Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

University Town, Catarman, Northern Samar

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Secondary Teacher Education Department
1st Semester SY: 2021-2022

Module in Major 12a: EARTH SCIENCE

vscSCIENCE

This module is prepared by:

Christine M. Adlawan, LLB, MPA

BSTed Faculty
Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Module 5 The Changing Earth

OVERVIEW

Our restless Earth is always changing. Tectonic plates drift, the crust
quakes, and volcanoes erupt. Air pressure falls, storms form, and precipitation
results. In this module, you will learn how these powerful forces shape our air,
land, water, and weather—and constantly transform our planet. Moreover,
through this module, students will be able to explore how our response to Earth's
changes will impact our future on Earth and discover how their choices impact
our future Earth.

LEARNING PLAN

At the completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Recognize the processes that cause weathering and erosion;

2. Distinguish mechanical from chemical weathering;
3. Discuss mass movements and its types and causes;
4. Explore the composition of soil and how it is formed;
5. Understand the structure of Volcanoes;
6. Explain how and where volcanoes are formed;
7. Identify the significant volcanoes in the world; and
8. Understand earthquake and the processes and movements
behind it.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

ACTIVITY
Images of Change

Browse the internet and look for different areas around the world showing
how the earth has changed over time. Look closely at areas that have glaciers
and rivers, as water is a big factor in shaping the earth’s surface. Take
screenshots of the different examples of the changing earth you find and post the
pictures in the jam board slides assigned by your Professor.

ANALYSIS

Explain the image you post in the jam board.

ABSTRACTION

Despite our tendency to consider Earth as static, it is actually a dynamic

and ever-changing planet. Wind, water, and ice erode and shape the land.
Volcanic activity and earthquakes alter the landscape in a dramatic and often
violent manner. And on a much longer timescale, the movement of earth’s plates
slowly reconfigures oceans and continents.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Each one of these processes plays a role in the forces that change the
face of the Earth.

Weathering

Weathering is the physical and mechanical breaking, splitting, and

decaying of rocks and minerals.

Two types of weathering:

1. Mechanical weathering – is a process that breaks large rocks into smaller

rocks. Each smaller rock has the same mineral composition as the original
rock. It is also known as disintegration weathering.

Factors of Mechanical weathering:

a. Temperature change – if temperature change is rapid and great it

causes big rocks to break into pieces.
b. Burrowing of plants or animals – root penetrates; animals move
materials to the surface.
c. Exfoliation – stripping of curved sheets of large bodies of igneous
rocks that peel off.
d. Frost action – frost wedging

2. Chemical weathering – is a process that forms new substances from minerals

in a rock. Air, water, and dissolved substances in water break down the
minerals in a rock. This type of weathering is also called decomposition
weathering.
Process and agents that bring about chemical decomposition:
a. Carbonation – dissolve the rocks directly into solution, e.g. limestone,
marble, granite, calcte, dolomite.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

b. Oxidation – decays the rocks

c. Hydrolysis/hydration – dissolve the minerals in rocks and produce a
different mineral, e.g. hydrolysis of feldspar.

Chemical and mechanical

weathering usually work together to
break up and decompose rocks on or
near the earth’s surface. These pieces
of rock gradually break into smaller
pieces. By breaking down rocks and
minerals, weathering eventually
produces oil.

There are variety of factors that

affect the rate of weathering. Two of
these factors are the type of rock
being weathered and the type of
climate. In cities the amount of
pollution present is also an important
factor.

The type of rock being weathered will affect the rate of weathering. For
instance, rocks that contain the mineral quartz weather slower than rocks that do
not contain quartz. This is because the quartz is very resistant to weathering.
Quartz is found in granite. The mineral calcite, on the other hand, weather
rapidly. Calcite is found in limestone and marble.

Climate is another factor that affects the rate of weathering. Generally, all
rocks weather faster in warm, humid climates than in dry, desert conditions. This
is because water is primary weather agent. Cleopatra’s Needle demonstrates the
effect of climate. The Egyptians built Cleopatra’s Needle about 3500 years ago.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

This giant structure stood in the desert, so

weather was slow. After many centuries, the
writing on the stone structure was still clear. In
1880, Cleopatra Needle was moved to New York
City, where the moist air speeded up the
weathering process. In less than 100 years, the
lettering on the windward sided was almost
completely removed.

