ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, AFRICAN RAIL

CENTER OF EXCELLENCE

Prepared by: FIRI TESEMA

Instructor: Mr. Zewdie Moges MSc CI

Subject= Railway Geometry and Facilities Design

Course code= REGM 6101

Date= 20/12/2021

[Title: ASSIGNMENT 1: Basic factors for railway

alignment and HOME WORK ]
Thanks
 Assignment 1

Basic factors for railway alignment

Question 1
a. How do you maximize the economic viability of a route planned or suggested?

Answer: The choice of linking a location to another, and more importantly, the path selected is
part of a route selection process which respects a set of constraints. Although route selection
varies by mode, the underlying principles remain similar; in its most simple form, maximize the
economic viability of a route are obviously two major dimensions in this function:

1. Cost minimization. A good route selection should minimize the overall costs of the transport
system. This implies construction as well as operating costs. The most direct route is not
necessarily the least expensive, notably if rugged terrain is concerned, but most of the time a
direct route gets selected. It also implies that route selection must be the least damageable to
the environment, if environmental consequences are considered.

2. Efficiency maximization. A route must support economic activities by providing a level of

accessibility, thus fulfilling the needs of regional development. Even if a route is longer and thus
more expensive to build and operate, it might provide better services for an area. Its efficiency
is thus increased at the expense of higher costs. In numerous instances, roads were constructed
more for political reasons then for meeting economic considerations.

Route selection is consequently a compromise between the cost of a transport service and its
efficiency. Sometimes, there are no compromises as the most direct route is the most efficient
one. At other times, a compromise is very difficult to establish as cost and efficiency are
inversely proportional.

Why is it important to have a good estimate of the volume of traffic in the route design
process?

Answer: - he good estimate of traffic volume in the route design process are including:

• Transport market survey and analysis,

• Assessment of the transport market demands and level of provided services, development of
appropriate plans

• Measures and strategies

• Decision about new investments in infrastructure.

• Optimizing road space

• Assessing and implementing measures to reduce traffic collisions

• Performing impact studies on accessibility, parking, and traffic

• Integrating different forms of active transportation and transit into road designs

• Developing intersection design and operation plans

• Performing road safety studies etc.

Additionally it is important to evaluate the infrastructure management needed such as

determining roadway geometry, road construction and maintenance scheduling. Additionally it
is important to give alternative routes service, Traffic congestion prevention and Real-time traffic
data gathering.

b. A train must overcome several resistances to start moving or to continue moving. What
are the two essential resistances and describe them briefly?

To start a train the locomotive must produce enough tractive force to overcome the following
two factors:

1. Vehicle Internal Resistance - this is the resistance to movement by the wheel

bearing. Depending upon the weight per axle, the bearing type and the
temperature of the bearings, which is in turn a function of both the ambient
temperature and the length of time the equipment has been stopped,
2. Starting resistance for "solid" type bearings may be as high as 35 lbs per ton
(US) below 30 degrees F. An average value for light and heavy cars of 25 lbs per
ton (US) at starting is sometimes considered a "reasonable" value for above-
freezing temperatures. The starting resistance of roller bearings is much lower,
and a general resistance value of 5 lb/ton (US) (or less) might be considered a
satisfactory estimate for roller-bearing equipment at above-freezing
temperatures. Finally it is the resistance caused by friction within a railway
vehicle’s wheel bearings that can be significantly higher at starting than when
the vehicle is moving
Question 2
a) Which other factors than power limits the tractive effort (traction force)?
The tractive effort is defined as the turning force produced at the trails by the driving wheels.
The tractive effort is dependent on,

 The available power

 The desired speed
 The available adhesion force of driven wheel

The primary factors, among others, affecting adhesion are rail condition and speed. Adhesion
decreases as speed increases. At about 10 mph, adhesion varies from less than 10% on slimy,
wet rail to about 40% on dry, sanded rail. In general, with the aid of the sanders, approximately
25% adhesion is usually available

b) Which factors are the most influential in order to increase the efficiency (energy consumption,
speed, acceleration ability etc.) of passenger trains and freight trains, respectively? List two or
three factors for each train type and justify each factor.

