Introduction to Computers Learning Objectives In this chapter, we wil earn the definition and various characteristics of computers and see how they have evolved from big machines used only for scientifo purposes fo small devices that can even be used in @ wristwatch. We wil reod about the diferent types of computing devices, the basic organization of a computing device, and see haw computers are used in different areas of our day-4o-day lives, EG wnat is a compurer? ‘ (A computer, in simple terms, can be defined as an electronic ‘device that is designed TaCcept data, perform the required mathe- ‘matical and logical operations at high speed, and output the result.) We all have seen computers in our homes, schools, sid colleges. In fact, in today’s scenario, we find computers in most aspects of our daily lives. For some of us, itis hard to even imagine a world without them. Inthe past, computers were extremely large in size and often required an entire room for installation. These computers con- ‘sumed enormous amounts of power and were too expensive to be used for commercial applications. Therefore, they were used only for limited tasks, such as computing trajectories for astro- nomial or military applications. However, with technological advancements, the size of computers became smaller and their energy requirements reduced immensely, This opened the way for adoption of computers for commercial purposes. These days, computers have become so prevalent in the mar- ket that al interactive devices such as cellular phones, global Positioning system (GPS) units, portable organizers, automatic teller machines (ATMS), and gas pumps, work with computers. BEGAN characteristics oF computers ‘We have seen that a computer is an electronic device that per- forms a function based on a given set of instructions known, asa program A computer accepts data, processes it, and pro- duces inforffiafion (see Figure 1.1). Here, data refers to some raw facts or figures, and information implies the processed data. For example, if 12-12-92 is the date of birth of a stu- dent, then it is data (a raw fact/figure). However, when we process this data (subtract it from the present date) and say that the age of the student is 18 years, then the outcome is ipfocmetion) Fig 1.1 Functions of computers Today, computers have become a crucial part of our everyday lives, and we need computers just like we need the television, telephones, or other electronic devices at home. Computers are basically meant to solve problems quickly and accurately The important characteristics of a computer (refer t Figure 1.2) are discussed in the following text.2 Fundamentals of Computers [p (Ff | i > Fig. 12 Characteristics of computers Speed Computers can perform millions of operations per second, which means that data that may otherwise take many hours to process is output as information in the blink of an eve. The speed of computers is usually given in nanoseconds and picoseconds, where | nanosecond = 1 x 10~ seconds and 1x 10"? seconds. | picosecond Accuracy A computer is a very fast, reliable, and robust ~electronic device. It always gives accurate results, provided the correct data and set of instructions are input to it. Hence, in the event of an error, only the user who has fed the incorrect data/program needs be held responsible. This clearly means that the output generated by a computer depends on the given instructions and input data. Ifthe input data is wrong, then the output will also be erroneous. In computer terminology, this is known as garbage-in, garbage-out (GIGO). Automation Besides being very fast and accurate, comput- ers are automatable devices that can perform a task without any user intervention. The user just needs to assign the task to the computer, after which it automatically controls different devices attached to it and executes the program instructions. Diligence Unlike humans, computers never get tired of @ repetitive task. It can continually work for hours without cre~ ating errors, Even if a large number of executions are needed, each and every execution requires the same duration, and is executed with the same accuracy. Versatile Versatility is the quality of being flexible. Today, ~ computers are used in our daily life in different fields. For example, they are used as personal computers (PCs) for home use, for business-oriented tasks, weather forecasting, space exploration, teaching, railways, banking, medicine, and so on, indicating that computers can perform different tasks simultaneously. On the PC that you use at home, you may play a game, compose and send e-mail, listen to music, etc. Therefore, computers are versatile devices as they can per- form multiple tasks of different nature at the same time. Memory Similar to humans, computers also have memory. Just the way we cannot store everything in our memory media, such a8 @ n016B00K, 10 ry Computers also have interna) pace) as well a8 external or." fernal memory of computer the secondary storage primary memory (StOraEe s py memory. Wri the ier sey expensive an ited in S26 vaper and of bigger capaci cone ag Tage amount of ds ad prog The compa age pace. The toed 2 nd gry ov retieved and used whenever required. Seconds an be retrieve or data storage. SOME EXBMPIES of, rade lop disks teal disks (CDs ng rae nd dik dives (HDDS) en drives, ee are nave to be used, they are copieg wrograms Sn adm he nh fenown as random access memory (RA D. The concept computer memory is discussed in detail in Chapter No IQ Although the trend today is to make computer in. ligent by inducing artificial intelligence (AD) in them, they still do not have any decision-making abilities of their own, Thus, their 1Q level is zero. They need guidance to perform various tasks. Eeonomical Today, computers are considered as short-term investments for achieving long-term gains. Using computers algo reduces manpower requirements and leads to an elegant and efficient way of performing various tasks. Hence, com- puters save time, energy, and money. When compared to other systems, computers can do more work in lesser time, For example, using the conventional mail system to send an important document takes at least two or more days, whereas the same information when sent using the Internet (e-mail) will be delivered instantaneously. GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS ‘The word generation, in general, indicates a state of improve- ment in the product development process. When applied to computing, it refers to the different advancements of new computer technology. With each new generation of comput- ers, the circuitry becomes smaller and more advanced than that used in the previous generation. The focus of every new generation has been on miniaturization, speed, power, and efficient