In cities, air pollution and water pollution

also influence the rate of weathering.
Automobiles and factories burn fossil fuels that
release carbon dioxide, sulfur, and nitrogen
oxide gases. These gases combine with
moisture to produce weak acids. These acids eat
away at rock and increase the rate of weathering.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Mass Movements

Wherever there is a steep slope on the earth’s crust, gravity will eventually
cause rock material to fall, slide or move. The movement of large amounts of
weathered rock down slope is called mass movement. This movement can be
rapid or slow. A large pill of rocks at the base of a hill or mountain is called a
talus.
Though gravity is the primary cause of mass movement, there are other
contributing factors. Water is one of the major factors. As heavy rains fall on
sand, the sand may begin to ooze. Water can also wet the surface between two
layers of rock. One layer may begin to slip over another and move down a slope.
Mass movement also occurs after wind, rain water, or a river has worn away
the base of a mountain. When support for the higher rock formations is removed,
eventually those formations will tumble down.

Different types of mass movement:

1. Landslide – is a rapid movement of rock and other earth materials down

a slope. A large amount of rain, a rive cutting into base of a mountain,
or an earthquake will cause a landslide.

2. Slump – when a large block of material suddenly slips along a curved

surface, down a slope in a single mass.

3. Mudflow – in dry mountain areas, heavy rains may wash dirt and loose
rock material into valleys. As the water and dry material mix, they form
mud. This mud may move along the valley floors. A moving mass mud
is called mudflow.

4. Creep – is a slow form of mass movements and occurs on gentle

slopes. As the lands slowly moves downward, it causes fencepost and

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

telephone poles to lean downhill. Scientists believed that creep results

from gravity and mechanical weathering. As soil freezes and expands,
particles are raised upward. When the soil thaws, the particles settle
back to surface. Because the surface is sloped, the particles settle back
slightly downhill. This gradual downhill movement produces creep.

SOIL

Soil is an important product of weathering which covers most land

surfaces. It is a combination of mineral and organic matter, water, and air. They
are rock weathered and broken into smaller pieces. Eventually, a thin soil layer
may cover the underlying rock. This underlying, unweathered rock is called
bedrock. With the right condition, a thicker layer of soil may develop. The rock
from which soil is formed is known as the soil’s parent rock. As soil develops, it
forms into zones or layers known as horizons. These horizons are called A, B,
and C, respectively.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

A – Horizon is top layer of the soil. It is commonly known as topsoil. It is

the most fully evolved soil layer which means the A horizon has changed the
most since it was just weathered rock; it has most humus and smaller sediments
in it. The upper part consists mostly of organic matters, including loose leaves
and partly decomposed plant structure.

B – Horizon or subsoil contains fine clay particles and is higher in color

than the A horizon because it has little or no humus. Some roots of plant reach
into his layer. This horizon usually contains mineral that were washed down from
the A horizon.

C – Horizon this the bottom layer in a soil profile which contains partially
weathered material but no humus. This rock is just beginning the long, slow
process of evolves process of evolving into soil.

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THE IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC OF SOIL:

1. Composition – four major components:

a. Mineral water or broken down rock - 45%
b. Organic matter or humus-decayed organism - %
c. Matter and air – 25%; circulates in pore spaces 25%

Good quality surface soil has a mineral matter and organic matter, these
two make up half of the total volume.

2. Texture – refers to the proportion of the different particle sizes. It influence

the soil ability to support plant life.

3. Structure – soil particles usually from clumps that give soil a particular
structure. It determines how easily a soil can be cultivated and how
susceptible it is to erosion and effects the ease with which water can
penetrate the soil which influence movements of nutrients to plant roots.

Types of Soil:

1. Sandy Soil – drains and dries too quickly because water and air flow
easily through sandy soil.
2. Clay rich soil – drains very slowly because clays is so fine grained and
closely packed that water, and even air, do not flow through a clay rich
soil readily.
3. Loam soil – are best for plant growth because they retain water better
and store more nutrients than soil which is composed of clay and sand.
Plants growing in clay suffer from lack of oxygen.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Three Common Types of Soil

1. Pedalfer – is a common type of soil that

forms in humid environments. It is
characterized by abundant iron and
aluminum oxides and a concentration of clay.
Pedalfer usually forms in temperature areas
that receive more than 63cm of rain each
year. This soil type is present most often in
forested areas.

2. Pedocal – is soil formed in arid and semiarid

climates characterized by an accumulation of calcium carbonate.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Pedocals are found in areas that have and

brush vegetation. Pedocals contain lesser clay
than pedalfer because chemical weathering is
slower in dry climates. Pedocals contain
abundant calcite or calcium carbonate and
usually light gray-brown color.

