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Heat Transfer Characteristics Jet Impingement Cooling of A High Temperature Steel
Heat Transfer Characteristics Jet Impingement Cooling of A High Temperature Steel
Heat Transfer Characteristics Jet Impingement Cooling of A High Temperature Steel
To cite this article: H. Leocadio & J. C. Passos (2021): Experimental investigation of heat
transfer characteristics during water jet impingement cooling of a high-temperature steel surface,
Ironmaking & Steelmaking, DOI: 10.1080/03019233.2021.1872467
CONTACT H. Leocadio hormando.leocadio@usiminas.com hljunior@yahoo.com.br Research & Development Division, Usiminas Steel, Ipatinga, 35160-900,
Brazil
Supplemental data for this article can be accessed at https://doi.org/10.1080/03019233.2021.1872467
© 2021 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining
2 H. LEOCADIO AND J. C. PASSOS
Figure 1. Hot strip mill cooling system with various arrays of impinging circular water jets installed along the run out table and a sketch a U-Tube top header with
double rows of staggered arrays of jets.
high as 1000°C. Ochi et al. [22] and Ishigai et al. [21] reported sometimes agglomerating without coalescing. They never
that water jet (Tj) below 60°C, impinging on 1000°C-steel condensed despite the fact that they are moving in highly
surface, prevents the vapour film formation prior to rewetting subcooled liquid that is continually refreshed from the top
take place and strongly affects the heat flux. Liu and Wang (details in [11]). A small darker (wetted) area appears at the
[23] observed rewetting occurring on surface at 1000°C centre (stage II-c), surrounded by a white narrow band, indi-
without vapour film formation, for water jet diameter of cating that solid–liquid contact (rewetting) took place and
10 mm (Tj = 20°C; Vj = 2–6 m s−1) impinging on steel speci- surface temperature is 827°C. This white band is clearly
men preheated at 1000°C. Takrouri et al. [16] reported Trw is visible in the top view image and demarcates the rewetting
not affect neither Ti nor jet velocity (Vj), but Trw is strongly front. The wetted area increases in time as the rewetting
dependent on Tj, from jet quenching tests on horizontal front advances outwards (stage III-c), Ts = 800°C and vapour
tubes (380–780°C). The influence of surface roughness on bubbles can be visualized within wetted area, until the impin-
rewetting temperature and rewetting delay was recently gement zone is completely wetted at t = 0.38 s (stage IV-c).
reported by Wang et al. [15] and other authors [4,24]. Many vapour bubbles are growing and condensing, within
Recently, in author’s previous work [11] was applied high- the wetted region (stage IV-c), where Ts = 703°C and no
speed imaging (20,000 fps) all through the 10 mm-circular ‘gas’ bubbles were observed within this wetted region.
water jet (20–70°C) impinging vertically on a hot steel plate This study [11] elucidated the rewetting mechanism on
(300⍰900°C) during quench cooling, where rewetting temp- such high-temperature surfaces by examining the surface
erature and delay time were carefully examined and quan- conditions by imagens through the impinging water jet on
tified. Top views of boiling phenomena, within the a steel plate. The limit condition for water remains liquid is
impingement zone, allowed a clear direct observation of the critical temperature (Tcr) of 374°C, at pressure of
the vapour film formation and rewetting phenomenon, fol- 22 MPa. The thermodynamic limit of water superheat
lowed by vigorous boiling activity. Rewetting mechanism, (without undergoes instantaneous vapourization) is Ttls =
which allows rewetting on surfaces above 800°C, was 325°C, at atmospheric pressure [1,25,26]. Thus, if the solid–
reported. Images from top and side views of jet impingement liquid interface exceeds 325°C, the liquid have to be repelled
zone during cooling of a steel plate (Ti = 896°C) by a circular from the hot surface and rewetting cannot occur. Vapour film
jet (Tj = 20°C) are shown in Figure 2 [11]. formation prior rewetting was visually confirmed for all exper-
To facilitate the understanding of interface topologies, iments (Ti = 450–900°C) in [11], except for Ti = 300°C where
Figure 2 gives both images the ‘Side view’ (upper part) and rewetting occurred immediately in the whole impingement
the corresponding ‘Top view’ (bottom part). The rewetting zone, without vapour film formation, flowed by bubbly
process is elucidated by the consecutive stages I to IV. The activity. This suggested that rewetting is bound to occur on
sketches lines ‘a’ and ‘d’ provide an interpretation of the surface temperature below Ttls. Hence, jet quenching tests
phenomena observed in photographs ‘b’ and ‘c’. Just after for different surface conditions was carried out. For all tests
touchdown of the jet (t = 0), part of the water becomes rewetting started first where the surface was more rusty
vapour and a continuous vapour film is formed. This continu- and with highest elevated points on surface, was visually
ous vapour layer remains uninterrupted for more than 0.20 s. confirmed.
