MODULE 4

Earthquake Hazards

Objectives
By the end of this module, learners are expected to:
 Identify various potential earthquake hazards;
 Recognize the natural signs of an impending tsunami;
 Analyse the effects of the different earthquake hazards.

Topics
 What are Earthquakes?
 Classification of Earthquakes
 Earthquake Hazards
 Earthquake Readiness

Discussion
Reading 1: What are Earthquakes?

Earthquake is
simply described as the shaking of
the ground. However, this
phenomenon is more complex
than its description.
Earthquakes occur because of
the pressure released due to
movement of earth’s plates.
There are four major layers of the
earth-the inner core, outer core,
mantle, and crust. The crust and
mantle have the most direct link to
earthquakes.
The crust and the top of the
mantle make up only a thin layer
on the earth's surface. This layer
is composed of sections called
tectonic plates. These plates move
slowly, slide past one another, and
bump into each other. The edges of these plates are called plate boundaries. These boundaries are composed of many
faults. These faults are the underground surface where plates slip and the fault line are located.
When plates are moving, their edges have a high tendency to get stuck due to friction and pressure builds up.
When these plates overcome friction, the edges release energy in the form of waves that travel through the earth's
crust. With this incident, shaking of the ground or earthquake can be felt.
Earthquakes induce aftershocks. These are light shaking of ground that happen in the same site where a
stronger earthquake follows. Stronger earthquakes are identified as main shocks, which have aftershocks that follow.
Aftershocks occur at the same site of main shocks and can last up to weeks or months depending on the size of main
shock. We know that earthquakes happen, but we can never predict when they will strike.
During an earthquake, we feel a swaying motion, which will later on pause but will be followed by a stronger
movement. Earthquake duration varies accordingly. Scientists believe that these variations depend on the magnitude,
the distance from epicentre, and the composition of soil or ground in the surface.
Faults
The Pacific Rim is the place where the tectonic plates come together. It is the place of most volcanic and
earthquake-prone places. lt hosts normal earthquakes of 6.9 magnitude or less, which happen around every 2.5 days.
Due to the continuous movement of earth's rocks, the surface of the earth creates fractures or discontinuity known as
faults.
There are three major types of fault.
 Dip-slip fault - This type moves along the direction of the dip plane. It involves downward movement on a
slopping fault as the faults two sides move apart. According to its motion, this is further classified as cither
normal or reverse dip-slip fault.
 Strike-slip fault -The main movement of the blocks along this fault is horizontal. This is the fault on which two
blocks slide past one another. It involves sideways motion. This type of fault can be further described as right-
lateral (dextral) in which the displacement of block is to the right, or left-lateral (sinistral) in which the
displacement of block is to the left instead.
 Oblique slip fault - This last type of fault is manifested when both dip-slip and strike-slip fault motion happen.
Fault Lines
 Although scientists can locate and map different faults and fault lines, they cannot predict exactly when faults
will move. As mentioned earlier, major faults and fault lines can be found at the Pacific Ring of Fire. Most of the world's
largest earthquakes happen within this region. To name a few, here are some of the most dangerous faults that pose
threats to its near-by communities.
San Andreas Fault, Southern California. A strike-slip fault that can ravage through downtown Los Angeles,
California downtown. It is one of the longest faults with over 1000 miles long and also one of the most dangerous
because of the human and economic toll a major earthquake could cause.
New Madrid Fault, Central US. It is the fault where one of the most violent earthquakes to hit the US occurred.
It is also one of the most active fault lines in the country with a series of earthquakes recorded-about four in 1811 and
1812; around 7.5 to 8.0 magnitude recorded.
Caribbean Plate. Although a relatively small and independent plate, it caused the devastation of communities
and infrastructures in Haiti. According to several scientists, it can cause a strong earthquake that can devastate Jamaica
and can cause a 200-feet high tsunami toward Southern US.
In the Philippines, one of the most feared earthquakes might happen along the West Valley Fault. It has a dextral
strike-slip fault system that extends from Rizal to Taguig City. It also extends from Aurora in the North and runs through
Metro Manila, including Quezon City, Marikina, Pasig, Makati, Parañaque, Taguig, as well as Laguna and Cavite province.
The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) estimated that it can happen anytime, with a
magnitude 7 or higher and millions of people can be affected. It also has moved four times in the past 1400 years. On
the average, it moves every 400 years. The last earthquake that occurred along this fault is'roughly 355 years ago.
This is further described by experts as the "Big One" or "Super Earthquakes" expected to happen in this
generation or in generations to come, leaving huge death tolls and economic losses. In 2004, the study, Metro Manila
Earthquake Impact Reduction, funded by Japan International Cooperation Agency (ICA) found that a 7.2 magnitude
earthquake could hit Metro Manila and possibly destroy 40 percent of establishments, and kill approximately 34 000
people.