computer memory. Therefore, each generation of computers is characterized by a major technological development that has drastically changed the way in which computers operate. Consequently. these computing devices have become smaller, cheaper, po" érful, efficient, and more reliable. In this section, we will read about the major developments in technology that have led to the devices that we use today. memory is the ke} ondary 1.3.1 First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes First-generation computers used a very large number of vac- ‘uum tubes (as shown in Figure 1.3) for circuitry and magneticVacuum tube rum for memory These computers were so big in size that they offen required an entre room to be installed. The fist generation computers were very expensive and were hence mainly used for scientific purposes. In addition to a large amount of space, they also needed a lot of electricity, and thus generated enormous heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First-generation computers could be programmed using ‘machine language, which is the lowest-level programming language, consisting of only 1s and Qs. These computers could solve only one problem at a time. While input to the computer was fed using punched cards and paper tape, the ‘output was generated on printouts. Universal automatic computer (UNIVAC) and electronic numerical integrator and calculator (ENIAC) are prime examples of first-generation computing devices. Moreover, UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client (US Census Bureau in 1951). ‘Advantage They were the fastest calculating devices oftheir time. Disadvantages + They generated a lot of heat + They consumed a lot of electricity + They were very bulky in size. + Vacuum tubes used filaments that had limited life. Since every computer used thousands of vacuum tubes, these computers were frequently down due to hardware failure. + These computers needed constant maintenance because of the low mean time between failures + These computers had limited commercial use because they were difficult to program * They were very expensive 1.3.2 Second Generation (1956-1963): Transistors Second-generation computers were manufactured using tran- sistors (as shown in Figure 1.4), rather than vacuum tubes. ‘Transistors were invented in 1947 but were used for manufac- turing computers only in the late 1950s, Transistors were far superior to vacuum tubes. Computers manufactured using tran- sistors were smaller, faster, cheaper, and more energy-efficient and reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Although transistors also generated enormous heat, which subjected the ‘computer to damage, they were far better than vacuum tubes. Introduction to Computers 3 Fig. 14 Transistors Input was fed to the second-generation computers using punched cards and output was generated as printouts. While the first-generation computers were programmed using machine language, the second-generation comput- cers moved towards symbolic or assembly languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. At this time, high-level programming languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN, ALGOL, and SNOBOL were also being developed. Second-generation computers were the first to store instructions in memory, which moved from magnetic drum to magnetic core technology. Second- generation computers were first developed for the atomic energy industry. Advantages * They consumed less electricity and thus generated less heat as compared to the first-generation computers. + They were faster, cheaper, smaller, and more reliable than their first-generation counterparts. * They could be programmed using assembly language and high-level languages. + These computers had faster primary memory and a larger secondary memory, Disadvantage Second-generation computers were manufactured using transistors, which had to be assembled manually. This made commercial production of computers difficult and expensive 1.3.3 Third Generation (1964-1971): Integrated Grevits The development of the integrated cireuit (IC), shown in Figure 1.5, was the hallmark of the third-generation comput- ers, Several electronic components such as transistors, resis- tors, and capacitors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called integrated chips, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Integrated chips were smaller, less expensive, more reliable and faster in operation, consumed less power.4 Fundamental of Computers Fig. LS Integrated teats snerated less heat than the components used ear ation computers were also much mere tesors. These computers had @ ind magnetic disks that of data per disk drive, 1. high-level programming languages ‘ORTRAN were standardized by the Institute (ANSI), and were ANSI COBOL, respectively and lier. The third-ze! powerful than their predect regabytes of main memory a ‘a few tens of megabytes few me could store On the software fron such as COBOL and F American National Standards known as ANSI FORTRAN and. senrdization helped these languages trun om &ny SOT puter that had their respective compiler. 1p ‘addition to this, rae more high-level programming languages such 28 PLL PASCAL and BASIC were introduced at this time. Third- generation computers were the first to implement TA sbar- ing operating systems. Input to these computers could now be provided using the keyboard and the mouse: Tn the 1960s. the trend was moving towards small mini computers that could fit in the comer of a 700m and be used for business applications. It was during this time that soft- ware houses emerged. ‘Advantages + They were faster ‘could perform one © They were smaller, cheaper, and predecessors. « These computers had faster and larger primary memory and secondary storage. «+ Third-generation computers were Wi ‘as well as business applications. ‘© During this generation of comp existing high-level languages and invention of new level languages happened. ion computers could run time sharing oper- + Third-generati ating systems, which allowed interactive use ofa computer by one or more users simultaneously, thereby improving the productivity of the uses. than second-generation computers and ‘million transactions per second. more reliable than their idely used for scientific uters, standardization of high- Disadvantages + These comput « They got heated very ters were difficult to maintain quickly. pe fourth generation of con circuits Built Ont0 a sin, von computers Of fl iters, on the contr: ration computers, rary, rai a example, the ate ong Todo all the compone rocessing unit, CPU: vemiconductor Memories rey ADDS also became cheaper, wen capcity For in floppy disks (iy igedto port data and prograns rr uring tis period, MANY new neuding MS-DOS, Micro. eprops operating