After t = 0.12 s (Stage I-a) the surface temperature drops only Since the rewetting temperature at interface solid–liquid
9°C (Ts = 887°C) due to the thermal insulation of vapour film. cannot exceed Ttls, the probable rewetting mechanism on
The liquid–vapour interface of the film reflects light irregu- surface temperatures above Ttls is explained in Figure 3 [26].
larly and creates the milky appearance in the side-views Initially, the steel plate, asperities and oxides have temperature
(Stage I-b). The whitish bubbles (stage I-c & d) are ‘gas’ above Ttls and when the water jet touches the hot surface the
bubbles from the degassing process which keeps on liquid is repelled and a vapour film is formed (Figure 3(a)). Over
moving quite hectically, without reducing in size and time, the upper part of higher asperities is cooled below Ttls
IRONMAKING & STEELMAKING 3
Figure 2. Images from top and side views of jet impingement zone during quench test (Ti = 896°C; Tj = 20°C; Vj = 1 m s−1). Stages: (I) gas bubbles on top of film
boiling, (II) onset of rewetting, (III) rewetting front, and (IV) nucleate boiling [11].
(Figure 3(b)). Asperities penetrate through the vapour layer the surface temperature. This explanation is in line with Filipo-
and interact with the flowing subcooled water, inducing a vic et al. [4]. Paul et al. [27], Bui and Dhir [28], Wang et al. [15]
change from film to transition boiling regime and remaining and Sinha et al. [24] found that roughness or oxidation or
solid surface > Ttls (Figure 3(b)). Such asperities will act as deposition on the plate surface increase wettability and
microfins removing heat (q) from hot surface to the liquid number of nucleation sites, causing an earlier collapse of
(Figure 3(b)). This rewetting process spreads on vicinity asperi- vapour film, enhanced rate of heat transfer and enlargement
ties, then, more asperities would work as a fin reducing faster of rewetting temperature.
4 H. LEOCADIO AND J. C. PASSOS
The characterization of heat transfer regime within impin- correlations for HTC and advance of rewetted front were pro-
gement zone is critical for the development of jet heat trans- posed. Images show the shape of the effective cooling zone
fer models, since the existence or not of bubbles boiling in (wetted zone) on moving hot strip at run out table.
the liquid film flow can alter the jet cooling efficiency [14].
Authors disagree on the heat transfer regime in impinging
zone during the cooling of the hot strip steel. Some authors Experimental apparatus and procedures
[5,6,9,29,30] suggested that, under impinging jet on a
moving hot strip, the single-phase (without boiling activity) Experimental facilities
regime occurs and should be used in cooling models. Con- An outline of the experimental facilities at R & D Center of Usi-
trary, Timm et al. [31] argued that boiling activity regime minas is shown in Figure 4. The coolant was ordinary water
have to occur due to high heat flux and surface temperature stored in a tank (16), whose equivalent pressure is 70 kPa,
and the vapour bubbles formed on the hot surface condenses creating a water jet flow (13) at the exit (14) of a U-tube
into subcooled liquid. Karwa and Stephan [14] reported (radius of curvature 70 mm), with an inner diameter of
wetted surface at 650°C without bubble boiling activity, for 10 mm. U shaped tube (14) keeps the water a stable flow
Tj = 25°C and the surface heat flux (qs) above 6 MW m−². Lee state, without the presence of air and compatible with ones
et al. [13] also reported the absence of bubbly activity used the cooling system of the steel industry. The overflow
within the wetted zone for a 900°C-plate cooled by 20°C-jet. tube (1) keeps the water level in the tank (16) constant,
They [13,14] argued that Vj and jet subcooling suppress the thus assuring a constant pressure in the U-tube. The steel
bubbly activity in the wetted region. However, boiling activity plate (9) was heated to the test temperature in a 75 kW elec-
was observed on wetted steel surface at 250°C to 800°C, and trical furnace, 800 mm wide, 1000 mm long and 600 mm tall,
ceasing below 250°C, in impingement zone by 20–70°C-jet capable of heating up to 1300°C.