Reading 2: Classification of Earthquakes

Earthquakes are caused by natural forces of human activities. Natural earthquakes are classified into three
types:
 Tectonic earthquake - This is caused by abrupt movement of earth along faults. Most of the powerful
earthquakes that we experience fall in this category. This is also preceded by foreshocks and followed by
aftershocks. Although there are earthquake variations in intensity and magnitude, tectonic earthquakes are the
most dangerous and powerful kind of earthquakes.

 Plutonic earthquake -

This classification of earthquake has a deep focus, with depth or disturbance around 300 kilometers (km) to 800
km. The depth affects the amount of energy that will be released in the surface. This is less destructive than
shallow ones. The earthquakes that occur between 0 to 70 km are considered shallow focus, while those that
occur between /0 to 300 km are called intermediate focus.
 Volcanic earthquake -This earthquake happens because of a volcanic eruption. The intensity and magnitude of
the earthquake depends on the power of the volcanic eruption. The stronger the eruption, the greater
earthquake it may induce. However, this kind of earthquake can still be considered less severe than that of
tectonic earthquakes. Earthquakes can also be classified according to its effects to the environment. It is
classified based on the measurement of its magnitude and intensity. Magnitude is a measure of the actual size
of the earthquake and is computed mathematically. It is assessed using a seismograph. The stronger the shaking,
the larger the waves. Magnitude is measured using the Richter Scale. The given table shows the exact scale and
equivalence.
Magnitude Earthquake Effects
 2.5 or less Usually not felt, but can be recorded by seismograph.
2.6 to 5.4 Often felt, but only causes minor damage.
5.5 to 6.0 Slight damage to buildings and other structures.
6.1 to 6.9 May cause a lot of damage in very populated areas.
7.0 to 7.9 Major earthquake. Serious damage.
8.0 to greater Great earthquake. Can totally destroy communities near the epicenter.
Intensity is used to describe the actual shaking and is determined by perception of people, behavior of animals,
state of buildings and structures, and changes to natural environment. It refers to the actual effects and damages made
by an earthquake. It uses the 12-point Mercalli scale. The table below shows the intensity scale developed by the
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), based on Rossi-Forel Scale.
intensity Description
I Not felt except by a very few under especially favourable conditions.
II Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings.
III Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. Mary any
people do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly,
Vibrations similar to the passing of a truck. Duration estimated.
IV Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some are awakened.
Dishes, Windows, and doors are disturbed; walls make cracking sound. Sensation like a
heavy truck striking a building. Standing motor cars are rocked noticeably.
V Felt by nearly everyone; many are awakened. Some dishes and windows are broken.
Unstable objects are overturned. Pendulum clocks may stop.
VI Felt by all, many are frightened. Some heavy are furniture moved; a few instances of fallen
plaster. Damages are slight.
VII Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight to moderate in well-
built ordinary structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed structures;
some chimneys are broken.
VIII Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable damage in ordinary
substantial buildings with partial collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures Falls of
chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, and walls. Heavy furniture are overturned.
IX Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-designed frame structures
thrown out of plumb. Damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse Buildings
are shitted off foundations.
X Some well-built wooden structures are destroyed; most masonry and frame structures are
destroyed with foundations. Rails are bent.
XI Few, it any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges are destroyed. Rails are bent
greatly.
XII Damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown into the air.
To simplify, intensity measures qualitatively how bad an earthquake is, while magnitude measures quantitatively
how big an earthquake is.
Signs of an impending earthquake
Although scientists know that earthquakes will occur in the future, predicting exactly when the next earthquake
will occur seems to be impossible. They have tried several ways to predict earthquakes but none have been successful.
However, there are some signs that are said to foreshadow an impending earthquake. Most of the signs are based on
experiences and observations of local communities. Scientists are still searching for answers to explain the precursors of
an impending earthquake.
Here are some of the factors that can be considered:
Animal behaviour. Animals often exhibit an abnormal behaviour before an earthquake. They become disturbed
and very sensitive before an earthquake hits. For instance, domestic animals like dogs struggle against being restrained.
Birds leave their trees restlessly. Toads can predict subtle signs of an impending earthquake, a study says. However, the
connection between animal behaviour and earthquakes have not been fully explored and not yet definitively proven.
Change in atmospheric conditions. Strange changes in color or glow of sky (white, blue, and light Orange) are
said to show that an earthquake 1s about to hit. Based on several accounts, on January 17, 1995. there were 23 sightings
of a white, Orange, or blue light stretching approximately 200 meters in the air and spreading one to eight kilometers
across the ground in Kobe, Japan. After several hours, a 6.9 magnitude earthquake claimed the lives of more than 5500
individuals. Sky-watchers have photographed similar lights before earthquakes occurred elsewhere in Japan since the
1970s and in Quebec, Canada in 1988. Meanwhile, according to the US Geological Survey, low pressure fronts from
major storms like hurricanes can be the cause of some earthquakes. These observations have not been fully studied and
explored as well.
Electromagnetic disturbance. There are speculations that there is a relationship between magnetic and
electrical charges in rock material and earthquakes. Some scientists have hypothesized that these electromagnetic fields
change in a certain way just before an earthquake. Seismologists are also studying gas leakage and the tilting of the
ground as warning signs of earthquakes.
 Boom sound. There are instances that a trembling sound occurs before and during earthquakes. It could be the
cause of minor earthquakes but are to0 shallow to be detected by a seismograph.

