● Season of sowing: May - June and November - December

Spacing: Determinate varieties : 60 x 45 cm

• PGR: Spray 1 ppm (1 mg in one lit) Triacontanol, 15 days after

• GA (5-25 ppm) – for high yield

• Pink stage: 3/4th of the surface shows pink

• Over ripe: fully coloured and flesh is also soft.

• Black spot encompass ½ to 2/3 rd portion of the fruit

• Causes: Use of Ammonium sulphate, imbalance of Mg & K; deficiency of Ca

• Foliar spray of 0.5% CaCl2. Apply Nitrogen in the form of Urea

Radial cracking Concentric cracking Blossom end rot

Suncald Puffiness Cat face

• Serpentine leaf miner

• Tomato spotted wilt virus

Bitterness in Brinjal is due to

Solanum melongena var. esculentum; fruit is long, round and oval

Solanum melongena var. depressum: plant is extensively short and dwarf

• Soil: Well drained soil, rich in organic matter, with pH of 5.5-6.6

Long fruit varieties:

Round green: Banarasi Gaint, Round Striped

Cluster fruited varieties: fruits born in cluster.

Spiny varieties: H-4, Manjeri.

Flowers are normally borne solitarily as well as in clusters

● Varieties : 400 g/ha