‫داليا نبيل عبد العزيز السوليه‬:‫االسم‬

)4(‫سكشن‬

Microbial air pollution from live stock farms

Introduction

Microbial air pollution from the livestock industry has raised concerns about
potential public health risks and environmental impact.1 Livestock farms are
known to emit microorganisms, some of which are zoonotic pathogens or
carriers of resistance to antimicrobials. A series of epidemiological studies
identified associations between residential proximity to livestock farms and
risk of zoonotic infections and suggest that environmental transmission
might play a role.1−8 Only for Q fever, the transmission of the causal
bacteria via air has been firmly established; for other zoonotic diseases
(campylobacteriosis, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
colonization), this is still to be ascertained.1,9 Besides infectious diseases,
other health outcomes like respiratory health effects and atopic sensitization
were found to be associated with livestock density.

we performed an extensive measurement study aimed at sampling

livestock-related microbial concentrations in ambient air at residential sites.
Our objective was to gain insight into airborne concentrations at the
residential level of livestock-related commensals, pathogenic bacteria, and
AMR genes. Since levels at residential distances were expected to be
considerably lower compared to levels at farms, we integrated long-term
sampling with qPCR analyses to enable quantitative estimation of the
microbial load. A high number of sites (n = 61) were included, as we aimed
to gain profound insight into spatial variation. Sites were measured
repeatedly over the course of 1.5 years, providing insight into temporal
variation. Additionally, our goal was to explore spatial associations between
microbial concentrations in air with livestock-related characteristics of the
surroundings by using detailed farm information

classification of air pollutants

Types of Air Pollutants

1-Hydrogen Sulfide

Hydrogen sulfide is a manure gas that can be dangerous. At low

concentrations, humans recognize its characteristic smell of “ rotten eggs.”
At higher concentrations, the gas can be deadly. On a spectrum in-between,
concentrations of hydrogen sulfide can cause headaches, nausea, eye
irritation and dizziness. Hydrogen sulfide is produced anaerobically by
bacteria breaking down sulfur-containing material. The sulfur can originate
from sources aside from manure, including animal feed, gypsum bedding
and waste milk.
Hydrogen sulfide is heavier than air and hangs low to the ground if it is not
blown away by the wind or otherwise dispersed. A top cause of air pollution
occurs when manure lagoons are stirred to re-suspend solid waste, releasing
high concentrations of the gas into the air. Hydrogen sulfide may be
detected on fields where manure is sprayed for fertilizer, and can be
dispersed by the wind.

2-Ammonia

Ammonia is a colorless gas that is soluble in water. It is a

nitrogen-containing compound that is produced in animal metabolism and
excreted through animal waste. The EPA estimates that nearly three quarters
of the country’ s ammonia pollution comes from livestock facilities.
Ammonia is an irritant and at high doses can be toxic. Synthetic ammonia
can be applied as a fertilizer.

Poultry housing is susceptible to elevated levels of ammonia that can

negatively affect the birds’ health and development. Levels above 30 parts
per million (ppm) are associated with these negative effects. The standards
used by Animal Welfare Approved for their certification note that if any
ammonia is detected in one of their certified facilities, elimination action
must be taken, even at levels below 10 ppm.

3-Particulates and Aerosols

The combination of ammonia from animal waste and fertilizer application

with pollutants from combustion can create aerosols, which are a collection
of potentially harmful particulate matter suspended in the air that can
damage human health. Studies have found that farms are a major source of
fine-particulate precursors that form the aerosols that can then lead to heart
or pulmonary disease. Particulate matter can be traced to dried manure,
bedding materials, animal dander and poultry feathers. These particulates
can cause or contribute to several respiratory diseases.

3-Greenhouse Gases

Air emissions from livestock operations make up 14.5 percent of global

greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In fact, the top three meat companies in
the world have a carbon footprint the same size as France and nearly the size
of a major multinational oil and gas corporation. The most prevalent
greenhouse gases, arising from animals’ digestive emissions and manure
degradation, include methane and nitrous oxide.