3. Laterite – this is highly

weathered soil rich in oxides of iron and
aluminum that usually develops in warm moist
tropical or temperate regions. Chemical
weathering is intense under such conditions, so laterites are usually
deeper than soils develop over
a similar period in temperate
areas.

Factors in Soil Formation

1. Parental material – source of mineral matter in soil.

 May be bedrock of unconsolidated deposits as those in a river valley.
 Soil that forms on unconsolidated deposits is called transported soil –
the parent material was moved from another location by gravity, water,
wind or ice.
 Unconsolidated deposits are partly weathered, thus provide more area
for chemical weathering. Therefore, transported soil develops more
rapidly than residual soil.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

2. Time – the longer a soil has been forming, the thicker it becomes.
3. Climate – has the greatest effect on soil formation.
 Amount of precipitation influences soil fertility by affecting the rate at
which nutrients are removed from the soil.
a. hot-wet climate produce thick, chemically weathered soil.
b. cold-dry climate produce only a thin layer mechanically weathered
debris.

4. Organisms – the type and quantity of organisms present in soil have major
impact on its physical and chemical properties. The plants are the main
source of organic matter in soil together with animals and microorganisms.
Organic matter releases nutrients when it decays.

5. Slope – slope of the land vary and such variations result in different soil types.
These differences are related to erosion and water content of the soil:
a. steep slope – erosion is accelerated and little water soak in, so there is
little moisture for plant growth.
b. flat areas – have little erosion and poor drainage. The waterlogged soil is
thick and dark due to large amount of organic matter.

Erosion

Erosion is a process of carrying away rocks and rock fragments and soil
particles by the agents of erosion to other places which are lower in level than
where fragments were formed. The agent of erosion: (1) gravity; (2) wind; (3)
moving water; (4) waves; and, (5) glaciers.

The water flows because of gravity. Gravity gives water the energy to
erode and carry away rock materials. Gravity alone can erode the land.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

The wind is the most effective agent of erosion in the semi-arid regions as
in deserts which cover about 1/6 of the total land area. Action of the wind: (a)
deflation – is the lifting and carrying of loose soil and dust particles by the wind.
Deflation creates a stony surface layer called Desert Pavement; (b) Abrasion –
happens when windblown sand cuts polishes exposed rock surfaces.

Earth’s features produced by the wind

a. Desert pavement – is a layer of coarse pebbles and gravel created
when wind removed the finer materials.
b. Dust storms – this is caused by a strong blowing of the wind, carrying
slit and clay, leaving the desert surface covered with sand and larger
particles only.
c. Sand storms – this is a very much stronger blowing of the wind a
carrying and transporting sand to higher latitudes and distances.
d. Blowouts – saucer-shaped holes on the desert basins left by the
blowing away of much loess materials from the surface.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

e. Hamada – smooth bedrock of the desert basin polished by wind

erosion.
f. Mushroom rock - smooth rock protruding in the desert polished by wind
erosion.
g. Loess – fine grain deposit of clay, silt and very fine sand. This deposit
is very fertile, therefore very useful to man.
h. Dunes – hills, mounds or deposits of sand formed on the desert.

A stream is a body of running water which varies in size. If small in width,

it is called a brook, but when it is very wide, it is called a river. Streams are the
most common agents of erosion and the chief and greatest modifier of the earth’s
surface. It is the most important and universal agent of all erosion agents.
Streams generally erode their channels lifting loose particles by abrasion,
grinding and by dissolving solute material.

Methods of Transporting Materials by Streams

1. In solution – dissolved load – this refers to the minerals dissolved in the

running water which is carried by the running water.
2. In suspension – suspended load – refers to the small fragmental
elements that are lifted, rolled, and suspended by the running water.
3. Scooting or rolling along the bottom – bed load- refers to the big load
such as boulders or rocks that are carried away by the streams.

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The ability of streams to carry a load is determined by the stream’s

competence and the stream’s capacity. Competence of the streams measures
the largest particles it can transport. When a stream carries a large amount of
energy because of its very rapid velocity, it is a very effective agent of erosion. It
carries away materials of varied sizes from the channel. The capacity of the
stream is the maximum load it discharges. The greater the volume of water in a
stream is, the greater its capacity is for carrying sediment. When a stream has
less energy, it is an effective agent of deposition. The slow velocity of the stream
deposits slits clay and fine sand along the channel. These deposits are called
Alluvium.