[11]. Furthermore, results published [7,13,19] show discrepan- The test plate material is made of traditional austenitic stain-
cies among heat transfer coefficient (HTC) values. [7] devel- less steel type 304 in order to avoid the heat generation,
oped a mathematical model to predict the thermal caused by phase transformation common in carbon steel,
behaviour of steel strips cooled by array of round jets. They and it resistances against high-temperature oxidation on
[7] considered effective heat removal occurs in wetted circle surface, which is ensured by the formation of protective chro-
(dark circle) under jet impingement equal to 2 Dj (impinging mium oxide (Cr2O3) film [32]. Since Cr2O3 has a very low
jet diameter) and depends on surface temperature (Ts), Vj and thermal conductivity of 3.1 W m−1 K−1, the temperature differ-
Tj. Cox et al. [5] considered a single-phase regime within ence between the surfaces of Cr2O3 and steel, during rewetting
impingent zone equal to 3 Dj and a constant HTC, in their process, was evaluated in previous jet quench study [11] based
strip cooling model. Wiskel et al. [6] quantified a non-circular on Biot number (Bi). Those test plates where heated in air (oxi-
impingent zone 2 Dj long and Dj wide, using infrared camera dizing atmosphere) in similar conditions of the present study.
in a moving surface at 3–8 m s−1. Then, a rectangular dark The temperature gradient across Cr2O3 layer will be insignifi-
zone with a fixed heat flux was considered in their finite cant if Bi < 0.1 [33]. Cross-section of the test plate surface over-
element model for strip cooling. laid by chromium oxide layer was examined. The thin oxide
This study presents the heat transfer behaviour during the layer thickness was estimated ranges from 1 to 3 μm, for Ti =
cooling of a steel plate heated to 600, 750 and 900°C by an 900°C (worst condition). Biot number ranged from 0.002 to
impinging circular water jet. These test temperatures are 0.003 with the temperature drop across the oxide layer from
common found in hot steel mill lines. The effects of Ti on 0.9°C to 2.8°C, respectively. For lower Ti = 450–750°C oxide
qs, HTC, and rewetting were analysed by transient inverse layers were observed to be thinner. Therefore, since Bi <<
heat conduction method that predicts the heat flux and 0.1, the quenching surface acts as a lumped surface and the
temperature on the top surface from temperature histories oxide layer clearly is a negligible thermal barrier. However,
measured in the test plate. A digital camera was used to thick oxide layer, lager than 30 μm, could act as thermal insula-
capture the images during the cooling process. Empirical tion and influence the heat transfer in quenching process [34].
Thermal properties of the 304 SS for temperatures aligned at distances of 0, 15, 35 and 55 mm, from the
between 27 and 927°C are shown in Table 1. Two kinds of centre of the 150 × 150 mm2 plate, and 0, 15, 35, 55 and
square plates of 150 × 150 × 14 mm³ and 200 × 200 × 75 mm, from the centre of the 200 × 200 mm2. All thermo-
10 mm³ were used. On the sides of the plate without water couples were inserted into by holes drilled from the bottom
impingement, insulation material was used with a thermal of the plate. The tip of the all thermocouples were placed 4
conductivity of 0.170 W m−1 K−1 (at 1090°C) and mm below the top plate surface. Grounded thermocouples
0.078 W m−1 K−1 (at 540°C) and 50 mm thickness. The data K-type, 1.5 mm in sheath diameter made of 304 SS (the
acquisition system, composed of 10 channels, allowed for same as test plate), are used. The actual location of the ther-
an acquisition rate of 20 Hz. mocouple junction is determined by cutting the thermo-
couple after its use in the experiments and by measuring
the distance to the tip of the thermocouple. The heat
Uncertainty analysis
diffusion of the material around the measuring junction is
Results of an uncertainty analysis are presented in Table 2, the same as that of the steel plate and the distance of this
were k, rm, t, ym, Tm, Tj, Vn, Vj and qs are thermal conductivity, junction to the surface is precisely known.