syste erst PC that was specifically je introduced the Mac- mputers became MOT powerful, they which eventually led nel 1d other distributed systems sefegeneration computers also Sa the development of a ri (C sevrees, GUIs made computers mo user-friendly, so tha sees on-computer professional could work easily on it In this period, several nord processing packages (to allow casy development of documents) spreadsheet packages («0 oN lysis of data organized in Slow easy manipulation and anal ais and columns), and graphics packages (to easily draw rnd edit images) were introduced, thereby ‘making computers 4 powerful too! for everyone. intosh. As these s could be linked 108s of the Internet an to the development ‘Advantages + These computers were smaller, reliable than their predecessors. They consumed less electricity and generated ‘They had faster and larger primary memory an‘ cheaper, faster, and more Tess heat. 1d secondary storage. They could be used as general-purpose computers. GUIs enabled people to learn to work with computers very easily. Hence, the use of computers both in offices and at homes became widespread. Networks allowed sharing of resources, thereby enabling efficient utilization of computer hardware and software. Disadvantage They were not intelligent systems. 1.3.5 Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence Pith generation computers are completely based on the -pt of artificial intelligence (AI). Although suchcomputers are still in development, there are certain applica tions such as voice recognition that are widely being used today. Parallel processing and superconcluctor technology have made AI a reality, Quantum computation and nanotech- nology will radically change the face of computers in the years €0 come, In the ftth-generation computers, the aim is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and selt-organization. Al touches the following areas, among others: Gaming Computers are programmed to play games such as chess and checkers. More recent examples of such gaming systems include PlayStation by Sony, Xbox 360 by Micro- soft, and Wii by Nintendo, all of which use sensor technology to detect players’ movements, Expert systems Computers are programmed to take deci- sions in real-world situations. For example, some expert ystems help doctors in diagnosing the disease, based on patients” symptoms, Natural languages Computers are programmed to under- stand and respond to natural human languages. Neural networks Systems are programmed to simulate intelligence by reproducing the physical connections that take place in animal brains. Robotics Computers are programmed to look, listen, and react to other sensory stimuli, The current status is that no computer is able to completely simulate human behaviour. In other words, no computer exhibits complete AI. However, one of the biggest achieve- ‘ments of these computers has been in the field of gaming. For example, in 1997, a computer program defeated the world champion Gary Kasparov in a game of chess. In robotics, computers are widely used in manufacturing and assembly plants for performing certain tasks. However, the tasks that robots can perform are limited as they find it 4ifficult to identify objects based on appearance or feel, and they still move and handle objects clumsily. ‘Natural language programs enable people to interact with computers. Although programming computer systems to understand natural languages has proved to be much more difficult than originally planned for, there are some systems that can translate one human language to another, though they are not as good as human translators. Inroduetion to Computers _§ ix in the fifth generation of computing devices that Voice recognition systems that can convert spoken sounds into wntten words have come into existence, Such systems lo not understand what they are writing; they simply take dictation, Although there are certain expert systems avail- le today, they have not lived up to the expectations. They ‘and are helpful only in special are too expensive to produce situations. | Today, the hottest area of AI is neural networks. Neural network systems are widely being used in different fields such as voice recognition and natural language processing. Fifth-generation languages, commonly known as Al lan- uages, are almost exclusively used for AI applications. The two most common are LISP and Prolog, wa CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS Computers can be broadly classified into four categories based on their speed, amount of data that they can hold and price (refer to Figure 1.6). These categories are as follows: * Supercomputers + Mainframe computers * Minicomputers * Microcomputers 1.4.1 Supercomputers ‘Among the four categories, the supercomputer is the fast- est, most powerful, and most expensive computer. Super- computers were first developed in the 1980s to process large amounts of data and to solve complex scientific prob- lems. Supercomputers use parallel processing technology and can perform more than one trillion calculations in a second. ‘A single supercomputer can support thousands of users at the same time. Such computers are mainly used for weather forecasting, nuclear energy research, aircraft design, automo- tive design, online banking, controlling industrial units, ete Some examples of supercomputers are CRAY-1, CRAY-2, Control Data CYBER 205, and ETA A-10. £ (Supercomputers) (Cisne computes) (Misicompen)— (iiocompaies) fo i r 1 (Denies) (Tg eminas—-) (Daten) |tarom) | (esas ants) Fig. 1.6 Classification of computers (aed) (RewakaN bitte cen 1 SOOO aera . avess mamtiames by either using Sa ACs There ate Misieally te types af term NS ust with manvtrame systems that are dis Dumb Terminals dum’ S sonsist of only monitor anda keyboard (St own CPL and memory and and storage devices. ~ ane system's CPL Intelligent Terminals sootrast to dumb terminals, intelligent terminals have thei hus can perform some processing opera- vke the dumb terminals, they do not have Usually, PCs can be used as intel- data access and other services re typically used as servers on ¢) are also used in large organiza- rline companies, and universities, © number of users frequently access data stored Si" databases 113M \s the major manufacturer of main- computers Some examples of mainframe comput- BM S 390, Control Data CYBER 176, Amdahl 1.4.3 Minicomputers As the name suggests. minicomputers are smaller, cheaper, jower than mainframes, They are called minicomputers « the smallest computer of their times. Also computers. the capabilities of minicom- -n mainframe and PCs, Minicomputers are widely used in business, education, hospitals. government organizations, etc. While some mini- > can be used only by a single user, others are spe- ned 10 