Reading 3: Earthquake Hazards

Earthquakes are considered as threats to mankind and pose numerous hazards. These hazards create other
hazards in the built environment. An example of this is when earthquakes cause buildings to collapse and infrastructure
systems to malfunction. People can be injured or killed as building falls or flooding occur in communities near rivers and
dams.
Here are some examples of earthquake-related hazards:
 Ground shaking - lt is one of the most common hazards of earthquakes. Shaking of the ground causes the most
damage during an earthquake. It varies depending on the topography, geologic conditions, and bedrock type of
an area. In general, loose sediment has more tendency to intense quakes than solid bedrock. It can also vary
depending on the location of the fault and distance to the epicenter. Simply, the shaking of the ground is more
intense when the site is near the epicenter and the carthquake is strong. Duce to ground shaking, infrastructures
such as buildings, roads, and bridges can be destroyed.
 Liquefaction - This is a process in which soft and sandy soils can behave like a fluid. It is a direct effect of ground
shaking that makes particles of soil less compact and makes it flow.
Here is how liquefaction works: According to the Pacific Northwest Seismic Network, before an
earthquake, water pressure is low and the weight of the buried soil lies on the framework of the grain contacts
comprising it. But the earthquake can alter the structure. The soil particles no longer support all the weight, and
the groundwater pressure begins to rise (http://pnsn.org/outreach/earthquakehazards/liquifaction). This
separates the soil particles from each other and become drained by water. Because of this, the soil starts to
flow. Liquefied soil will then open ground cracks in order to escape to the surface. The ejected material leads to
flooding and may leave cavities in soil, leaving large areas covered with deep layer of mud. Because of this
phenomenon, buildings and structures can sink or tilt over, while underground pipes and tanks may rise up to
surfaces.
 Surface rupture - This is an offset of the ground surface when fault rupture extends to the earth's surface.
 Tsunamis and seiches - Tsunami is a huge series of waves generated by an earthquake. It can rise up to 10 feet
and can cause severe damage to coastline communities. Seiches are small tsunamis that often occur on lakes.
 Sinkholes - These are found on areas where rocks below the land are composed mostly of limestone, carbonate
rock, salt beds, or rocks that naturally be dissolved by ground water circulating them. Spaces are developed as
rocks dissolve. This causes the collapse of the surface of the ground. Earthquakes trigger these kinds of
collapses.
 Fire - It often follows after an earthquake because of affected power lines and broken gas lines. This can be a
major problem especially when water lines are affected.
Most earthquake hazards become more complex hazards. Although larger earthquakes can affect people in serious
ways, this does not mean that all people are likely to be affected. The likelihood of a large earthquake occurring varies
widely from place to place, as can the size and severity of its impact to people.