radial position, time, axial coordinate, temperature, water jet High temperature thermal paste with conductivity of
temperature, and water jet velocity at nozzle exit, respect- 70 W m−1 K−1 was inserted into the hole to insure good
ively. All uncertainties are within 95% limits and account for thermal thermocouple-plate contact. The test plate was
errors in measurement, calibration, machining, and measur- heated in furnace to the test temperature and transferred
ing devices. For the temperature measured internally in the to the test position. The cooling process started at test temp-
plate, Tm, sheathed grounded K-Type thermocouples have eratures of 600, 750 and 900°C. The water jet exit was set at a
been used that provided a calibration accuracy of ±1.1°C or height H of 300 mm from the plate surface. The water jet
±0.4% of reading (ASTM E230), whichever is greater, with temperature, Tj, was 22°C, measured using a K-type thermo-
uncertainties within 99% limits. As the test temperatures couple (6) located inside the header (12). A constant air temp-
were 600–900°C, the relative value of ±0.4% produces a erature of 25°C was assumed. A digital camera was used to
greater uncertainty in measured temperatures than ±1.1°C capture the images during the cooling process. Before each
and was therefore selected for the uncertainty analysis. The experiment, the impinging surface was sanded with 320
data acquisition system produces a mean error of ±0.17% grit sandpaper and cleaned with acetone. The measured
within 99% of confidence level. Combining the uncertainties arithmetic mean roughness (Ra) at impingement zone
of thermocouple and data acquisition system, the total uncer- surface, after quenching test, was found ranging 0.15–
tainty of temperature measurement system was ±0.43% 0.26 μm. For the new plate surface Ra = 0.11 μm.
within 99% limits or ±0.30% within 95% limits. The water
flow rate of the jet, Qn, was 6 ℓ min−1, measured with a
flowmeter with a built in measurement error of ±0.25% and Hydrodynamic parameters in water jet
repeatability of ±0.1%. All uncertainties (measured and calcu- impingement
lated) in Table 2 are within 95% limits and are analysed
Some hydrodynamic parameters are required in a heat trans-
according to criteria suggested by Taylor [35]. These criteria
fer analysis, such as: the jet velocity at the nozzle exit (Vn), the
take errors in measurement, calibration, machining and
impinging jet velocity (Vj), the jet diameter just before impin-
measuring devices into account.
gement (Dj) and the saturation temperature of water (Tsat) at
the impingement zone. These parameters are listed in Table 3
Experimental procedure and they were calculated using the equationsof
continuity
and Bernoulli: Vj = Vn2 + 2gH, Dj = Dn Vn /Vj , and
The plate temperature history during cooling was measured Pj = Patm + (rj .Vj2 )/2, where Dn is the nozzle diameter, H is
with thermocouples(11) inserted into the plate mounted nozzle exit-to-plate surface distance equal to 300 mm, ρj is
the mass density of water, Pj is stagnation pressure, Patm is
Table 1. Thermophysical properties of the 304 SS [33]. atmospheric pressure, and g is the gravitational acceleration.
T (°C) cp (J kg−1 K−1) ρ (kg m−3) k (W m−1 K−1) The jet velocity at nozzle exit, Vn, is calculated from Vn = 4Qn/
27 447 7900 15.2 (πD2n ). The tests were carried out at an altitude above sea level
127 515 7859 16.6 of 234 m, where the atmospheric pressure was Patm ≈
327 557 7774 19.8
527 582 7685 22.6
97.2 kPa. The stagnation pressure, Pj, represents the active
727 611 7582 25.4 pressure on top surface at the centre of the plate (r = 0)
927 640 7521 28.0 where Pj > Patm. The saturation temperature (Tsat) at r = 0
was found to be practically equal to 100°C. The saturation
temperature, Tsat, must be carefully considered in water jet
Table 2. Uncertainties. quenching cooling, because higher Tsat anticipate the
Quantity Uncertainty change from nucleate boiling to the single-phase regime,
rm δrm = ±0.05 mm contributing to an enhancement in the cooling capacity.
t δt = ±0.01 s Impinging water jet temperature (Tj) was 22°C, i.e. subcooling
k δk / k = ±6%
ym δym = ± 0.05 mm
Tm δTm / Tm= ±0.3% Table 3. Hydrodynamic parameters at stagnation point, r = 0.