handle multiple users simultaneously. zle-user minicomputers are used for performing complex design tasks, As with mainframes, minicomputers can also be used as servers in a networked environment, and hundreds of PCs can be connected to it. The first minicomputer was introduced by Digital Equip- ment Corporation (DEC) in the mid 1960s. Other manu- facturers of minicomputers include IBM. Corporation (AS/400 computers), Data General Corporation, and Prime Computer. ause they we known as muidrai puters fall betwe cifically di Usually, si 1.4.4 Microcomputers tn FONT and was IWM-PC. Later on, many computer ompanicn copied this design and termed their eee " which refers to any PC fs as PC compatible that ts haved an the orginal HSM PC design nates type of papular PC 9s designed by Apple. Pc. designed by 1M and PC-compatible computer, fine a different architecture from that of Apple computers Pes and PC-compauible computers common) Moreover system, while Apple compur use the Windows. opera .c the Macintosh operating system (MacOS). Howe THM and IBM-compatible PCs are more popular than Apple counterparts. PCs can be classified into the folic categories Desktop PCs A desktop PC is the most popular model of PCs. The sy sie unit of the desktop PC can be placed flat on a desk or table | is widely used in homes and offices. Laptops Laptops (Figure 1.7) are small microcomputers that can eas. ily fit inside a briefcase. They are very handy and can eas be carried from one place to another. They may also be placed on the user's lap (thus the name). Hence. laptops are very use ful, especially when going on long journeys. Laptops opera! on a special battery and do not always have to be plugged like desktop computers. Fig. 1.7 Laptop The memory and storage capacity of a laptop is almost equiv- alent to that of a desktop computer. As with desktop com- puters, laptops also have HDDs, floppy disk drives, zip disk rives, ete. For input, laptops have a built-in keyboard and a trackball/touchpad, which is used as a pointing device (as a mouse is used for a desktop PC).Today, laptops have the same features and tures and processing speed as the most powerful PCs. However, a drawback is that laptops are generally more expensive than desktop com puters. These computers are very popular among business travellers. Workstations Workstations are single-user computers that have the same features as PCs, but their processing speed matches that of a minicomputer or mainframe computer. Workstation com- puters have advanced processors, more RAM and storage capacity than PCs. Therefore, they are more expensive and powerful than a normal desktop computer, Although workstation computers are widely used as pow erful single-user computers by scientists, engineers, archi tects, and graphic designers, they can also be used as servers in a networked environment. Network Computers Network computers have less processing power, memory, and storage than a desktop computer. These are specially designed to be used as terminals in a networked environ- ment. For example, some network computers are specifically designed to access data stored on a network (including the Internet and intranet). . Some network computers do not have any storage space and merely rely on the network's server for data storage and processing tasks. The concept of network computers had become popular in the mid 1990s when several variations of computers such as Windows terminals, NetPCs, and diskless workstations were widely used. Network computers that are specifically designed to access only the Internet or intranet are often known as Internet PCs or Internet boxes. Some network computers used in homes do not even have a monitor. Such computers may be con- nected to a television, which serves as the output device. The most common example of a home-based network computer is Web TY, which enables the user to connect a television to the Internet. The Web TV is equipped with a special set-top box that is used to connect to the Internet. The set-top box also provides controls to enable the user to navigate the Internet, send and receive e-mails, and to perform other tasks on the network while watching television. The other reason for the popularity of network computers is that they are cheaper to purchase and maintain than PCs. Handheld Computers The mid 1990s witnessed a range of small personal comput- ing devices that are commonly known as handheld comput- ers, Palmtop computers, or Mini-Notebook computers. These computers are called handheld computers because they can fit in one hand, while users can use the other hand to operate them. Handheld computers are very small in size, and hence Introduction 1o Computers 7 they have small-sized screens and keyboards. These comput- cers are preferred by business travellers and mobile employees such as meter readers and parcel delivery people, whose jobs require them to move from place to place. Some examples of handheld computers are * Personal digital assistant (PDA) * Cellular telephones * HIPC Pro devices Personal digital assistants (PDA) Today, the PDA (shown in Figure 1.8) is among the most popular lightweight mobile devices that are used. A number of PDAS available in the market offer a collection of application software for word processing, spreadsheets, games, etc. PDAS are used to take notes, organize telephone numbers, and store addresses. Some devices also include features that facilitate the users to read e-books on the PDA's screen, Fig. 18 Personal digital assistant Many PDAs are web-enabled, which means that such devices enable the users to access the Internet and send/receive e-mails. Similarly, some PDAs also provide telephone capabilities. The primary input device of a PDA is the stylus. A stylus enables the user to interact with the touchscreen to write text or draw figures. It can be used to write notes. Some PDAS also support voice input. Cellular phones These days, cellular phones are web- enabled telephones that have features of both analogue and digital devices. Such phones are also known as smart phones because, in addition to basic phone capabilities, they also facilitate the users to access the Internet and send e-mails and faxes. HIPC Pro devices The H/PC Pro device (see Figure 1.9) is based on a new development in handheld technology. The size and features of the H/PC Pro device is more than PDAs but less than that of typical notebook PCs. The H/PC Pro device includes a full-sized keyboard, RAM with very low8_ Fundamentals of Computers Fig. L9 HIPC Pro device and a slow-speed processor. However, these devices do not have a secondary storage disk. HEGRE basic computer orcanization A computer is an electronic device that basically performs five major operations: * Accepting data or instructions (input) * Storing