-Livestock farming emits several greenhouse gases that contribute to climate

change, and may also be subject to the effects of climate change due to
increased animal stress in dealing with rising temperatures.

Unlike more sustainable grazing systems, where well-managed pasture can

act as nature’ s sink in absorbing greenhouse gases from the air into the soil,
industrial systems are faced with the enormous challenge of handling large
quantities of animal waste and its GHG emissions into the air. How that
waste is then captured, stored, treated and used impacts how much of the
GHGs can be mitigated. 14 Given the vast quantities of waste produced in
industrial animal systems, some have opted for expensive anaerobic
digesters, which break down manure and burn GHG gases in anaerobic
conditions (without oxygen), which have their own problems. Other farms
are either faced with large piles or lagoons of manure and/or dispersing the
manure onto pasture and rangelands. Without efficient or effective
composting, this pathogen laden waste becomes a significant hazard.
-Industrial crop production also contributes to climate change. Nitrogen
fertilizers are a source of nitrous oxide, a potent GHG. Machinery used to
sow and harvest crops use fossil fuels to operate and emit carbon dioxide.

-Pesticide Exposure

Farmers use pesticides on crops like corn and soybeans on over 90 percent
of US fields, in order to control weeds, fungi, insects and other pests.

When pesticides are aerially applied, farm workers can be exposed to the
chemicals, some of which have harmful effects on humans. Precautions
should be put into place to minimize workers’ health issues arising from
pesticide exposure.

-Foul Odors

Odors generated from animal waste application to fields or from waste

lagoons; ventilation from indoor animal facilities; and odors from direct
combustion of onsite materials has the potential to drift from farms onto
nearby properties. Food and Water Watch observes that there are not only
health effects, but that “ factory farm odors diminish the quality of life for
neighbors who can no longer hang their laundry out to dry, picnic in their
yards, sit on their porches or even open their windows.”

-Decline in Local Economies

Factory farms can negatively affect local economies. First, areas with new
factory farms may have lower property values. One study in Iowa found that
homes’ values suffered if they were located within three miles of a factory
farm. CAFOs can impact local infrastructure, provide little to no stimulus to
the local economy and leave the environment in worse shape. Factory farms
often exist in close proximity to one another, in poor and minority
communities. Lower-income communities often have fewer options to
confront the negative impact of factory farming, such as taking legal action
or relocating for health reasons.

-Dust and Dirt Exposure

Dust and dirt are stirred up in industrial animal and crop operations. Animals
in concentrated operations under dry conditions cause dried animal waste,
dirt and dust to fly into the air. In feedlot conditions, cattle movement can
trample vegetation and create dusty conditions that can lead to respiratory
nuisances. Indoor-confined environments (e.g., poultry operations) can vent
out particulate matter that can travel beyond the farm’ s boundary and into
the lungs of nearby residents. The extensive tilling of industrially raised
crops can also cause particulates to enter the air, and can lead to soil erosion,
making dust-ups even more common.

-Sustainable Models to Improve Air Quality

Sustainable farming practices can help mitigate air emissions and ensure that
farm workers and animals are not exposed to harmful airborne pollutants.
Sustainable agricultural practices, in particular, offer an alternative to
industrial agriculture by working with natural ecosystems to make farming
and ranching more sustainable and resilient. Agroecology uses a set of
principles that can be suited to the unique physical and social contexts of a
given location, particularly for certain growing conditions. To improve air
quality, sustainable and organic practices keep animals on pasture where the
manure does not concentrate and can break down aerobically, thus reducing
emissions.
In raising animals, Animal Welfare Approved (AWA) standards are the gold
standard for humane treatment. The techniques used to comply with their
standards also help offset negative environmental conditions, including air
pollution. For example, when raising chickens, the AWA standards require
the monitoring of ammonia levels, because high levels are a problem for the
welfare of the animals, workers and potentially for anyone nearby.