Tj δTj = ±2°C
Vn δVn / Vn = ±2% Tsat
Vj δVj / Vj = ±3% Qn (ℓ min−1) Dn (mm) Vn (m s−1) Dj (mm) Vj (m s−1) Pj (kPa) (°C)
qs δqs / qs = ±5% 6.0 10 1.3 6.8 2.7 101 99.9
6 H. LEOCADIO AND J. C. PASSOS
of 78°C. Water jet subcooling (ΔTsub) is given by quenching studies [11,39–41] and it allows the thermal prop-
DTsub = Tsat − Tj . erties of material to vary with temperature in each finite
Heat transfer in jet impingement cooling of steel plates is element. This is an important characteristic because it
strongly dependent on how water flows over the surface, avoids errors about 20% due to the assumption of constant
which will be seen to affect the dynamics of the wetting thermal properties in estimating the surface heat flux in jet
front. For this reason, water jet impingement hydrodynamics quench cooling experiments [42]. Temperature-dependent
on an unheated flat surface are briefly described. Based on thermal properties of 304 SS, shown in Table 1, were used
studies of Stevens and Webb [36–38], profiles of the normal- in the present analysis. INTEMP uses the dynamic program-
ized radial velocity, Vr/Vj, across the liquid layer are given for ming method to solve the nonlinear inverse heat conduction
several radial positions, r/Dj, in Figure 5 together with a problem with the finite element method. It uses the Crank –
photograph (Figure 5(a)) of the jet diameter contraction as Nicolson formulation to solve the heat conduction model,
it goes down. together with a regularization term used to minimize the
As the circular free-surface jet issuing from a pipe-type error in estimated fluxes. The temperature boundary con-
nozzle impinges onto the surface, the flow is diverted radially dition at bounding surfaces other than the top of the plate
outwards along the surface and its free liquid jet layer thick- is prescribed. The surface heat fluxes assumed at the top of
ness, hj, is reduced, as shown in photograph (Figure 5(a)) of the plate are subsequently modified by a nonlinear optimiz-
the circular water jet on a cold flat plate surface. The jet diam- ation technique to minimize the error between the measured
eter, Dj, just before impingement at the surface is smaller than temperatures and the predictions. Convergence is reached
jet diameter at nozzle exit, Dn, due to the gravity which once the heat flux reaches the optimum value. The method-
increases the velocity of the water. As the circular free- ologies of modelling and computations were detailed by Tru-
surface jet impinges onto the surface, the flow is spreads jillo and Busby [43]. Two 2D axisymmetric finite element
out radially outward reducing its liquid layer thickness, hj. models were used for the numerical analysis. The first
The pressure is maximum at the stagnation point (r = 0) due model had a radius of 75 mm, 14 mm thickness and 4200
to the dynamic contribution of the impinging jet and quadratic elements of 0.5 × 0.5 mm² with 4-nodes per
decreases monotonically to the ambient value away from it element for the plate 150 × 150 mm², as shown in Figure 6.
at about r/Dj ≈ 1.28 [22]. Conversely, the radial velocity (Vr) The second model had a radius of 100 mm, 10 mm thickness
is zero at the stagnation point (r = 0; y = 0) and increases to and 4000 quadratic elements of 0.5 × 0.5 mm² for the plate
the jet velocity (Vj) with increasing distance along the 200 × 200 mm².
surface. For r/Dj < 2.5, the maximum radial velocity (Vr) did Plate faces without impingement were considered adia-
not occur at free surface but in the layer very near the plate batic, since the radiation and free convective heat transfer
surface (y/Dj ≈ 0.02). The maximum radial velocity exceeds rate are much smaller than that impinging side due to
the impinging jet velocity (Vj), in some cases by about 30%. thermal insulation assembled. The top surface of the square
plate of 150 × 150 mm² was divided into four zones with a
uniform heat flux in each zone: r1 = 0–7 mm (zone 1), r2 = 7–
Inverse heat conduction analysis 25 mm (zone 2), r3 = 25–45 mm (zone 3) and r4 = 45–75 mm
A commercial inverse heat conduction programme, INTEMP, (zone 4). For the plate of 200 × 200 mm² there is an added
was used to predict the heat flux and temperature distri- region, r5 = 75–100 mm (zone 5). The tip of the all thermo-
bution along the quenching surface from temperature his- couples were placed 4 mm below the top plate surface. In
tories measured with thermocouples inserted in the test order to increase the accuracy in the estimation of heat
plate. INTEMP has been applied successfully in several flux, the actual location of the thermocouple juction is
Figure 5. Profiles of the normalized radial velocity, Vr/Vj, in the liquid layer thickness (hj) at various radial positions, r/Dj and (a) photograph of a circular water
impinging jet of Dj = 6.8 mm and Vj = 2.7 m s−1 at 22°C.