Stream deposits according to locations

1. Alluvial fan – is a fan shaped deposit of sediment formed when a

stream’s slope is abruptly reduced, as the stream leaves the channel in
the mountains.

2. Deposits in bodies of water – refers to the deposits made by the

stream at its month due to the sudden slowing down of the stream,
because it is entering a body of water whose velocity is slower than the
stream. These deposits are called delta. Delta is a fan-shaped deposit
or an accumulation of sediment formed where a stream enters a lake
or an ocean.

3. Valley deposits – are deposits laid down along the stream channel or
along the edge of the stream.

The side-to-side cutting of a stream eventually produces a flat valley, floor

or flood plain. A flood plain is so named because during a flood, the river
overflows its banks and floods the plain. Streams that flow on flood plains move
in meanders.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Meanders are a series of winding curves exhibited by old rivers.

Waves are energy travelling along the boundary between ocean and
atmosphere. This is the rhythmic rise and fall of the ocean waters due to the
frictional action of the wind on the ocean surface. Waves originate as small
waves called wavelets. These wavelets make the water surface rougher, causing
the wind to push harder on the water, resulting in bigger waves.

Parts of a Wave:
1. Crest – highest point of the wave
2. Trough – lowest point of the wave
3. Height – distance from the trough to the crest
4. Wavelength – distance between two crests or two troughs

 Whitecaps – are wave tops which appear as foamy white tops.

 Swells – are the most common waves on the open sea which are long
rolling ones.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Action of the Waves

Waves possess potential energy. The amount of energy in the wave is

directly proportional to the wave height. The wave breaks when the wave height
is one half of the wavelength. The troughs breaks when the wave hits a shallow
bottom of the sea called the line of breaker.

Earth features produced by waves:

1. Sandbar – is a file of
scooped up sand
deposited by the waves
when it hits the line of
breakers.
2. Lagoon – is that part of
quite water between the
sandbar and the
mainland.
3. Headland – is that part of the shoreline that projects into water.
4. Gulf, cove or bay – is an indentation in the shoreline where sea
waters are usually deep during high tides.
5. Sea cliffs – are formed when the headlands in deep water shores are
eroded by the waves.
6. Wave-built-terraces – are sea cliffs that are eroded more deeply by
wave action.
7. Wave-cut-terraces – sea cliffs that are cut deeper at the base by
waves and the sea move deeper into the headland.
8. Sea caves – these are rocks in the headland that are eroded by the
waves at the basal portion.
9. Stacks – these are masses of rocks separated from the mainland and
from tiny rock island.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Glaciers – huge mass of land ice moving slowly down the mountains side
due to the pull of gravity. Glaciers are confined to the very cold polar regions but
can also be found in the equatorial regions but at very high altitudes. Glaciers
form on mountain slopes whose thickness of the snow is about one hundred feet
deep. Glaciers start with the snow being accumulated; then compressed into
rough granular icy material called neve. When the neve is compressed, it turns
into ice. When the ice mass starts to move downward due to the pull of gravity,
the glacier is formed.

Actions caused by glacial erosion

a. Abrasion – is the scratching and grinding effect on bedrocks by the

soil and rock fragments embedded at the bottom of glaciers.
b. Plucking or quarrying – is the lifting up or pulling out of broken
bedrocks or large blocks of bedrocks by the passing of a glacier.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

c. Sweeping – refers to the cleaning or polishing effect of the moving

glaciers as they carry and push forward anything that comes in
contact with them along their way.

Earth features formed by glaciers

a. Striae – are parallel scratches on the ground or bedrock.

b. Cirques – also called amphitheatres. They are great hollows, shaped-
like the bowl of a deep spoon along the mountain sides; they are left
by the plucking of broken bedrock.
c. Tarn – is a cirque whose bottom is filled with water by the melting ice.
d. Horn – is a mountain peak that looks like a pointed spire due to
several glacial erosion on various sides of the peak.
e. Arete – is a mountain peak that appears like a knife-edge ridge due
to the presence of deep cirques formed on opposite sides of the
mountain.
f. Col-mean neck – resembles a mountain pass due to cirques that
have not intersected each other.
g. Moraine – is a land that is formed from glacial deposits or drifts
composed mainly of rocks, sand, and silt.
h. Drumlins – are small hills and ridges that are formed when moraines
m
e
l
t
.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Effect of soil erosion

1. Deterioration of farm lands – when the fertile top soil containing the
badly needed humus is washed away from the fields, the less fertile
subsoil is exposed, not responding well to fertilizers and gives only
meager harvest.