Reading 4: Earthquake Readiness

Preparing for an earthquake is an on-going process that needs to be given clear attention. Remember that no
one can predict earthquakes, so we must ensure that we are prepared for such an event.
Here are the important things that we should do to survive an earthquake:
 Arrange a disaster or emergency supply kit.
which includes the following:
 Medicines
 sturdy shoes, clothes, and blanket
 cash
 flashlight, extra batteries, and light
 bulb bottle water
 snack foods high in water and calories
 Make an earthquake preparedness plan.
This includes evacuation plans contact details of relatives tar from area, and possible location of emergency supplies.
Pay attention to the maintenance and securing of emergency equipment.
 Discuss earthquake preparedness plan with your family.
 Secure hazards.
 Learn about earthquake risk in the area.
 Protect your properties.
If your place is at risk to earthquakes, consider getting insurance for properties. Electron such as computers,
refrigerators, and televisions should be secured with nylon straps to avoid damages. It is advisable to install latches or
bolts on cabinets. It will prevent cabinets from flying open and contents from falling out. Chemical products should be
placed at the bottom shelves to avoid hazardous situations. Repair deep cracks in ceilings or foundations once these are
notice.
What to do during an earthquake?
Here are the things that you should do during earthquakes:
 Find a safe spot in your house and classroom. Also, look into safe places inside and outside the establishment
you spend most of the time. It is very important to know where to go and not panic.
 Drop, cover, and hold on. This is most applicable when you are indoors. Get under a sturdy table or desk; hold
on to one of your legs and cover your eyes. If there are no tables, then sit down against an interior wall because
it will less likely to collapse than an outside wall. Stay away from windows, tall and heavy furniture like cabinets,
and other electronic appliances that might fall on you.
 If you are outdoors, then find a place away from buildings, power lines, and streetlights as these might fall on
you and cause injuries. A lot of injuries happen within 10 feet of entrance to buildings or establishments. The
roofing, windows, and other materials might fall from buildings. It can cause injuries and deaths. When you
already have a spot, drop to the ground and wait until the earthquake stops.
 If you are in a vehicle, then pull over to a clear location, stop, and stay there with your seatbelt fastened until
the shaking stops. By doing this, you will reduce the risk of getting trapped from falling debris. When the
earthquake stops, you may now start your vehicle and drive safely. Avoid bridges damaged by earthquakes.
 Do not leave your safe place while there is an earthquake. If the shaking already stops, then be observant of
your surroundings as there might be broken power lines and falling debris. Check yourself if you have any
injuries. Aftershocks might happen again so be prepared to find another secured place.
 Use the stairs and not the elevator when leaving establishments. During earthquakes, power lines get damaged
and can cause fire. It is better to use the stairs than risk getting trapped in an elevator.
 lf you are in a coastal area, move to a higher ground because strong earthquakes could trigger tsunamis.
 lf you are in a mountainous area or near unstable slopes or cliffs, then stay vigilant tor rock falls and landslides.
Earthquakes can loosen the soil and can cause landslides.

What to do after an earthquake?

You just survived the main shocks of an earthquake. Naturally, you also helped keep your loved ones safe.
However, there are still hazards that could happen after an earthquake. Here are the things that you should keep in
mind after the big quake:
 Check for injuries and if there are, then call for an immediate medical assistance.
 Check for hazards such as fires, leaks, chemical spills, and structures damaged by earthquakes.
 Be cautious of damaged buildings. Assess the conditions outside before exiting a building.
 Stay away from downed power lines.
 Seek the help of authorities and volunteer working groups it you will leave your premises to ensure your safety.
 Help injured persons in your area. Call an ambulance it necessary and do not try to move seriously injured
people unless they are in immediate danger of further injury.
 Eliminate fire hazards by using a fire extinguisher or water. When there are fires, even smal1, immediately put
them out to prevent spreading.
 Check the gas if there are leaks as it may cause explosions. Turn it off using the outside main valve.
 Clear up spilled flammable fluids like insecticide and gasoline to avoid hazards of chemical emergency.
 Check if there are damages in your electricity system. it would be better if you turn off the electricity in the main
fuse box and call an electrician for inspection. When opening huge cabinet doors, do it cautiously. The contents
might move and cause injuries if they fall on you.
 Expect aftershocks and leave the house if it is unsafe. Aftershocks can cause further damage to properties, if
your house is being damaged, evacuate immediately. If aftershocks occur, then drop, cover, and hold on a safe
place.
  Take pictures of the damaged areas of your house, car/s and other properties that can be used for insurance
claims.
 Tune in to the current news by listening to radio or TV. Information are often disseminated in these media and
further instructions are given. Make sure to coordinate with local authorities to stay safe.
Whether earthquakes become severe or not, learning from experiences is still a key in staying safe in future
earthquake events. Review your disaster and emergency plan and assess the things that worked and did not work. Use
the opportunity to build more earthquake resistant houses and buildings, improve emergency supply kit if something is
lacking, and select items that can help make all of your family members safe.
The safety measures mentioned above are more on medium- and short-term only. How can we mainstream the
mitigation of hazards and risks posed earthquakes? Earthquakes are naturally occurring phenomenon and can happen
any time. We should create a culture of being earthquake-ready in the long term so that we can adapt and reduce its
impacts.