Answer: - a, Passenger trains:

Factor affecting the efficiency of passenger train are

1. Number of stopping
2. Curvature
3. Weight of the train and

Answer: - b, freight trains

Factor affecting the efficiency of passenger train are

1.  Gradient
2. Curvature
3. Weight of the train and

The purpose of train coasting is to utilize its own kinetic energy for energy consumption
reduction. For the given transportation tasks, the space–time distributions, flow directions, and
flow volumes of passengers and freights have been known
 c. What is the difference between tractive force and specific tractive force? A loco has a
tractive force of 165 kN. The weight of the loco is 65 tonnes and the combined weight of
all the wagons is 800 tonnes. Find the train's specific tractive force

Answer: - Tractive force is used for acceleration, hill climbing draw bar pull and to overcome
wind resistance

Specific tractive force of the train/locomotive, f:

F [kN] –tractive force,

Ptrain[kN] –train/loco weight ,

f [‰], f is therefore the amount of kN tractive force per kN weight of train, and given in ‰

f=F/ptrain=F/mloco+mcar

Given: F=165tones=165KN f=F/ptrain =165Kn/650kN+8000Kn=19‰

Mloco=650K Mcar=8000kN

Question 3

A freight train with an EL 18 electric locomotive is driving loaded wagons at a constant speed v
= 140 km/h. The weight of the electric locomotive EL 18 is Mloc = 82,2 tons. The starting
tractive effort for this locomotive is 275 kN. The tractive effort diagram is shown below.

The basic resistance of the locomotive is given by wo,Ioc= 2,2 3( v/100)2 [‰]; v [km/h]

Specific basic resistance of the wagons is w 0,wag = 5 ‰

a) Calculate the minimum adhesion coefficient if the locomotive uses the maximum
available tractive effort at the start.

Answer: Minimum adhesion, µmin=F/W=275KN/(822)KN=0.335

b) Calculate the maximum weight that can be pulled by one EL 18 locomotive up a hill with
gradient 6 ‰ and a constant speed 140 km/h. Assume the track is a tangent track.
Calculate the minimum number of wagons required to transport the load. The wagons
have two bogies and each bogie has two axles (Bo´Bo´ axle arrangement) with maximum
axle load of 18 tons.

Answer:- Given, v=140Km/h, EL 18, Mloc=82.2 tons, ws=6‰, Axle load=18 tons,
 The wagons have two bogies and each bogies has two axle, =4*18tons=72tons

Wo,Wag=5‰(Specific basic resistance of the wagons)

F=wP=(Wo +Ws)Ptotal , When wo=wo,Wag + W0,Loc=5‰ + 8.1‰=13.1‰

The maximum weight,F=150=(13.1‰ +6‰)*(822+ Pv)

150KN=(0.0191)(822KN +Pv)

Pv=134.3/0.0191=7034.403KN=703.14 tons

The maximum weight of EL 18 locomotive up a hill with gradient 6‰ and a constant speed of 140km/h
is 703.14 tons.

Calculate the minimum number of wagons required to transport the load

Number of wagon=weight of locomotive/axle loads= 703.14 tons/72 tons=10 wagons

c. How steep can be the maximum gradient that the train can drive up a hill without any difficulty
using two EL 18 locomotives and 980 tons loaded wagons in wet condition when the friction
coefficient drops to 0.15? Assume that the track is a tangent track and that the train runs with
constant speed of 140 km/h

Answer;- Given=Friction coefficient µ= 0.15 , v=140km/h,

Weight of locomotive =2*82.2tons=164.4 tons=1644KN

Weight of wagons=980tons=9800KN

F=wP=(Wo +Ws)Ptotal, To determine tractive force(Ftractive)

Wo,Wag=5‰(Specific basic resistance of the wagons)

W0,loco=2.2 + 3(140/100)2=8.1‰ Tractive force =µ + WI= 0.15 *1644=246.6KN

Tractive force = (W0 +WS)(WL + Ww) + ma the speed is constant

246.6 = (W0 +WS) (1644 +9800)

= (W0 +WS)= 246.6/11444=0.02155

Wo=Wol +WoW =0.005 +0.0081*2=0.02116

Maximum gradient, WS =0.02155 8. 0.02116=0.0003884

Ws=0.3884‰ (the maximum gradient that the train can drive up a hill without any difficulty)
 Home work

1. Compare and Contrast Ballasted track with non-Ballasted track.

Ballasted track and non-ballasted track are two typical kind of railway track. There are plenty of
differences between ballasted track and non-ballasted track, such as composition, construction,
maintenance, cost and is shown on picture below.

1.1 Ballasted track

Ballasted track is a type of traditional railway tracks and is commonly composed of steel rail,
railroad tie, railway fasteners and ballast bed. Theoretically, ballasted track is the creation of
railway track development. Generally, laying ballast under the railway sleepers to reduce the
stress on the ground. A layer of gravel was laid between ground and railway sleeper to form the
track bed. Track bed (ballast bed) can improve the flexibility and drainage performance of
railway track. Ballasted track also make track easy to repair. The traditional track whose bed is
made up of ballast, also called ordinary track and what is often known as ballasted track.