2. Increase of floods – in the absence of vegetation, raindrops strikes the

soil with full force with nothing to hold back excessive ruffs, which will
accumulate in the rivers and cause floods.

3. Reduced water supply – rivers originating from eroded watersheds dry

up during dry season and yield a slit-laden runoff during rainy days.

4. Sitting-up reservoirs, canals, and rivers – by sedimentation with silt and

debris, the storage capacity of dams is greatly reduced, so that the
quality of water available for hydroelectric power generation and
irrigation becomes inadequate.

ASSESSMENT #1

This test will be given through Google forms. Make sure to be ready on
the scheduled date of the assessment.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES

The fury of volcanoes and the destructive power of earthquake are

clues to the awesome forces within earth. Soaring mountain peaks provide
peaks provide evidence of the changes these force can produce. Volcanoes,
earthquakes, and mountains are like pieces of a puzzle. When viewed
together, these pieces tell the role of place tectonics in shaping the earth.
Volcanoes, earthquake, and mountains are only part of a great cycle of
creation and destruction.

Volcanoes

A volcano is a structure made of materials from within the earth’s

surface. A volcanoes formed when magma, or molten rock, is forced up to
earth’s surface is called lava.

The molten rock and gases from volcanic activity can cause great
destruction. However, the material given off by volcanic activity has also been
necessary for human life. Molten rock from volcanic activity formed much of the
earth’s dry land. The air we breathe and the water we drink are believed to have

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

come from the gases given off by volcanoes. Lava and volcanic ash contain
nutrients that have enriched some of the earth’s best farmland.

There are about 600 known active volcanoes in the world. Most are
located in narrow region called belts. One belt is known as the ring of fire. It
forms a near circle around the Pacific Ocean. Volcanoes are also found in belt
near the Mediterranean Sea and in Eastern Africa, Iceland and Hawaii have
volcanoes as well.

One kind of plate boundary where are formed is a subduction zone in a

subduction zone, as two plates collide, one plate sinks under the other, the
sinking plate melt as it slowly descend into the mantle. The resulting magma
rises through the plate above and forms a chain of volcanoes. The volcanoes in
the ring of fire were formed in subduction zones.

Another kind of boundary where volcanoes for is a rift, which is caused by

two plats being pulled apart. Volcanoes along a rift form magma that rises out of
the sea floor as the sea floor spreads. The volcanoes that formed Iceland were
formed by magma from rift in the mid-Atlantic Ridge.

Some volcanoes, such as those in the Hawaiian Islands, are found in the
middle of plates. These volcanoes were formed by rising columns of superhot
magma from places in the mantle call hot spots. The magma can burn holes in a
plate and rise to the surface to form volcanoes. As a plate moves over a hot spot,
a chain of volcanoes is formed.

Volcanic activity begins when a fissure or crack develops in the crust as

magma moves toward the surface.

a. Conduit – is a pipe-like opening through which magma moves toward

Earth’s surface.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

b. Vent – is the extension of the conduit to the top of the cone.

c. Cone – is the pile of extruded materials which eventually build up into a
mountain.
d. Crater – is the depression at the top of the vent or throat.
e. Fumaroles – are tiny openings at the side of the volcano which are
connected to the throat from which fumes or gases escapes.
f. Caldera – is the crater of the volcano which is more than one mile in
diameter

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Kinds of Volcanoes According to Shape of Cones:

1. Shield – a broad, gently sloping volcano built from fluid basaltic lava, e.g.
Hawaiian Islands, Iceland, Mauna Loa, Kilauea.

2. Cinder – also known as scoria cones, has a very steep cones built
primarily of pyroclastics ranging from ash to bombs from a single vent.

3. Composite – Earth’s most beautiful and potentially dangerous volcanoes

are the composite cones or strato volcanoes mostly located in the Ring
of Fire. It is a volcano with a perfect cone. Examples: Mt. Mayon, Mt.
Rainier in Washington.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Four basic kinds of eruptions:

1. Quite eruptions with a watery lava flow occurs when the magma is thin
and contains little gas. The thin lava flows out in a steady stream.

2. Active eruption can take place when a thin magma contains a larger
amount of gas.

3. A quite eruption with a thick lava flow occurs when the magma is thick and
contain little gas. The thick lava flow usually forms a huge dome.

4. An eruption can harden before leaving the vent and cause the vent to
become blocked. This prevents gas from bubbling to the surface and
escaping. The trapped gas builds up pressure under the vent. Any sudden
release of this pressure can set off an explosion.