IRONMAKING & STEELMAKING 7
Figure 6. 2D axisymmetric finite element model divided into four unknown heat flux monitoring zones on top of the plate surface and location of thermocouples
TC1, TC2, TC3, and TC4 located at y = 10 mm, aligned at radial distance r = 0, 15, 35 and 55 mm.
determined by cutting the thermocouple after the tests and solid–liquid contact (rewetting) was established. Within
the top sheath thickness was measured. The heat diffusion wetted region the regime changes from film boiling to
of the material around the measuring junction is the same nucleate boiling. Outside this small wetted region, the
as that of the steel plate and the distance of the measuring surface remains dry, partially covered and surrounded by
junction to the surface is precisely known. The calculated rela- a vapour blanket. The wetted region grows fast moving
tive uncertainty of the surface heat flux (qs) is ±5%. The per- radially outward (t = 0.88 s). A white narrow band demar-
formance of this model was validated comparing calculated cates the frontier between wetted and dry zone (rewetting
temperatures with temperature history measured by thermo- front). Sketches demonstrating the first stages of the
couples located 4 mm from top surface at r = 0, 15, 35 and cooling process for Ti = 900°C are shown in Figure 8. In
55 mm, as shown in Figure 7(a). The disagreement found Figure 8(a), an insulating vapour film separates the liquid
between these results was about ±0.15% (Figure 7(b)) at r = from the hot surface. In Figure 8(b), the solid–liquid
0. This results show that quadratic elements of 0.5 × contact was established and a small wetted zone is
0.5 mm² chosen are suitable for the present numerical observed beneath of the jet. Figure 8(c) shows the radial
analysis. advancement outward of the rewetting front where liquid
water droplets are ejected upward at this front. These obser-
vations are in line with Lee et al. [13].
Results and discussion Within this wetted region, the top surface of liquid water
flow appears smooth and shiny (Ti = 900°C; t = 0.88–9.84 s)
Visual analysis
without visible evidence of bubble boiling activity. Analysing
A sequence of snapshots of the jet cooling experiment for external images of the impingement zone, absence of vapour
initial test temperature (Ti) of 600°C and 900°C, illustrates bubbles also was reported by Karwa et al. [14] and Lee et al.
the rewetting process and growth of the wetted zone [13] for water jet cooling of hot steel. They [13,14] argued that
from the centre of the plate, as shown in Figure 8. The Vj and jet subcooling can suppress the bubbly activity.
plate surface initially at 900°C becomes covered by an According to Timm et al. [31] the vapour bubbles formed
insulating vapour blanket after the jet has impinged on its on the hot surface condenses into subcooled liquid. Such
surface (t = 0.08 s). A small dark (wetted) zone is formed bubbles have an average radius of 0.1 mm and a short life-
at t = 0.24 s under the jet, indicating that a stable time of 10−4 s, between growth and collapse.
Figure 7. (a) Comparison between measured and calculated temperature at r = 0, 15, 35 and 55 and 4 mm under surface, for Ti = 900°C; (b) error between
measured and calculated temperature at r = 0 and 4 mm under surface, for Ti = 900°C.
8 H. LEOCADIO AND J. C. PASSOS
Figure 8. Sequence of snapshots from the water jet impingement cooling for Ti = 600°C and 900°C show the rewetting process and growth of the wetted zone
from the centre of the plate. Sketches for Ti = 900°C explain the first stages of the cooling process: (a) a film boiling layer (t = 0.08 s) separates liquid water from hot
surface, (b) solid-liquid contact already has been established (t = 0.24 s) and (c) wetted and dry regions are demarcated by rewetting front (t = 0.88 s) moving
radially outwards.
Even though, the absence of boiling activity in wetted [14]. The cooling tests for Ti = 600°C (see Figure 8) and 750°C
region observed by external images in Figure 8, high-speed also had a similar behaviour observed for Ti = 900°, i.e. with
images from within wetted zone, shown in Figure 2, revealed vapour film formation followed by appearance of dark zone
the formation of a stable vapour film and the growth process and Vrw decreasing as moves radially outwards. However,
of the rewetting area under the jet, followed by vigorous rewetting front moved faster for Ti = 600°C than 900°C. At
boiling activity. Bubbles with average radius of 0.5 mm and t = 9.84 s radial advance was 44 and 31 mm for Ti = 600°C
short lifetime of 10−4 s were visualized growing on surface and 900°C, respectively. This behaviour occurs because a
and condensing into the liquid. Therefore, in Figure 8, even higher Ti increases the amount of energy stored in the plate
though the appearance of absence of bubbles, vigorous and increase the time needed to extract energy, reducing
boiling regime occurs in wetted impingement zone. Vrw. Therefore, higher Ti reduces Vrw. Wang et al. [44] investi-
For Ti = 900°C, the rewetting front velocity (Vrw) decreases gated the local heat transfer characteristics of multi jet
as moves radially outwards. The wetted zone quickly enlarges impinging on hot plate surfaces similar to in the industrial
from t = 0.08 to 0.88 s (0.80 s) with a radial advance of 18 mm scale, with jet velocity ranged between 2.0 and 6.6 m s−1.