Advantages

 Ballasted track requires low investment cost.

 Ballasted track is usually easy to lay.
 Ballasted track has good drainage performance.

Disadvantages
  Train run on the ballasted track with banged sound and low speed. so that, passengers
may feel uncomfortable.
 Ballasted track is easy to be deformed.
 Ballasted bed requires frequent and costly maintenance.
 Train speed is limited on the ballasted track.
 Ballasted track has poor life expectation (about 15-20yrs).
 Ballasted track produces more pollution by releasing dust from ballast.
 Ballasted track has higher noise level than non-ballasted track. It is necessary to take
effective noise reduction measures.

1.2 Non-ballasted track

Non-ballasted track, also called ballastless track, is the railway track whose bed is composed of
concrete and bituminous mixture, etc. Generally, non-ballasted track is made up of steel rail,
railway fasteners and slab. Non-ballasted track’s railway sleeper is formed by concrete casting.
Instead of ballast bed, steel rail and railway sleeper is laid on the concrete track. There is no
doubt that non-ballasted track is the advanced track technology in the world. Slab track is one
of the most important types of non-ballast track structure.

Advantages

 Non-ballasted track need less maintenance, save cost.

 Non-ballasted track can reduce dust and beautify the environment.
 Non-ballasted track has great ride performance and stability.
 Non-ballasted track has long durability and service life (about 50-60yrs).
 Non-ballasted track has high train speed and make passengers feel comfortable.

Disadvantages

 Non-ballasted need more investment cost than ballasted track.

 Non-ballasted track cannot be laid in some area like clay deep cutting, soft dirt road and
earthquake area.
  The most serious drawback of non-ballasted track is that possibilities for improvement
are limited.

2. Discuss all types of train resistance

The factors that influence train resistance are summarized as the journal-bearing friction, track
resistance to rolling, wind resistance, curve and grade resistances, acceleration resistance, and
starting resistance. Each of these factors is examined for its magnitude of contribution to total
train resistance.

Definition: - Train resistance, the force required to move a train, is the sum of the rolling
resistance on tangent level track, grade resistance and curve resistance of the locomotives and
cars.

Trains resistance is defined in terms of force required to encounter resistance arising due to
vehicle, track, grade, curve, acceleration, wind at different time and place etc. Study of these
resistances and its impact in train motion is important to develop strategies for reducing it. It is
measured in terms of Kg/ton.

Primarily, train Resistance is bifurcated into internal and external resistance. The internal
resistance is internal to the train and prevailing track geometry over the entire train run.
External resistance is situational in nature.

2.1 Internal Resistance: -plays different role during start and running and subdivided so as
below.

2.1.1 Rolling Resistance

Rolling Resistance is the sum of the forces that must be overcome by the tractive effort of the
locomotive to move a railway vehicle on level tangent track in still air at a constant speed.

These resistive forces include:

 Rolling friction between wheels and rail that depends mainly on the quality of track.
 Bearing resistance, which varies with the weight on each axle and, at low speed, the
type, design and lubrication of the bearing.
 Train dynamic forces that include the effects of friction and impact between the wheel
flanges against the gauge side of the rail and those due to sway, concussion, buff and
slack-action. The rail-flange forces vary with speed and quality of the wheel tread and
rail, as well as the tracking effect of the trucks.
 Air resistance that varies directly with the cross-sectional area, length and shape of the
vehicle and the square of its speed.
 In general, rolling resistance of a train, R (in lb.), can be calculated using an empirical
expression as follows: R = A + B V + C D V2 where A, B, C & D are coefficients defining the
different resistive forces that are either independent, dependent or affected by the square of
the train speed V.

2.1.2 Starting Resistance

Starting resistance is to overcome the inertia and low temperature of the bearing, tightening of
couplers and resistance drops rapidly as the train speed increases. The resistance caused by
friction within a railway vehicle’s wheel bearings can be significantly higher at starting than
when the vehicle is moving. Depending on the type of bearings, weight per axle, and the
temperature of the bearing, starting resistance can range from 5 to 50 lb/ton. The ambient
temperature and the duration of the stop as shown below affect temperature of the bearing.

Type of Bearings Above Freezing Below Freezing

Journal Bearing 25 lb/ton 35 lb/ton
Roller Bearing 5 lb/ton 15 lb/ton

Starting resistance is generally not much of a problem with the very large tractive effort
available with modern diesel locomotives, except on steeper grades. If necessary, the
locomotive engineer can bunch up the train first, then start the train one car at a time. The cars
already moving will help start the ones to the rear. This is called “taking slack” to start.