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Economic Importance of Volcanic Eruption Products:

1. The fumarole gases are used for generating electric power. This is mixed
with varying amounts of Carbon dioxide, ammonia, methane, and helium.
2. SO2 is used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid.
3. Ammonia is used in the making of fertilizers.
4. Methane is used as a fuel gas.
5. An inert gas, helium, is used in the smelting and metallurgy of light metals
that react readily with the oxygen in air.
6. Helium is also used as the lifting gas in balloons and dirigibles because it
is lighter than air and will not ignite when mixed with air.
7. In Italy, ammonium carbonate, sodium carbonate, and boric acid are
extracted from the steam and hot water vapor in volcanic areas.
8. Hydrogen sulfide gas oxidizes in air to form water-sulfur deposits.
9. Pumice is used for grinding and polishing stone wash.
10. Lava volcanic ash and dust form fertile soil which supports productive
farms.

Significant Volcanoes

1. Mt. Paricutin – world’s youngest volcano found in Mexico

2. Mt. Mayon – the only volcano with the most perfect cone found in Albay,
Philippines.
3. Mt. Taal – world’s smallest volcano found in Batangas, Philippines.
4. Mt. Fujiyama – volcano with the gentlest sloping cone found in Japan.
5. Mauna Loa – world’s largest volcano found in Hawaii.
6. Vesuvius – is found in Naples, Italy. When it exploded in 79 A.D. it buried
the town of Pompeii under 6 meters of lave and 30,000 inhabitants were
killed by the lethal gases. One Roman soldier dies in his sentry post and
remains fossilized in his position.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

7. Mt. Krakatoa – is found in Indonesia. It had devastating explosion on

august 27, 1883 killing 36,000 people.
8. Mt .Pelee – is found in Martinique, France. Its eruption in 1902 killed
28,000 people except Calvarico who was imprisoned in a dungeon.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

INTRUSIVE ACTIVITY

Magma does not always reach earth’s surface. It may harden below the
surface, forming rock. Volcanic activity below the earth’s surface is called
INTRUSIVE ACTIVITY. Intrusive activity can produce different types of rock is
worn away by weathering and erosion.

FOUR FEATURES FORMED BY INTRUSIVE ACTIVITY

1. Batholith is a large mass of igneous rock below the earth’s surface.

It often forms the inside of mountain ranges. The depth of batholiths
is unknown. A small mass of intrusive igneous is called a rock.
2. Laccolith is a mass of intrusive igneous roc that is dome-shaped.
The type of structure is formed when magma moves between rock
layers and pushes the rock layers above into a dome shape.
3. Magma does not always push rock layer upward. Sometimes fill
spaces between the layers. A structure hardened magma between
horizontal rock layers is called a sill.
4. A dike is formed if magma fills and hardens in vertical cracks in
rocks.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

EARTHQUAKES

An earthquake is the shaking or trembling of the earth caused by the

sudden movement of the earth’s crust. It is a ground displacement associated
the sudden release, in the form of seismic waves, of built-up stress in the
lithosphere. The largest earthquake are sometimes felt more than 1,000 miles
(1,6000 kilometers) from the source of the shock and can be detected on a
seismograph, a sensitive earthquake-recording instrument, on the other side of
the world. The vibrations are elastic waves traveling at high speed through the
earth.

The elastic rebound hypothesis is the springing back of the rock into its
released. The explanation says that rocks are deformed; they first bend and then
break, releasing stored energy.

The earth’s surface is broken into moving plates. As the Plates move, they can
slide past each other along their boundaries. A place where rock has moved on
one or both side of a crack in the earth is called a fault. When plates move they
interact in ways:

(1) they can move toward each other and collide;

(2) they can pull apart; or
(3) they can move past one another. All major interactions among
individual’s plates occur among their boundaries

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THE 3 MAIN TYPES OF BOUNDARIES:

1. Divergent boundaries – also called spreading center – occur when

two plates move apart from one another. This upwelling of material from
the mantle to create new seafloor.

2. Convergent boundaries – from where two plates move together. This

process result in oceanic lithosphere plunge beneath the overriding
plate and descent into mantle. If plates which carry continental crust
move toward each other, these continents collide and merge. The
boundary that once separate two plates disappears because the plates
become one.

3. Transform fault boundaries – occur when two plates side past one
another. This happens when two pates move in opposite directions or in
the same direction at different rates.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Diastrophism refers to all movements of the rocks of the earth’s crust that
result in permanent change producing geologic structure both at and below the
surface of the earth on a large and small scale rapidly and slowly. Rocks may be
deformed by bending at different rates.