and, slowly, from t = 0.88 to 9.84 s (8.96 s) with a radial The results demonstrated that both the hydrodynamic struc-
advance only of 12.5 mm. Agrawal et al. [20] also reported ture and the heat transfer region distribution of multi jet
reduction on Vrw for impinging jet on 800°C-steel surface. impingement cooling were distinct from the single jet case.
This reduction in rewetting front velocity is explained: (i) as Therefore, the present results are valid for single impinging
the water travels radially outwards, it receives heat from the jet.
hot surface reducing its subcooling, i.e. increasing its temp- Figure 9 shows the growth of the wetted diameter for Ti =
erature. With a lower subcooling, its ability to condense 600°C, 750°C and 900°C as function of time. At t < 0.8 s the
vapour bubbles is reduced in the rewetting front edge, and growth rate was unaffected by Ti. However, for t > 0.8 s,
(ii) as the water travels radially outwards its liquid jet layer the growth rate was strongly affected by Ti where a higher
thickness is reduced, becoming much more easier to increase growth rate occurs for a lower Ti. Hatta et al. [17] and
the water temperature. This analysis is in line with Karwa et al. Karwa et al. [14] suggested power law correlation to predict
IRONMAKING & STEELMAKING 9
Figure 9. Growth curves of the wetted diameter as a function of time for Ti = Figure 11. Measured internal cooling temperatures at various radial positions
600°C, 750°C and 900°C. for Ti = 900°C.
10 H. LEOCADIO AND J. C. PASSOS
Boiling curves
position r = 0 for Ti = 900°C. The cooling starts at Ts = 893°C, t
Figure 15 shows the boiling and HTC curves for Ti = 900°C at
= 0. After 0.11 s, an insulating vapour blanket covers the
position r = 0. Surface heat flux (qs) curve shows that the tran-
surface, where the heat flux is low and the surface tempera-
sition regime (partial areas of the surface are contacted with
ture drops to 890°C. The liquid moves smoothly over the
the liquid water) occurs between 506°C and 893°C. The
vapour blanket. At t = 0.23 s, Ts = 885°C and a very small
maximum heat flux (qmax) of 3 MW m−2 occurs at Ts = 506°C
dark zone under the jet, surrounded by vapour blanket, indi-
and delimits the boundary between the transition and nucle-
cates the surface is wetted and the rewetting already has
ate boiling regimes (bubbly activity). The single phase regime
occurred. At t = 0.38 s, the wetted zone expands radially
begins at Ts ≈ 145°C and qs ≈ 1.2 MW m−², with a clear inflec-
and the surface remains very hot (Ts = 873°C), even after 2 s,
tion and change in the slope of the boiling curve. High quality
when Ts = 574°C beyond by far of critical point of 374°C.
images of 20°C-impinging jet on a 900°C-steel plate, showed
The visible absence of bubbles in wetted region, in spite of
bubbly activity ceasing around Ts = 240°C, in recent work [11].
the high surface temperature, was explained in section 3.1.
According to Ochi et al. [22] and Ishigai et al. [21], the rewet-
ting always occurs for a water jet at below 60°C, regardless of
Figure 14. Surface cooling curve at position r = 0 and visual analysis of the first Figure 15. Heat flux and heat transfer coefficient (HTC) curves as a function of
stages of the jet cooling process for Ti = 900°C. Ts at r = 0 for Ti = 900°C.