Practicing sustainable agriculture in the field can help maintain air quality by
reducing the use of (and need for) chemicals that could pollute our air and
water. Cover crops can help retain soil and moisture, avoid greenhouse gas
emissions and in some instances help increase available nutrients for cash
crops. No-till farming practices are another strategy to help the soil retain
sequestered carbon in order to fight climate change while also preventing
erosion (which can cause particulate matter (dust) entering the air).
Combined, these practices are sometimes called carbon farming and together
play a positive role in improving air quality and fighting climate change.

Health & Environmental Effects of Air Pollution

-Health Effects

Air pollution can harm us when it accumulates in the air in high enough
concentrations.

Millions of Americans live in areas where urban smog, particle pollution,

and toxic pollutants pose serious health concerns. People exposed to high
enough levels of certain air pollutants may experience:

- Irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat

-Wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and breathing difficulties

-Worsening of existing lung and heart problems, such as asthma

- Increased risk of heart attack

In addition, long-term exposure to air pollution can cause cancer and

damage to the immune, neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems.
In extreme cases, it can

even cause death.

Who Is Most at Risk?

Air pollution is a problem for all of us. However, some groups of people are
especially sensitive to common air pollutants such as particulates and
ground-level ozone.

Sensitive populations include children, older adults, people who are active
outdoors, and people with heart or lung diseases, such as asthma. If you are
sensitive to air pollution, you need to be aware of steps you can take to
protect your health.

For more information on sensitive populations and the health effects of

common air pollutant

: Environmental Effects

Along with harming human health, air pollution can cause a variety of
environmental effects:

Acid rain is precipitation containing harmful amounts of nitric and sulfuric

acids

These acids are formed primarily by nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides
released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned. These acids fall to
the Earth either as wet precipitation (rain, snow, or fog) or dry precipitation
(gas and particulates).

Some are carried by the wind, sometimes hundreds of miles. In the

environment, acid rain damages trees and causes soils and water bodies to
acidify, making the water unsuitable for some fish and other wildlife. It also
speeds the decay of buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of our
national heritage. Acid rain has damaged

Massachusetts lakes, ponds, rivers, and soils, leading to damaged wildlife

and forests.For more information on acid rain, go to
http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/.

Eutrophication is a condition in a water body where high concentrations of

nutrients (such as nitrogen) stimulate blooms of algae, which in turn can
cause fish kills and loss of plant and animal diversity. Although
eutrophication is a natural process in the aging of lakes and some estuaries,
human activities can greatly accelerate eutrophication by increasing the rate
at which nutrients enter aquatic ecosystems. Air emissions of nitrogen
oxides from power plants, cars, trucks, and other sources contribute to the
amount of nitrogen entering aquatic ecosystems.

Haze is caused when sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles in the air.
Haze obscures the clarity, color, texture, and form of what we see. Some
haze-causing

pollutants (mostly fine particles) are directly emitted to the atmosphere by

sources such as power plants, industrial facilities, trucks and automobiles,
and construction activities.
Others are formed when gases emitted to the air (such as sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides) form particles as they are carried downwind. For more
information on haze, visit the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Visibility Web page:

http://www.epa.gov/oar/visibility/.

Effects on wildlife. Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on soils or

surface waters, can impact wildlife in a number of ways. Like humans,
animals can experience health problems if they are exposed to sufficient
concentrations of air toxics over time

Studies show that air toxics are contributing to birth defects, reproductive
failure, and disease in animals. Persistent toxic air pollutants (those that
break down slowly in the environment) are of particular concern in aquatic
ecosystems. These pollutants accumulate in sediments and may biomagnify
in tissues of animals at the top of the food chain to concentrations many
times higher than in the water or air.

Ozone depletion.

Ozone is a gas that occurs both at ground-level and in the Earth's

upper atmosphere, known as the stratosphere. At ground level, ozone is a

pollutant that can harm human health. In the stratosphere, however, ozone
forms a layer that protects life on earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet
(UV) rays.