2.2 External Resistances: - are those which are not fixed and depend on varying terrain
(gradient and curve), prevailing conditions of air (speed and humidity), self-generation for
lighting and air conditioning, brake binding etc.

2.2.1 Grade Resistance

Grade Resistance is the force required to overcome gradient and is equal to 20 lb. per ton per
percent grade. This force is derived from the resolution of force vectors and is independent of
train speed. An up grade produces a resistive force while a down grade produces an
accelerating (negative resistive) force. A train moving up a long tangent of 1% grade at 10 mph,
a speed that most tonnage trains slow down to a ruling grade locations, will have a train
resistance coefficient of 22.4 to 23.5 lb. per ton with the grade resistance accounted for over
85% of the total.
2.2.2 Curve Resistance
Curve Resistance is an estimate of the added resistance a locomotive or car must overcome
when operating through a horizontal curve. The exact details of the mechanics contributing to
curve resistance are not easy to define. It is generally accepted in the railway industry that
curve resistance is approximately the same as a 0.04% up grade per degree of curvature (which
equals 0.8 lb. per ton per degree of curvature) for standard gauge tracks. At very slow speeds,
say 1 or 2 mph, the curve resistance is closer to 1.0 lb. (or 0.05% up grade) per ton per degree
of curve.

2.2.3 Resistance due to acceleration

This is the force exerted by the locomotive to accelerate the rolling stock and calculated as per
Newton Second Law of Motion. F a=Accelerating Force=ma; or = W*a Newton; Where W is
weight of train and locomotive in tonne and a is acceleration in m/sec 2 and also expressed in
Tonnef as, Fa = W*fa/g kgf

2.2.4 Resistance due to self-generation

Self and End-on-generation system is provided on coaching trains for lighting and air
conditioning on trains. The train lighting coach is provided with 1 no. 4.5kW(6HP) and AC coach
with 2 nos. of 25kW(33.5HP) alternator. The train resistance offered by these machines can be
found out as follows:

Train Resistance (in Kgf) *Speed (kmph)/270=HP; let the redundancy factor is e and efficiency of
generation is n, then we get

Train resistance (in kgf)/coach= HP*270*e /v*n

Proceedings of the AREA 1942 Vol 43 has given empirical derivation for the resistance of self-
generation as

R4kW = 87.5/(0.94V) and R15kW = 59.2/(0.925*V) where R is pound/ton and V in mph

2.2.5 Wind Resistance

Wind resistance is different to air resistance which is for quite air. Wind speed of 5 Km/h  is very
common, and therefore, to be added to speed of the vehicle if moving in the opposite
direction. Lateral flow adds to the flange resistance. Humidity also affects air resistance. The
density of humid air is less as compared to dry air therefore will offer less resistance as
compared to dry air.

3. What does cant (super elevation) surplus and cant efficiency mean? How do you
determine equilibrium cant?

Answer: Deficient superelevation

 On lines for mixed service

 In general condition, 70 mm，In difficult condition, 90 mm, In existed line, 110 mm
 On lines for passenger traffic
 Alowable maximum deficient super elevation（mm）

Deficient superelevation;

Hd=11.8vmax2/R-h

Surplus super elevation

 Mixed Line
For general condition (30 mm), difficult condition, 50 mm
 Passenger Line
Allowable maximum deficient super elevation (mm)

Surplus superelevation;

Hs:h-11.8v2min/R

4. Discuss the factors that determine the maximum Gradient of railway lines?

Answer: - The actual maximum attainable slope is determined by the weight of the
locomotive, the total weight of the train, the rolling friction of the carriages, and the
kinetic (sliding) friction between two materials; the locomotive's wheels and road
surface (rails). The static friction (present when things aren't slipping yet) allows for
steeper hills, but it'd be unsafe to go that far, one slip of the wheel and the train won't
be able to regain grip.

Maximum grade is a function of three factors: the power of your locomotives, the

weight of your locomotives, and the number and weight of the cars in your trains. That
the locomotive's power is a factor is common sense; a weak locomotive won't pull many
cars up a grade.
5. A -2.5% grade is connected to a 1.0% grade by means of a 180 m vertical curve. The P.I.
station is 100 + 00 and the P.I. elevation is 100.0 m above sea level. What are the station
and elevation of the lowest point on the vertical curve?