data * Processing data * Displaying results (output) * Controlling and coordinating all operations inside a ‘computer In this section, we will discuss all these functions and see how one unit of a computer interacts with another to perform these operations. Refer to Figure 1.10, which shows the inter- action between the different units of a computer system. Data and instructions igi Storage if | CPU | L == Output (Arithmetic and Input This is the process of entering data and instructions (also known as programs) in to the computer system. The data and instructions can be entered by using different input devices such as keyboard, mouse, scanner, and trackball Note that computers understand binary language, which con- sists of only two symbols (0 and 1), so itis the responsibil- ity of the input devices to convert the input data into binary codes. —> Flow of data and Storage It is the process of saving data and instructions permanently in the computer so that they can be used for processing. The computer storage space not only stores the data and programs that operate on that data but also stores the intermediate results and the final results of processing ‘A computer has two types of storage areas: : Primary storage (This, also known as the main memory ig the storage area that is directly accessible by the CPU at very high speeds. It is used to store the data and parts of programs, the intermediate results of processing, and the recently gener- ated ef of jobs that are currently being worked on by the computer{ Primary storage space is very expensive and there. fore limited in capacity} Another drawback of main memory is that it is volatile in nature; that is, as soon as the computer is switched off, the information stored gets erased. Hence, it can. not be used asa permanent storage of useful data and programs for future use, An example of primary storage is the RAM Secondary ores Also known as the secondary memory or auxiliary memory, this is just the opposite of primary mem- cy) It basically overcomes all the drawbacks of the primary a area, It is cheaper, non-volatile, and used to perma- nently store data and programs of those jobs that are not being currently executed by the CPU. Secondary memory supple- ments the limited storage capacity of the primary memory ‘An example is the magnetic disk used to store data such as C and D drives, for future use, Processing The process of performing operations on the data as per the instructions specified by the user (program) iscalled processing. Data and instructions are taken from the primary memory and transferred to the arithmetic and logi- cal unit (ALU), which performs all sorts of calculations. The intermediate results of processing may be stored in the main memory, as they might be required again. When the process- ing completes, the final result is then trans- fered to the main memory. Hence, the data may move from main memory to the ALU ‘multiple times before the processing is over. Output Output is the process of giving the result of data processing to the outside world (external to the computer system). The results are given through output devices such Results instructions as monitor and printer. Since the computer aGeee ne accepts data only in the binary form and the resilt of processing is also in the binary form, the result cannot be directly given to the user. The output devices, therefore, con- vert the results available in binary codes into a tuman-readable language before displaying it to the user. Control The control unit (CU) is the central nervous system of the entire computer system. It manages and controls all the components of the computer system, The CU decides the manner in which instructions will be executed and operations performed. It takes care of the step-by-step processing of all ‘operations that are performed in the computer.that the CPU is 4 CU, The CPU as bett mbination of the ALL Known ay the bra af the eu he entire system be ALU, and the CU activates andl monitors the 0 other umits (such as input output ‘sine af data ts dane an erations af and storage) a the com puter system ever ALU, CU, and CPU are the key functional units of a computer system, IEEE appuicarions oF computers When the fist computers w cloped, they were used only is of mathematics and science. In fact, the first effective uttlization of computers was for decoding messes sultry applications. Later on, computers were used in ‘me control systems, such as for landing on the moon. However. with the advancement of technology. the cost of computers and theit maintenance declined. This opened the way for computers to be evtensively used in the business and tal sector for information processing. Today, com= puters are widely used in fields such as engineering, health banking. education. and so on, Let us discuss how com- rs are being effectively utilized to perform important Word processing Word processing software enables users to read and write documents. Users can also add images, tables, and graphs for illustrating a concept. The software automatically corrects spelling mistakes and includes copy- paste features (which is very useful where the same text has to be repeated several times) Jaret The Internet is a network of networks that connects computers all over the world. It gives the user access to an enormous amount of information, much more than avail- able in any library. Using e-mail, the user can communicate in seconds with a person who is located thousands of miles away, Chat software enables users to chat with another per- son in real-time (irrespective of the physical location of that person). Video-conferencing tools are becoming popular for conducting meetings with people who are unable to be pre~ sent ata particular place. tal video or audio composition Computers make fadio or video composition and editing very simple, This has drastically reduced the cost of equipment to compose music or make a film. Graphics engineers use comput- ers for developing short or full-length films and creating 3D/models and special effects in science fiction and action loves Desktop publishing Desktop publishing software enables ‘you to create page layouts for entire books. After discussing how computers are used in today's sce- nario, let us now have a look at the different areas where com- puters are being widely utilized. Induction ts Computers 9 Government {onnputers ane used in government ony Internal Hevenm srationsto keep rec Servive records, ete ‘on Teprstative action Traffic Control In the United States, computer for eity planning and traffic control Lor example, to elim fe the problem of ridlack (when tralfic 15 at total standstill tm an arca for 1 minutes), a new system has been designed that mcludes mduction loops of ware embedded in the asphalt