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Rocks are somewhat plastic and bend under great pressure, which when
exceeding the limit of elasticity become permanently bent or deformed. Rocks
buried at a considerable depth and weakened by high temperature or subjected
to long continuous stress are most likely to bend.

1. Warping – refers to wide vertical movements and slight bending on a

continental or broad scale like troughs containing stages of mountain
building. Such epeirogenic movements can lift an extensive plateau and
can restore by isostatic compensation, the status of the major land
masses.
2. Folding – denotes a greater degree of deformation. Minor folds may result
from the uneven settling of sediments of around the crest of a hill known as
differential compaction. Most folding is due to compression caused by
forces acting essentially horizontal on the eart5h’s crust.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

TYPES OF FOLDS:
a. Anticline – a structure upfold or arch
b. Syncline – downfold or trough
c. Geosyncline – a large downfold and a subsiding trough with
sediments to become folded mountains.
d. Dome – a symmetrical fold with strata dipping outward in all
directions.
e. Basin – an inverted dome in which the strata dip inward toward the
center.

PART OF THE FOLDS:

a. Fold axis – the line drawn
along the crest of a fold.
b. Flanks or limbs – sloping
away from the axis on
either side of a fold.
c. Axial plane – is a plane
drawn through the folds
areas.

3. Faulting - refers to the surface along which a rock body has been broken
and has been displaced. There are two types of faulting: (1) vertical
faulting occurs when an entire block of rocks is raised evenly so that the
layers remain in their original horizontal position,(2) horizontal faulting
occurs when an entire block of rocks is lowered evenly so that the layers
remain their original vertical position.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Part of a fault:

a. Fault plane – where the action is. It is the surface that may be
vertical or sloping.
b. Fault trace – is the line it makes on the earth’s surface.
c. The hanging wall – is the upper side where the fault plane is
sloping.
d. Foot wall – is the upper side where the fault plane is sloping.

Types of fault:

a. Thrust fault – is low angle fault in which the hanging wall is

moved upward in relation to the footwall. It is characterized by
horizontal compression rather than by vertical displacement.
b. Normal fault – also called gravity fault, is a dip-slip fault in which
he hanging wall moves downward relative to the footwall.
c. Reverse fault – is the material above the fault plane that moves
up in relation to the material below. It show the surface area of the
crust.

Where do earthquake occur?

About 95% of major earthquake are round the outer edge of the Pacific
Ocean. This zone is known as circum pacific belt. Active earthquake areas in
this zone include japan, the Philippines, Chile and Alaska’s Aleutian islands.

The second major seismic belt is the Mediterranean-Asiatic belt. This

belt extend westerly from Indonesia through the Himalaya, across Iran and
turkey, and westerly through the Mediterranean region of Europe

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Earthquake – are waves that cause shaking due to the sudden release of
energy. They are the most destructive and most terrifying, even worse than the
eruption of volcanoes.

Location and measuring Earthquake

Earthquakes are usually associated with large fractures in the earth’s crust
and mantle called fault.

 Seismology – is the study of earthquake waves.

 Seismograph – is the instrument that detects, record, and measures the
vibrations produced by an
earthquake.
Focus or hypocenter – is
the point where fracturing
begins.

 Epicenter – is the point on

the earth’s surface that is
directly above the focus.

 Seismologist – recognize
the categories of earthquake
based on focal depth:
(a).Shallow focus – have focal depth of less than 70km. from the surface;
(b) Intermediate focus – from 70 – 300 kms;
(c) deep focus – more than 300km. deep.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

 Aftershocks – movements
that follow major earthquake which often
produce smaller earthquake.

 Foreshocks – are small

earthquake that often come from before a
major earthquake.

 Seismic wave – is a general

term encompassing all waves generated by
an earthquake.

Types of seismic waves produced by an earthquake:

1. Body waves – so called because they travel through the solid body of
the earth and are somewhat like sound waves. They are identified as
theirs either p waves or s waves.

a. P waves or primary waves – are the fastest seismic waves

and can travel through solids, liquid, and gasses. A P wave are
compression or push-pull waves and is similar to sound
waves in that they move material forward and backward along
line in the same direction that the waves themselves are
moving. Thus, the material that p-waves travel through is
alternately expanded and compressed as the waves move
through it and return to its original volume after the waves pass
by.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

b. S waves or secondary waves – are somewhat slower that p

waves and can travel through solid only. S waves are shear
waves because they move the material perpendicular to the
direction of travel, thereby producing shear stresses in the
material they move through. S-waves deform material out of
shape as they pass.

