EEE3411 Electronics

│LECTURE 4│
│

Operational Amplifiers
(revised 2008/09)

Learning Objectives

Understand the characteristics of an op-amp and its simple

applications

1. Characteristics of op-amps
The Operational Amplifier
The operational amplifier (op-amp) is a circuit of components integrated
into one chip. We will study the op-amp as a singular device. A typical
op-amp is powered by two dc voltages and has an inverting (− −) and a
non-inverting input (+) and an output. Note that for simplicity the power
terminals are not shown but understood to exist.

Fig 4-1 Op Amp circuit symbol

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 Ideal Op Amp Characteristics
Infinite open-loop voltage gain, Av (Aol) = ∞
Infinite input impedance, Zin = ∞
Zero output impedance, Zout = 0
Infinite bandwidth, BW = ∞

Fig 4-2 Ideal Op Amp model

Practical Op Amp Characteristics

Typical value of the op amp 741
Aol = 200,000
Zin = 2 MΩ
Zout = 75 Ω
funity = 1 MHz

Fig 4-3 Practical Op Amp model

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Block structure of op amp

A typical op-amp is made up of three types of amplifier circuit: a
differential amplifier, a voltage amplifier, and a push-pull amplifier.

Fig 4-4 Block structure of Op Amp

Single-end Input Mode

One input is grounded and the signal voltage is applied to the other
input.

Fig 4-5 Single-end input mode

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 Differential Mode Input
Two opposite-polarity (out-of-phase) signals are applied to the inputs
The amplified difference between the two inputs appears on the output.

Fig 4-6 Differential mode input

Common Mode Input

Two signals voltages of the same phase, frequency, and amplitude are
applied to both inputs.
The two input signals cancel each other, resulting in a zero output
voltage if the op amp is ideal. For practical op amp, there is a small
voltage of μV order appearing at the output.

Fig 4-7 Common mode input

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Common Mode Rejection Ratio

The unwanted signal (noise) appears commonly on both op-amp inputs
should not appear on the output and distort the desired signal. Hence the
ability to discriminate the wanted signal and those unwanted signals is
an essential attribute of practical op amp.
The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is the measure for how well
it rejects an unwanted signal. As the noise is a common-mode signal,
hence the ratio of open loop voltage gain (Aol) to common-mode gain
(Acm) gives such measure. The definition of CMRR is as follows.
CMRR = Aol/Acm
CMRR (dB) = 20log(Aol /Acm)

Example
A certain op-amp has an open-loop voltage gain of 100,000 and a
common-mode gain of 0.2. Determine the CMRR and express it in
decibels.

Solution

CMRR = Aol /Acm = 100,000 / 0.2 = 500,000

= 20log(500,000) = 114 dB

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 Slew Rate
Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of the output voltage in
response to a step input voltage
Slew rate (V/µs)= ∆Vout/∆t

Fig 4-8 Slew rate of op-amp

2. Use of feedback

Negative feedback is feeding part of the output back to the input to limit
the overall gain.
This is used to make the gain more realistic so that the op-amp is not
driven into saturation.
Regardless of gain there are limitations of the amount of voltage that an
amplifier can produce.
The closed-loop voltage gain (Acl) is the voltage gain of an op-amp with
external feedback.

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Inverting Amplifier
The inverting amplifier has the output fed back to the inverting input for
gain control.As the voltage gain of the op-amp is very large, a very
small input voltage across the input terminals will be sufficient to
produce a finite output, hence the potential at point P in Fig. 4-11 is
approximately at zero volt, it is commonly called the virtual earth point.
Vin = IinRi and Vout = −IinRf
The input resistance of the op-amp is very large, so Iin ≈ Iout
Hence close-loop gain, ACL = Vout / Vin = - Rf / Ri

Fig 4-9 Inverting amplifier

Example
Given the op-amp configuration in Figure 4-12, determine the value of Rf
required to produce a closed-loop voltage gain of −100.

Fig 4-10 Example of inverting amplifier

Solution

By |Aol| = Rf / Ri
Rf = |Aol|Ri =(100)(2.2k) = 220 kΩ
Ω

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 Non-inverting Amplifier
The non-inverting amplifier has the output fed back to the inverting input
for gain control.
Vin = Vf = I1Ri and Vout = I1(Rf+Ri)
Hence close-loop gain, ACL = Vout / Vin = (Rf +Ri) / Ri = 1 + Rf / Ri

Fig 4-11 Non-inverting amplifier

Example
Determine the gain of the amplifier in Figure 12-17. The open-loop
voltage gain of the op-amp is 100,000.

Fig 4-12 Example of non-inverting amplifier

Solution

Aol = 1 + Rf / Ri = 1 + 100k/4.7k = 22.3

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Voltage Follower
The voltage-follower configuration is a special case of the non-inverting
amplifier where the whole output signal is fed back to the inverting input.
As the voltage gain is very large, the voltage across the input terminals
of the op-amp is practically zero for finite output, hence Vout ≈ Vin.
So the voltage gain (Acl) = 1
It usually being used as a buffer amp since it has a high input impedance
and low output impedance.

Fig 4-13 Voltage follower

Summing Amplifier
The summing amplifier basically has two or more inputs and the output
voltage is negative sum of the inputs.
If Rf is the same as each of the input resistors for a summing amplifier
then VIN1= I1R1, VIN2 = I2R2,…VINR = IRRR and I1+I2+…IR=-If;VOUT=If Rf,
so VOUT = -(I1+I2+…IR)Rf = -(VIN1/R1 + VIN2/R2 +…VINR/RR) Rf
or VOUT = - (VIN1 + VIN2 + … + VINR)

Fig 4-14 Summing amplifier

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 Example
Determine the output voltage in Figure 4-16.

Fig 4-15 Example of a summing amplifier

Solution

As Rf = R1 = R2 = R3, so
Vout = − (VIN1 + VIN2 + VIN3) = − (3 + 1 + 8 ) = − 12V

Example
Determine the output voltage for the summing amplifier in Figure 4-17.

Fig 4-16 Example of a summing amplifier

Solution

Rf is different from R1 and R2, so

Vout = − Rf /R(VIN1 + VIN2) = − 10k/1k(0.2 + 0.5) = − 7V

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Averaging Amplifier
Another type of summing amplifier, the averaging amplifier can produce
an average voltage of the inputs by setting the ratio of Rf to input
resistance to be the reciprocal of the inputs, that is Rf / R = 1 / n
So VOUT = -1/n ( VIN1 + VIN2 + … + VINn) where n is total number of
inputs.

Fig 4-17 Averaging amplifier

Example
Show that the amplifier in Figure 4-19 produces an output whose
magnitude is the mathematical average of the input voltages.

Fig 4-18 Example of an averaging amplifier

Solution

VOUT = −Rf /R(VIN1 + VIN2 + VIN3 + VIN4)

= − 25k/100k(1 + 2 + 3 + 4) = −2.5V
This is the average value of the inputs in opposite sign.

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 Scaling Amplifier
The scaling adder is a summing adder with input given a weight by
choice of each value of input resistance.
The Rf to input resistance ratio would determine what the voltage output
would be with a signal present at each input.
VOUT = − (Rf /R1VIN1 + Rf /R2VIN2 + … + Rf /RnVINn)

Fig 4-19 Scaling amplifier

Example
Determine the output voltage for the scaling amplifier in Figure 4-21.

Fig 4-20 Example of a scaling amplifier

Solution

VOUT = − (Rf /R1 VIN1 + Rf /R2 VIN2 + Rf /R3 VIN3 )

= - (100/100x1 + 100/50x0 + 100/25x1 ) = -5 V
Note: This circuit may serve as a digital to analog converter as it
converts the digital voltages 1,0,1 to 5.

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Open-loop Frequency Response

The open-loop gain of an op-amp is determined by the internal design
and it very high.
The high frequency cutoff frequency of an open-loop op-amp is about
10Hz.

Fig 4-21 Frequency response curve of a typical op-amp

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 Closed-loop Frequency Response
The gain-bandwidth product is always equal to the frequency at which
the op-amp’s open-loop gain is 0dB (unity-gain bandwidth) as at this
frequency the gain is equal to one. Hence
Acl fc(cl) = Aol fc(ol)
Bandwidth, BW ≈ fc(cl)

Fig 4-22 Closed-loop frequency response

Example
Determine the bandwidth of each of the amplifiers in Figure 4-28. Both
op-amps have an open-loop fain of 100dB and a unity-gain bandwidth
of 3MHz.

Fig 4-23 Example to calculate the frequency response

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Solution

For the non-inverting amplifier

Acl = 1 +Rf /Ri = 1 + 220k/3.3k = 67.7
fc(cl) = BWcl =unity gain BW/Acl = 3M/67.7
= 44.3 MHz
For the inverting amplifier
Acl = −Rf /Ri = − 47k/1k = −47
BWcl =3M/47 = 63.8 MHz

3. Op-amp application circuits

Difference Amplifier
This circuit is commonly found in signal processing applications.

Fig 4-24 Difference amplifier

Instrumentation Differential Amplifier

This circuit is commonly found in electronic instrument.

Fig 4-25 Instrumentation difference amplifier

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 Non-linear Applications - comparator
The extremely large open-loop gain of an op-amp makes it an extremely
sensitive device for comparing its input with zero. For practical purposes, if
(V2 – V1) > 0
then the output is driven to the positive supply voltage and if
(V2 – V1) < 0
then it is driven to the negative supply voltage. The switching time for - to +
is limited by the slew rate of the op-amp.

Fig 4-26 Op Amp comparator

Comparison to Standard Voltage

One use of a comparator is to compare the input to a standard voltage and
switch the output if the input is above that threshold. If Vin goes more
positive than the voltage set by the voltage divider for V2 , then the output
switches to -VCC. When Vin drops below that value it switches back to +VCC .

Though useful for slow, stable variations like a temperature probe, this
circuit has a serious problem with signals which might have noise
superimposed. Noise variations can cause rapid switching back and forth at
the threshold point. This problem is addressed with negative feedback in the
Schmitt trigger variation of this idea.

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Fig 4-27 Op Amp voltage comparator

Schmitt trigger
The Schmitt trigger is a comparator application which switches the output
negative when the input passes upward through a positive reference voltage.
It then uses negative feedback to prevent switching back to the other state
until the input passes through a lower threshold voltage, thus stabilizing the
switching against rapid triggering by noise as it passes the trigger point.

Fig 4-28 Op Amp positive logic Schmitt trigger

We can analyze the Schmitt Trigger in the same manner as other Op Amp
feedback circuits based on the assumptions of a virtual short circuit at the
inputs of the Op Amp and infinite input impedance of the Op Amp. While

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 the supposition of equal voltages (i.e. virtual short circuit) at the Op Amp
inputs is not really valid since it is the inequality of these voltages which
makes the Op Amp behave as a comparator, this assumption will enable us to
find the decision/transition point for the Op Amp. Using these
presumptions to perform a Nodal Analysis at the non-inverting input:

(Vref-Vin)/Ri + (Vref-Vout)/Rf = 0

Performing the algebra to solve for the Vin required to create a state change:

Vin=Vref(Rf+Ri)/Rf - Vout(Ri/Rf)

If the trigger is already in a low state, then Vout=(-)Vs and to shift to a high
state:

Vin > Vref(Rf+Ri)/Rf - (-)Vs(Ri/Rf) = Vref(Rf+Ri)/Rf + Vs(Ri/Rf)

Thus, Vin must overshoot UTP=Vref(Rf+Ri)/Rf by +Vs(Ri/Rf) to get the state

to shift to a high. Likewise, if the trigger is already in a high state,
Vout=+Vs and the condition required for a change of state is:

Vin < Vref(Rf+Ri)/Rf - (+)Vs(Ri/Rf)

Again, Vin must undershoot LTP=Vref(Rf+Ri)/Rf by -Vs(Ri/Rf) to get the state

to shift to a low. Thus, noise spikes smaller in magnitude than +/-Vs(Ri/Rf)
will not cause the comparator to shift and judicious choice of Ri and Rf
relative to Vs and Vref can set the up-shift and downshift input voltages.

Example
The supply voltages for a positive logic Schmitt Trigger circuit are +/-12V,
and Ri=1K, a upper threshold (UTP) voltage of 6V and a lower (LTP)
voltage of 4V is required. What are the required values of Rf and Vref to
achieve these specifications?

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Solution
The transitions occur at Vin = Vref(Rf+Ri)/Rf - (+/-)Vs(Ri/Rf). For transitions
at 4V and 6V, the average is 5V +/-1V. Thus:
Vref(Rf+Ri)/Rf = 5V and (+/-)Vs(Ri/Rf) = 1V.

Using the second condition, and solving for Rf:

Rf = Vs(Ri/1V)=12V(1KΩ/1V) = 12K 

Plugging this result into the first condition and solving for Vref:
Vref = 5V×Rf/(Rf+Ri)=5V×12KΩ/(12KΩ+1KΩ) = 4.62V

Likewise, a negative logic Schmitt trigger can be constructed as shown

below.

Fig 4-29 Op Amp negative logic Schmitt trigger

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 Op Amp integrating circuit
The circuit is formed by replacing the feedback resistor of inverting op-amp
with capacitor. A constant input signal generates a certain rate of change in
output voltage. It also smoothes signals over time. That is, the circuit
performs integration of the input signal. The analysis of the integrating
amplifier is shown in Fig. 4-35.

Fig 4-30 Op Amp integrating circuit

Op Amp differentiating circuit

Input resistor of inverting op-amp is replaced with a capacitor. Signal
processing method which accentuates noise over time. Output signal is
scaled derivative of input signal. That is, the circuit performs differentiation
of the input signal. The analysis of the differentiating amplifier is shown in
Fig. 4-36.

Fig 4-31 Op Amp integrating circuit

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4. Reading data sheets

Electrical characteristics of typical op-amps.

Fig 4-32 Electrical characteristics of typical op-amps

 Revision

Read reference on No. 3 Sections 12-1 to 12-8.

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