move iver the ane wed by the government {at many mtersections across the city. As Cars wires, electrical pulses are counted by a central computer, ‘which tanslates the pulses into the number of ears 1 then converts the number to the rate of flow, and instructs the traf fic light when 10 change, All this information 1s also used ict potential gridlock locations and to send additiona fols to problem areas, to pre tae p Legal System Computers are used by lawyers to shorten the time required 10 cconduet legal precedent and case research. Lawyers use com- puters to look through millions of individual cases and find ‘whether similar or parallel cases have been approved, denied. criticized, or overruled in the past. This enables the lawyers to formulate strategies based on past case decisions. Moreover. computers are also used to keep track of appointments and prepare legal documents and briefs in time for filing cases. Retail Business Computers are used in retail shops to enter orders. calculate costs, and print receipts. They are also used to keep an inven- tory of the products available and their complete description. ror ports, computers are used to compile statistics, iden- tify weak players and strong players by analysing statistics. sel tickets, create training programmes and diets for athletes and suggest game plan strategies based on the competitor's past performance, Computers are also used to generate most of the graphic art displays flashed on scoreboards. Television networks use computers in the control room to display action replays and insert commercial breaks as per schedule. Moreover, companies manufacturing sports shoes such as Nike use computers for designing footwear. They caleulate stress points and then create the style and shape that offer maximum support for the foot. In addition, there are simulation software packages avail- able that help a sportsperson to practice his or her skills as well as identify flaws in the technique. Wy ‘computers today have musical insirument digital inter face (MIDI) facility, which links musical instruments to a PC, thereby enabling the computer to generate a variety of sounds.10 Fundamentas ot Compass Moreover, the backgrounl magic im movies, FY shows, a Commercials ane all generate electionteally using computers Movies ate sets, spovial elle to ere Computers are us ‘Satoons, imaginary characters, videos, and commercials. Travel and Tourism Computers are used to prepare tickets, monitor the routes ‘of tains and aeroplanes, and guide planes toa safe landing They are also used to research about hotels in an area, reserve rooms, oF to rent aca Business ond Industry {In business and industry, computers are used mainly for data Processing, which includes tasks such as word processing, analysing data, entering records, payroll processing, person- nel record keeping, and inventory management Hospitals Hospitals use computers to record every information about Patients, from the time of their admission tll their exit. For example, the date, time, reason for being admitted, the doce tor being consulted all prescribed medications, doctor visits, other hospital services, bills, ec., are all stored in comput. ers. Moreover, computer-controlled devices are widely used to monitor pulse rate, blood pressure, and other vital signs of the patient, and in an emergency situation an alarm is used to notify nurses and other attendants, Moreover, computers are used as an aid to differently abled people. For example, computers are used to develop more effective artificial limbs for amputees Dentists also use computers to diagnose jaw misalign- ments by placing a magnetic square containing three sensors between the front teeth and lip. The sensors are attached to computer; they follow the magnet's movement by tracing the line on the sereen as the patient's mouth opens. If the jaw moves improperly, the line will bend; else ifthe line is straight, the patient just needs to keep flossing. Simulation Supercomputers that can process enormous amount of data are widely used in simulation tests, Simulation of automobile ‘crashes or aeroplane emergency landings is done to identify potential weaknesses in designs without risking human lives Supercomputers also enable engineers to design aircraft models and simulate the effects that winds and other environ- smental forces will ave on those designs. Even the astronauts atNASA ate trained using computer-simulated problems that could be encountered during the launch, in space, or upon re-entry in to the earth’s atmosphere. Geology Civil engineers use computers to evaluate the effects of an earthquake on the structure of buildings based on age, prosinty tthe Ful soi ype size, shape, and eonsirtion material Astronomy Spacecrafs ate sully monitored using computers that yy only kp a continuous record ofthe voyage an ofthe spe. direction, fue and temperature, but also suggest coring ation if the vehicle makes a mistake. The remote satiny og the earth compare all these quamities withthe desired vale, and in case these values noe tobe modified to enhance th pop formance of the spacecraft, signals are immediately sent that set in motion the mechani to rectify the situation. With the help of computers al this is done within a fraction ofa secong Weather Forecasting ‘When computers ae fed with mathematical equations slong with data about air pressure, temperature, humidity, and other values, the solution of these equations gives an accurate pre- diction of the weather of a particular area. For example, a Cray X-MP supercomputer installed at Mausam Bhavan in Now Delhi is used to predict weather and climatic changes in the Indian subcontinent Education A computer is a powerful teaching aid and acts as another teacher in the classroom. Teachers use computers to develop instructional material. Teachers may use pictures, graphs, and ‘graphical presentations to easily illustrate an otherwise dif. ficult concept. Moreover, teachers at al levels can use com Puters to administer assignments and keep track of grades. Besides teachers, most students also prefer to learn from an ¢-learning software rather than from a book. Students can also give online exams and get instant results, Online Banking ‘The world today is moving towards a cashless society, where you need not have money in your pocket to purchase any- thing. You can just have your credit card or debit card with you. The ATMs provide a 24 x 7 service and allow you to draw cash, check the balance in your account, and order a product. Industry and Engineering (Computers are found in all kinds of industries, such as ther= ‘mal power plants, oil refineries, and chemical industries, for Process control, computer aided designing (CAD), and com- puter aided manufacturing (CAM) Computerized process control (with or without human intervention) is used to enhance efficiency in applications such as production of various chemical products, oil refining, paper manufacture, and rolling and cutting steel to customer requirements, In CAD, computers and graphics-oriented software are integrated for automating the design and drafting process It helps an engineer to design a 3D machine par, analyse itscharacteristics. and then sulyjcet tto sim {part fails the stress te Its spe view the trends ications can be the Introduction to Computers ket, and predict the future of also use decision support systems the products, Manager on rae retested The tinal design specifica ter analyse market research data, to size up the competi- rereleased for production ons when the engineer is satisfed! ion, and plan effective sratepies For penetrating ter that the part meets strength and other quality considerations. markets The CAM phase begins when the CAD phase wecomplete In this phase. the metal or other materials are manufactured while complying with their sp. Expert Systems Controlled: manufacturing, tools are used Expert systems are used to automate the decision-making tools are used to produce high EXPert tystems are used to quality products, ! hr rovess ina specific area, such as analysing the credit histo- ts for loan approval and diagnosing a patients condition for ebets Ties for loan approval and diagnosing a pat Robots are compute : -controlled machines mainly used in the ‘manufacturing process in extreme conditions where humans cannot Work, for esample, in high-temperature, high-pressure conditions or in processes that demand very high levels of accuracy. The main distinguishing feature between a robot and other automated machines is that a robot can be pro- ‘grammed to carry out a complex task and then reprogrammed to carry out other complex tasks. Decision Support Systems Computers help managers to analyse their organization's data to understand the present scenario of their business, + A computer Is an electronic machine that takes instructions and performs computations based on those instructions. + Today, computers are used in all interactive devices, ‘such as cellular telephones, GPS units, portable organizers, ATMs, and gas pumps, among others. + A computer accepts data, processes it, and produces information. Here, data is some raw facts ‘or figures, and information is the processed data. + The speed of the computer jis usually given in nanoseconds and picoseconds. + The term computer generation refers to the different advancements of new computer technology. With each new generation of computers, the circuitry became smaller and more advanced than that in its previous generation. Computer An electronic machine that takes instruc- tions and performs computations based on those instructions. GUI A type of user interface that enables users to interact with programs in more ways than typing. A GUI offers graphical icons and visual indicators to GLOSSARY prescribing an appropriate treatment, Expert systems 2 the available data in depth to recommend a course of action ‘A medical expert system might provide the most likely dia nosis of a patient's condition "To create an expert system, an extensive amount of human expertise in a specific base, also known as knowledge base. A software called an interface engine analyses the data available in the knowledge base and selects the most appropriate response. "Adding more toi, in today’s scenario. computers are used to find jobs on the Internet, find a suitable match for a boy or gir, read news and articles online. find your batch mates, send and receive greetings pertaining to different occasions. etc 1a is collected and stored in a data~ + Firstgeneration computers used a very large umber of vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. Second-generation computers were manufactured using transistors rather than vacuum tubes. + The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third-generation computers. The microprocessor started the fourth generation of computers, with thousands of integrated circuits built onto a single silicon chip. The fifth-generation computers are completely based on the new concept of Al + The CU is the central nervous system of the entire computer system. It manages and controls all the ‘components of the computer system. + The CPU is a combination of the ALU and the CU. The CPU is better known as the brain of the computer system. display the information and actions available to a user. ‘The actions are performed by direct manipulation of the graphical elements. Program A set of instructions executed by the computer.2 Input and Output Devices Learning Objectives In order to aocomplish tasks, a 00! we need input and output devices. of input/output devices, and each device chapter, we [EAN nur vevices wice is used to feed data and instructions the absence of an input device, @ display device. In this the widely used input An input de\ into the computer. In computer would have only been & section, we will read about some of -—— TT] [ ymputer must be able which are also know has capabilites that fe will read about some peripheral devices (pes =) toate! with it users. For this Purpose mos peripheral devices. There are different Yypes iferentat i from the others. In fls that are widely used these days. devices, Figure 2.1 categorizes input devices into different groups 2.1.1 Keyboard computers ‘The keyboard is the main input device for look very similar to the keyboards of Computer keyboards (Opt devices ) (avin aes) Pe (Poin aevies =) (iain) (— Keyboard} J — Ln | pate eases Jo meet | Touchscreen —+ Scanners Ls Trackpad Lo foystick [+ocr |_omr Le mice Fig. 2.1 Categories of input devices eee EEEEnter key Sista aaaaal —_~__ cut Z keys Arrow Numeric Typewriter keyboard Keys eys Sou itl av Fees Pos. ig.2.2 Keyboard typewriters, with some additional keys, as shown in Figure 2.2 Using a keyboard, the user can type a document, use key: stroke shortcuts, access menus, play games, and perform rumerous other tasks. Most keyboards have between 80 and 110 keys, which include the following: Typing keys These include the letters of the alphabet, The layout of a keyboard is known as QWERTY for its first six letters. The QWERTY pattern las Been a standard right from the time computer keyboards were introduced. Numeric keys These include a set of 17 keys, arranged in the same configuration found on calculators to speed up data entry of numbers. When the Num Lock key is set to on, the user can type numbers, dot, or input the sym- bols /, *,-, and +. Wher the Num Lock key is set to off, the numeric keys can be used to move the cursor on the screen. : Function keys These are used by applications and operating “systems to input specific commands. They