2. Surface waves – travel along the surface of the ground, or just below it
along planes between rock layers, and are slower than body waves.
Unlike the sharp jolting and shaking that the body wave’s cause,
surface waves generally produce a rolling or swaying motion.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

The waves arrive at different times because they travel different speeds.
Generally, in any solid material, p waves travel 1.7 times faster than S waves.
Surface waves the slowest at about 90% of the speed of the S waves.

Scientists have used two different types of measurement to describe the

size of an earthquake:

1. Intensity – is a measure of the mount of earthquake shaking at a given

location based on the amount of damage. A familiar but outdate scale for
measuring the magnitude of earthquake is the Richter scale.

2. Magnitude – is a measure of the size of the seismic waves of the amount

of energy released at the source of the earthquake.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

3. Moment magnitude – is the most widely used measurement for the

earthquake because is the magnitude scale the estimates the energy
released by earthquake.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Destruction from earthquakes

1. Seismic vibration – the damage to buildings and other structures

from waves depends on several factors. These factors include the
intensity the nature and the duration of the vibrations.

2. Liquefaction – is that
damage where loosely
consolidated sediments are
saturated with water, so that
had been stable soil turns
into liquid that is not able to
support building or other
structure.

3. Tsunami – triggered by an earthquake occurs when a slab of the

ocean floor is displaced vertically along a fault.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Other danger:
1. Landslides and ground subsidence – the sinking of the ground is
triggered by the vibrations.
2. Fire

Earthquake prediction:
There are some people who can predict the occurrence of earthquake by
observing the behavior of animals. It has been noted that when earthquake are
about to take placed, animals. It can already sense various underground changes
prior to their arrival and they start behaving abnormally. Some abnormal animal
behavior indicating earthquake occurrences are the following:

a. Snakes and rats come out fearlessly into the open from hidden habitats.
b. Cattle and horses do not like to go back to their corals.
c. Shrimps fly on dry lands.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

d. Ants start to migrate carrying their eggs with them.

Effects of Earthquake

A. Soil reactions. In severe quakes, shaking of the ground can loosen soil
and rocks and precipitate disastrous landslide. These, in return, can
cause dangerously high waves to crash into nearby bodies of water.

A phenomenon known liquefaction is another earthquake hazard.

During this process, the vibration of the soil transforms it from a firm
material into a quicksand-like substance.

Compaction can also occur during quakes. Here, ground shaking

compact the soil particles so that the ground settles. A depression result,
the land tilts, and fissures open up.

B. Seiches. Standing bodies of water, such as lake and reservoirs,

sometimes experience what are called seismic seiches. These are
long-period oscillations of the water level due to large and generally far
distant earth tremors. For example, the major 1950 quake in India
produced oscillation of lake levels in England and Norway.

C. Seismic sea waves or tsunami japanese for “BAY WAVES”). A

rapidly moving ocean waves generated by earthquake activity is
capable of inflicting heavy damage in coastal regions. Along sea coast
throughout the world, especially around the pacific, these gigantic
waves, sometimes 25 meters high when they crash into an inlet,
constitute an unimaginable terror.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

The identified earthquake generators

in the Philippines archipelago are the
following:
a. Philippine trench
b. East Luzon trench
c. Manila trench
d. Collisional zone between
Palawan and Mindoro
e. Negros trench
f. Collisional zone between
Zamboanga peninsula and
western Mindanao
g. Ulu trench
h. Cotabato trench
i. Davao trench
j. Philippine fault zone and its
many branches
k. Many active faults (e.g. Lubang, Tablas, casiguran, and Mindanao
faults)

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

ASSESSMENT #2

This test will be given through Google forms. Make sure to be ready on
the scheduled date of the assessment.

FEEDBACK

Do you have any question relative to our topic? Write them below.
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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

SUGGESTED READINGS & REFERENCES

 Allaby, Michael. A Dictionary of Geology and Earth Science. OUP. 4th

edition. 2013.

 National Geographic Channel. Earth Science: Geology, the

Environment, and the Universe. Teacher Wraparound Edition. 2007.

 https://beyondpenguins.ehe.osu.edu/issue/earths-changing-
surface/the-forces-that-change-the-face-of-earth

 https://www.toppr.com/guides/geography/our-changing-earth/the-
ever-changing-earth/

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