IRONMAKING & STEELMAKING 11
In the early stages, both qs and HTC are small due to the
insulation vapour film layer. During the rewetting (transition
regime) occurs the enlargement of surface fractions in
direct contact with the liquid water, increasing the qs and
HTC until qmax is reached and marks the beginning of the
nucleate boiling regime, where the heat flux curve slope
becomes negative. The HTC continues increasing due to the
vapour bubbles number reduction on the surface, which
facilitates the liquid contact with surface. This gradual
reduction bubble population is owing to the surface temp-
erature reduction, which causes a reduction of the number
of active nucleation sites. At the beginning of the single-
phase regime, the slope of HTC keeps increasing as Ts
decreases. This behaviour can be explained by examining
the thermal boundary layer thickness. As Ts decreases, the
thermal boundary layer thickness diminishes allowing larger
HTC [45]. Sikdar et al. [9] reported HTC increases with a
decrease in temperature from strip surface experiences on
the run out table.
Figure 16 shows the effect of Ti on the boiling curves. For Figure 17. Effect of Ti on the HTC, for Ti = 600, 750 and 900°C, at position r = 0.
Ti = 600°C, 750°C and 900°C, qmax = 2.1, 2.5 and 3.0 MW m−² at
Ts = 340°C, 365°C and 506°C, respectively. Thus, increasing Ti All curves shows an increase, with different slopes, as Ts is
will occur a rise in qmax. After qmax, all boiling curves decay reduced until Ts ≈ 300°C where the curves meet around
overlapped. This behaviour shows that the single-phase and 8 kW m−² K−1 and remain together through single-phase
nucleate boiling regimes are unaffected by Ti and Ts. After forced convection. From Ts ≈ 160°C all curves experience a
the maximum heat flux has been reached, the heat transfer sudden enlargement in their slope, reaching values close to
occurs through the fully developed nucleate boiling regime. 18 kW m−²°C. Therefore, HTC is affected by Ts and Ti constant
A review of available fully developed nucleate boiling data, values of HTC must be avoided in cooling control models in
in jet impingement boiling, by Wolf et al. [46] revealed that the range of 200°C < Ts < 900°C.
conditions depend strongly on fluid used. For fully developed The effect of Ti on the boiling curves for Ti = 600°C and
nucleate boiling (FNB) of water jet, surface heat flux can be 900°C, at positions r = 0, 15, 35, 55 mm, is shown in Figures
correlated by empirical equation: qFNB = C.DTsat n
, where qFNB 18 and 19, respectively. After rewetting has taken place, the
and ΔTsat (surface superheat) have units of W m−² and °C, heat flux is enlarged more evident at position r = 0 than
respectively. ‘C’ and ‘n’ depends on the fluid and type of other positions where hot surface remains dry.
jet. Since the type of jet and fluid used are fixed in present As rewetting front arrives at each radial position, the peaks
study, the surface heat flux depends only on the surface of qmax occur in the curves. The peaks decrease as they move
superheat, so the slope of the boiling curve will have the away from r = 0. The reduction in the peaks is caused by the
same slope. For all tests, the boiling curves exhibit the heating of water as it moves radially outwards, reducing its
same inflection point around Ts ≈ 140°C demarking heat removal capacity, as explained in section 3.1. This
the onset of the single-phase regime. Figure 17 shows the trend was observed in all tests. The time spent to reach
effect of Ti on the HTC at r = 0 for Ti = 600, 750 and 900°C. qmax was 2.8 and 3.6 s for Ti = 600°C and 900°C, respectively.
Figure 16. Effect of Ti on the heat flux for Ti = 600, 750 and 900°C, at position Figure 18. Surface heat flux curves as a function of time for Ti = 600°C at pos-
r = 0. itions r = 0, 15, 35, 55 mm.
12 H. LEOCADIO AND J. C. PASSOS
Figure 19. Surface heat flux curves as a function of time for Ti = 900°C at pos-
itions r = 0, 15, 35, 55 mm.
Figure 21. Photographs of the dark zone formed on 4 mm-thick hot steel strip mill surface at 900°C moving at (a) 10 m s−1 and (b) 6 m s−1 crossing the first of
various impinging water curtain jets (planar jet) on the runout table during its cooling process.
Acknowledgements [22] Ochi T, NakanishI S, Kaji M, et al. Cooling of a hot plate with an
impinging circular water jet. In: T Veziroglu, A Bergles,
Authors acknowledge the support from Usiminas Steel. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.; 1984. p. 671–681.
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Disclosure statement 2001;44:2475–2481.
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dation level, and liquid subcooling on the minimum film boiling
temperature. Exp Heat Transfer: J Thermal Energy Generation,
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J. C. Passos http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7922-4039 10.1016/0029-5493(86)90056-7.
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