Given; g1= -2.5%, g2= 1.0% , P.I. station= 100+00, P.I. elevation= 100m

Solution; Rate of change of grade: r= (g2-g1)/L= (1.0%-(-2.5%))/1.8sta= 1.944%/sta

Station of the low point: at low point, g=0, g=g1+rx=0

X= -g1/r= -(-2.5/1.944)= 1.29= 1+29sta

Station of BVC= (100+00)-(0+90)= 99+10

Station of low point = (99+10)+(1+29)= 100+39

Elevation of BVC: y_o=100.0m+(-0.9sta)(-2.5%)= 102.25m

Elevation of low point: y= y_o+g_1x + (rx^2)/2

Y= 102.25m +(-2.5%)(1.29sta) +((1.944%/sta)〖(1.29sta)〗^2)/2

Y= 100.64m

6. A two-lane highway (3.6 m lanes) with a design speed of 100 km/h has a 400 m radius
horizontal curve connecting tangents with bearings of N75E° and S78E°. Determine the
superelevation rate, the length of spiral if the difference in grade between the
centerline and edge of traveled way is limited to 1200, and the stations of the TS, SC, CS,
and ST, given that the temporary station of the P.I. is 150 00. The length of the spiral
should be rounded up to the next highest 20 m interval.

Solution; Determine super elevation rate:

e= v^2/127R-f = 100^2/(127(400))-0.12= 0.08

determine length of super elevation transition and spiral:

L_s= 200De= 200(3.6)(0.08)= 57.6m…….round to 60

θ_s=L_s/〖2R〗_C = 60/2(400) = (0.075)rad

A= √(L_S R_C )= √((200)(400))= 154.9

x_s=L_s-L^5/(40A^4 ) + L^9/(3,456A^8 ) =60 - 60^5/(40 〖 (154.9) 〗 ^4 ) +

60^9/(3,456(〖154.9)〗^8 )

= 60- 0.034 + 0.00= 59.966

Y_(s=) L^3/(6A^2 ) -L^7/(336A^6 ) +L^11/(42,240A^10 )

= 60^3/(6(〖154.9)〗^2 ) - 60^7/(336(〖154.9)〗^9 ) + 60^11/(42240(〖154.9)〗^10 )

〖_〗

= 1.499m

Determine p,k,Δ,T^', and L_(C:)

P= Y_S - R_C(1- cosθ_s) = 1.499- 400 [ 1- cos(0.075)] = 0.375m

K= X_s - R_Csinθ_s = 59.996 – 400 sin(0.075) = 30.024m

Δ =( 90^o- 75^o) + ( 90^0-78^o) = 27^o = 0.471rad

T^'= (R_C+p)tan(Δ/2) =96.122m

L_c= R_C Δ_rad - L_s = 400(0.471) –60= 128.4m

Determine stations of critical points:

TS station = P.I. station - (T^' + k)

= (150 + 00 ) – [(0 + 96.1) + ( 0 + 30.0)]

= 148 + 73.9

SC station = TS station + L_s

= (148 + 73.9) + ( 0+ 60)

= 149 + 33.9

CS station = CS station + L_s

= ( 150 = 62.3) + ( 0 + 60)

7. Define and discuss what ‘‘Railway System Engineering’’ mean

A System Engineering can help rail projects deliver better systems more quickly and at
lower cost. System Engineering was mainly followed in defiance sector but later
Railways have adopted and ‘System Interface &Integration’ in many Railways projects
around the world. Defining and managing these requirements is best addressed within a
systems engineering environment. Safety is of prime importance in all railway systems
and the efficient delivery of the safety studies to support an operating certificate can be
enhanced with the rigorous application of systems engineering to rail projects.

As modern rail systems become more complex there is a need to be able to manage all
of the facets of a ‘system’ to enable the Stakeholder Requirements to be achieved at all
stages of a project life-cycle, but in particular at the successful culmination of a project
during the operational stage. The facets of a ‘system’ include hardware, software,
firmware, people, information, techniques, facilities, services and all other support
elements. The interaction of these facets must be addressed in a manner that assures
completeness and this can best be achieved using formal methods that nowadays form
the basis of ‘Systems engineering’. Systems engineering encompasses a set of processes
that are applied during the system life-cycle.

Systems engineering is an interdisciplinary approach and means to enable the

realization of successful systems. It focuses on defining customer needs and required
functionality early in the development cycle, documenting requirements, and then
proceeding with design synthesis and system validation while considering the complete
problem: Operations, Cost & Schedule, Performance, Training & Support, Test, Disposal
and Manufacturing.

“Systems engineering integrates all the disciplines and specialty groups into a team
effort forming a structured development process that proceeds from concept to
production to operation. Systems engineering considers both the business and the
technical needs of all customers with the goal of providing a quality product that meets
the user needs.” swer: