12 Chapter 1: Electromagnetic Theory where je = 1o(1 + xm) = 1! — jw” isthe complex permeability of the medium. Again, the imaginary part of z», or 11 accounts for loss due to damping forces; there is no magnetic conductivity because there is no real magnetic current. As in the electric case, magnetic ‘materials may be anisotropic, in which case a tensor permeability can be written as By Here Hey Har] [He Ay [#]-[k« ia ele [e] 0.26 B, Hes dey He He ‘An important example of anisotropic magnetic materials in microwave engineering is the class of fertinauetic unatetialy kuowa as ferrites; these materials and their applications will be discussed further in Chapter 9. If linear media are assumed (€, j4 not depending on £ or /7), then Maxwell’s equa- tions can be written in phasor form as Vx £ = —joull — i, (1.278) Vx A= jock +J, (1.276) v (1.27) V-B=0. (1.274) ‘The constitutive relations are <é, (1.28a) B=, (1.28b) where € and j1 may be complex and may be tensors. Note that relations like (1.28a) and (1.28b) generally cannot be written in time domain form, even for linear media, because of the possible phase shift between D and £, or B and /7. The phasor representation accounts for this phase shift by the complex form of ¢ and 2. “Maxwell's equations (1.27a)(1.274) in differential form require known boundary val- ues for a complete and unique solution. A general method used throughout this book is to solve the source-free Maxwell equations in a certain region to obtain solutions with un- known coefficients and then apply boundary conditions to solve for these coefficients. A number of specific cases of boundary conditions arise, as discussed in what follows. Fields at a General Material Interface Consider a plane interface between two media, as shown in Figure 1.5. Maxwell's equa- ions in integral form can be used to deduce conditions involving the normal and tangential FIGURE 15 Fields, currents, and surface charge at a general interface between two media.1.3. Fields in Media and Boundary Conditions 13 Day Medium 2 as Medion 1 Da FIG IRE 1.6 Closed surface S for equation (1.29). ‘elds at ts mtertace. Ihe time-barmonic version of (1.4), where S is the closed “pillbox”- shaped surface shown in Figure 1.6, ean be written as fo-a= pdb. 4.29) s 1 itas r + 0, the contribution of Dig, through the sidewalls goes to zero, s0 (1.29) ASDay — ASD, = ASp.. Day = Din = pss 30) ‘where p, is the surface charge density on the interface. In vector form, we can write (Dy — Dy) = py asp A similar argument for B leads to the result that i Boh because there is no free magnetic charge For the tangential components of the electric field we use the phasor form of (1.6), fe di jo [Bae [ i148, (1.33) Ic s s in connection with the closed contour C shown in Figure 1.7. In the limit as ft -> 0, the surface integral of B vanishes (beceuse S = AE vanishes). The contribution from the surface integral of 1, however, may be nonzeto if a magnetic surface current density 1M, exists on the surface. The Dirac delta function can then be used to write (132) Mf = W4,8(h), (1.34) ‘where / is @ coordinate measured normal from the interface. Equation (1.33) then gives AlEn — AtEn = — AEM, Medium 2 Ea 4 Ey Fa Medium 1 FIGURE 1.7 Closed contour C for equation (1.33).14 Chapter 1: Electromagnetic Theory or Ea~ Ea = (1.35) ‘which can be generalized in veetor form as, (Er - Ei) x (1.36) A similar argument for the magnetic field leads to fixtih— ih) = 4, «37 where J, is an electric surface current density that may exist at the interface, Equations (1.31), (.32), (1.36), and (1.37) are the most general expressions for the boundary condi- tions at an arbitrary interface of materials and/or surface currents. Fields at a Dielectric Interface Atan interface between two lossless dielectric materials, no charge or surface current den- sities will ordinarily exist, Equations (1.31), (1.32), (1.36), and (1.37) then reduce to D (1.38a) (1.386) (1.380) (1.384) Iu wouds, these cyuatious state ta the normal components of {and # are continuous across the interface, and the tangential components of £ and /T are continuous across the interface. Because Maxwell’s equations are not all linearly independent, the six boundary conditions contained in the above equations are not all linearly independent. Thus, the enforcement of (1.38¢) and (1.38d) for the four tangential field components, for example, will automatically force the satisfactioa of the equations for the continuity of the normal ‘components. Fields at the Interface with a Perfect Conductor (Electric Wall) Many problems in microwave engineering involve boundaries with good conductors (¢.g., ‘metals), which can often be assumed as lossless (o > 00). In this case of a perfect con- ductor, all field components must be zero inside the conducting region. This result can be seen by considering a conductor with finite conductivity (7 < 00) and noting that the skin depth (the depth to which most of the microwave power penetrates) goes to zero as = 00. (Such an analysis will be per‘ormed in Section 1.7.) If we also assume here that Wf, = 0, which would be the case ifthe perfect conductor filled all the space on one side of the boundary, then (1.31), (1.32), (1.36), and (1.37) reduce to the following: aD (1.394) a-B (1.39) aE (1.390) ix (1.394) where p, and J, are the electric surface charge density and current density, respectively, on the interface, and fi is the normal unit vector pointing out of the perfect conductor. Such1.4 1.4 The Wave Equation and Basic Plane Wave Solutions 15 a boundary is also known as an electric wall because the tangential components of £ are “shorted out,” as seen from (1.39c), and must vanish at the surface of the conductor. The Magnetic Wall Boundary Condition Dual to the preceding boundary condition is the magnetic wall boundary condition, where ‘the tangential components of / must vanish. Such a boundary does not really exist in practice but may be approximated by a corrugated surface or in certain planar transmission line problems. In addition, the ideatization that fi x H = 0 at an interface is often a con- ‘venient simplification, as we will see in later chapters. We will also see that the magnetic ‘wall boundary condition is analogous to the relations between the voltage and current at the end of an open-circuited transmission line, while the electric wall boundary condi is analogous to the voltage and current at the end of a short-circuited transmission line. ‘The magnetic wall condition, then, provides a degree of completeness in our formulation of boundary conditions and is a useful approximation in several cases of practical interest. ‘The fields at a magnetic wall satisfy the following conditions: aD (40a) AB (1.406) Axe (1.40e) ix H=0, (1.404) ‘where i is the normal unit vector pointing out of the magnetic wall region. ‘The Radiation Condition ‘When dealing with problems that have one or more infinite boundaries, such as plane ‘waves in an infinite medium, or infinitely long transmission lines, a condition on the fields at infinity must be enforced. This boundary condition is known as the radiation condition and is essentially a statement of energy conservation, It states that, at an infinite distance from a source, the fields must either be vanishingly small (i., zero) or propagating in an ‘outward direction. This result can easily be seen by allowing the infinite medium to contain ‘a small loss factor (as any physical medium would have). Incoming waves (from infinity) of finite amplitude would then requite an infinite source at infinity and so are disallowed ‘THE WAVE EQUATION AND BASIC PLANE WAVE SOLUTIONS The Helmholtz Equation Ina source-free, linear, isotropic, homogeneous region, Maxwell’s curl equations in phasor form are Vx E = -jopll, (41a) Vx Ht = jock, (141b) and constitute two equations for the two unknowns, £ and /7. As such, they can be solved for either £ or J. Taking the curl of (1.412) and using (1.41b) gives Vx Vx E=—jonv x f= opeb,16 Chapter 1: Electromagnetic Theory which is an equation for £. This result can be simplified through the use of vector identity (B.14), V x V x A= V(V- 4) — V7, which is valid for the rectangular components of an arbitrary vector 4. Then, Vito pel (1.42) because V- E in a source-free region. Equation (1.42) is the wave equation, or Helmholtz equation, for E. An identical equation for /7 can be derived in the same manner: Vf + o*pell = 0. (1.43) A constant & = «/fF is defined and called the propagation constant (also known as the Phase constant, or wave number), of the medium; its units are 1/m. ‘As a way of introducing wave behavior, we will next study the solutions to the above ‘wave equations in their simplest forms, first for a lossless medium and then for a lossy (Conducting) medium. Plane Waves in a Lossless Medium Ina lossless medium, ¢ and y. are real numbers, and so kis real. A basic plane wave solution to the above wave equations can be found by considering an electric field with only an # ‘component and uniform (no variation) in the x and y directions. Then, 9/@x = 0/ay = 0, and the Helmholtz equation of (1.42) reduces to 2, oS +PE, =0. (1.44) ‘The two independent solutions to this equation are easily seen, by substitution, tobe of the form Ex) = Ete + Bel, (1.45) where £* and E~ are arbitrary amplitude constants. The above solution is for the time harmonic case at frequency «o. In the time domain, this result is written as Exlz, 2) = E* coslor ~ kz) + E~ cos(or + kz), (1.46) where we have assumed that E+ and £~ are real constants. Consider the first term in (1.46). This term represents a wave traveling in the +z direction because, to maintain a fixed point on the wave (wr — kz = constant), one must move in the +2 direction as time increases. Similarly, the second term in (1.46) represents a wave traveling in the negative = direction—hence the notation £* and E~ for these wave amplitudes. The velocity of the ‘wave in this sense fs called the phase velocity because it is the velocity at which a fixed phase point on the wave travels, and it's given by a: a (a constant’ y= Ga5 = 47 In free-space, we have v, = 1/,/figéc = ¢ = 2.998 x 108 m/sec, which is the speed of light. The wavelengih, 2, is defined as the distance between two successive maxima (or ‘minima, or any other reference points) on the wave at a fixed instant of time. Thus, (ot ~ kz) ~ [ot — Ke +4) = 2,