But this "good" ozone is gradually being destroyed by man-made chemicals

referred to as ozone-depleting substances, including chlorofluorocarbons,
hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons.
These substances were formerly used and sometimes still are used in
coolants,foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents, pesticides, and aerosol
propellants. Thinning of the protective ozone layer can cause increased
amounts of UV radiation to reach the Earth, which can lead to more cases of
skin cancer, cataracts, and impaired immune systems. UV can also damage
sensitive crops, such as soybeans, and reduce crop yields.

Crop and forest damage. Air pollution can damage crops and trees in a
variety of ways.Ground-level ozone can lead to reductions in agricultural
crop and commercial forest yields, reduced growth and survivability of tree
seedlings, and increased plant susceptibility to disease, pests and other
environmental stresses (such as harsh weather). As described above, crop
and forest damage can also result from acid rain and from increased UV
radiation caused by ozone depletion.Global climate change. The Earth's
atmosphere contains a delicate balance of naturally occurring gases that trap
some of the sun's heat near the Earth's surface.

This "greenhouse effect" keeps the Earth's temperature stable.

Unfortunately, evidence is mounting that humans have disturbed this natural
balance by producing large amounts of some of these greenhouse gases,
including carbon dioxide and methane

As a result, the Earth's atmosphere appears to be trapping more of the sun's

heat, causing the Earth's average temperature to rise - a phenomenon known
as global warming. Many scientists believe that global warming could have
significant impacts on human health, agriculture, water resources, forests,
wildlife, and coastal areas.

control of air pollutant

1-Using public transports

Using public transport is a sure short way of contributing to less air pollution
as it provides with less gas and energy, even carpools contribute to it. In
addition to less release of fuels and gas, using a public transport can also
help in saving money.

2-Turn off the lights when not in use

The energy that the lights take also contribute to air pollution, thus less
consumption of electricity can save energy. Use energy saving fluorescent
lights to help the environment.

3-Recycle and Reuse

The concept of recycle and reuse is not just conserve resources and use them
judicially but also is helpful for air pollution as it helps in reducing pollution
emissions. The recycled products also take less power to make other
products.

4-No to plastic bags

The use of plastic products could be very harmful to the environment as they
take a very long time to decompose, due to their material made up of oil.
The use of paper bags instead is a better alternative as they decompose easily
and are recyclable.

5. Reduction of forest fires and smoking

The collecting of garbage and getting it on fire in dry seasons or dry leaves
catching fires is a huge factor for causing air pollution, moreover smoking
also causes air pollution and causes the air quality to worsen along with
obviously damaging one’ s health.

6. Use of fans instead of Air Conditioner

The usage of AC’ s takes a lot of energy and emits a lot of heat which is bad
for the environment. AC’ s also take a lot of power and energy to work as
compared to fans.

7. Use filters for chimneys

The gas that is emitted from fireplaces in homes and factories are extremely
dangerous for air pollution and harms the air quality severely. The use of
filters should be used at least if the consumption couldn’ t be lessened, this
will help to reduce the effect of harmful gases absorbing in the air.

8. Avoid usage of crackers

The use of crackers during festivals and weddings is sadly one of the biggest
contributors to air pollution, leading to a layer of smog which is extremely
harmful for health. So, practice of no crackers should be implemented

9. Avoid using of products with chemicals

Products that use the chemicals in their usage or smell strongly, like paints
or perfumes should be used less or outside the house. There can also be an
alternative to use products with low chemical content and organic properties.

10. Implement AfforestationLast but not the least, plant and grow as many
trees as possible. The practice of planting trees provides a lot of benefits to
the environment and helps with the release of oxygen

reference
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-Animal Welfare Approved. “Meat Chickens, AWA Standards and

Resources.” A Greener World, (n.d.) Retrieved March 13, 2019,
https://animalwelfareapproved.us/standards/meat-chicken-2017/

-Bauer, Susanne et al. “Farms a Major Source of Air Pollution, Study

Finds.” American Geophysical Union, May 16, 2015. Retrieved March 13,
2019, from
https://news.agu.org/press-release/farms-a-major-source-of-air-pollution-stu
dy-finds/

-Hribar, Carrie. “Understanding Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations

and Their Impact on Communities.” National Association of Local Boards
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