are often placed on the top of the keyboard in a single row. Function keys can be programmed so that their functionality varies from one program to another. Control keys These are used to handle control of the cursor and the screen, Four arrow keys are arranged in an inverted Tatype fashion between the typing and the numeric keys, and are used to move the cursor on the screen in small increments. In addition to the arrow keys, there are other cursor keys (or navigational keys), such as: \e’ Home and End to move the cursor to the beginning and end of the current line, respectively + Page Up and Page Down to move to the previous and the next pages, respectively “+ Insert to enter a character between two existing characters * Delete to delete a character at the cursor position Other common control keys on the keyboard include Con- trol (Ctrl), Alternate (Alt), Escape (Esc), Print Screen, Pause, the Windows\or Start key (Microsoft Windows logo), and a shortcut key. The shortcut key has a mouse pointer printed Inputand Ouput Devices 1S options available by press- ing the right mouse button{The Esc key cancels the selected Pe option, and the Paube key Stspenids a command/process in ‘progress. Finally, the Print Séieen key captures everything on te séréen as an image. The image can be pasted into any document. ~ yy Keys such as Shift, Ctrl, and Alt are called modifier keys because they‘are used tS modify the normal function of a key. For exariiple; ‘Falphabet (lowercase), makes the computer displey ‘the alphabet in uppercase Inside the Keyboard oon it and is used to ac A keyboard is like a miniature computer that has its own processor-and cireuitiy to carry information to and from that processor. The hhas a key matrix (Figure 2.3), which 5 grid of circuits underneath ‘the keys. Each circuit is broken at a point below each Key. When a key is pressed, it corresponds to pressing a switch, thereby completing the circuit, Fig. 2.3 Key matrix When the processor finds a closed circuit, it compares the location ofthat circuit on the key matrixto the character map in its read only memory (ROM). A character map is a lookup table that tells the processor what each keystroke or combina- tion of keystrokes represents. For example, the character map tells the processor that pressing the key ‘c’ corresponds to a small leter‘c’ but the keys ‘Shift’ and ‘s" pressed together is ac. — Note that a computer can also use separate character maps, overriding the one found in the keyboard, This is usually done ‘when the user is typing in a language that uses letters that do not have English equivalents on a keyboard with English letters. ntage ‘The keyboard is easy to use and cheap. Disadvantages * The keyboard cannot be used to draw figures * The process of moving the cursor to anather postion is very slow. Mouse and other pointing devices are more apt for this purpose.16 Fundamentals of Computers 2.1.2 Pointing Devices A pointing input device enables the users to easily control the ‘movement of the pointer to select items on a display sereen, to select commands from commands menu, to draw graphs, etc, Some examples of pointing devices include mouse, trackball, light pen, joystich-and touchpad. Mouse The mouse is an input device that was invented by Doug- las Engelbart in 1963. It is the key input device user “BraphicaT_user interface (GUN). It can be used to handle the pointer easily on the screen to perform various func: tions such as opening a program or file. With the mouse, the users no longer need to memorize commands, which was earlier a necessity when working with text-based command line environments such as MS-DOS. A mouse is shown in Figure 2.4, Seroller Right button \ Left button Fig.24 Mouse The mouse has two buttons and a scroll wheel. It can be held in the hand and easily moved, without lifting, along a hard flat surface to move the cursor to the desired loca- tion—up, down, left, or right. Once the mouse is placed at the appropriate position, the user may perform the following operations: Point Placing the mouse pointer over the word or the object ‘on the screen by moving the mouse on the desk is termed as. pointing, ° Click Pressing either the left or the right button of the mouse is known as clicking. Clicking a mouse button initiates some action; for example, when you click the right button by point- ing the mouse on a word, a menu pops up on the screen. When you move the mouse pointer over the icon of an application, say Internet Explorer, and double-click on it, then it opens that application for you. Drag Dragging means pointing to a desired location while pressing the left button. Scroll The scroll wheel, which is placed in between the left and right buttons of the moiise, is used to vertically scroll through long documents. Today, the mouse has become so important that every user buys a mouse when he or she buys a computer, The mouse is specially used to create graphics such as lines, curves, and frechand shapes on the screen It is connected toa serial universal serial bus (USB) port on the system unit, Some gp the popular types of mouse are: teal This type of mouse has a rubber or me al lat its bottom and an electronic circuit containing sensor, ‘When the mouse is moved over a flat surface, the sensory detect the direction of movement of the ball. The electronig circuit translates the movement into signals and feeds it as input to the computer. Optigat'mouse The optical mouse is more advanced than the sncChanical mouse. It contains a ball inside. The movement of the mouse is detected using laser technology, by using optica] sors, Series ‘mouse A cordless or wireless mouse is not con- Geted to the computer. The movement of the mouse ig detected using radio waves or infrared light waves. ——__ Advantages * The mouse is easy to use and can be used to quickly place the cursor anywhere on the screen. * Italso helps to quickly and easily draw figures. * It is cheap. + Its point-and-click capabilities make it unnecessary to remember and type in commands Disadvantages ‘+ The mouse needs extra desk space to be placed and moved easily * The ball in the mechanical mouse must be cleaned to remove dust from it, Trackball A trackball is a pointing device that is used to control the Position of the cursor on the screen. Its usually used in note- book computers, where itis placed onthe keyboard, as shown in Figure 2.5. Trackball Fig.2.5 Trackball on keyboard ‘The trackball is an upside-down mouse where the ball rotates in place within a socket. The user rolls the ball to position the cursor at an appropriate position on the screen and then clicks one of the buttons (identical to mouse buttons) near the trackball, either to select objects or to position the cursor for text entry. This is shown in Figure 2.6.To move the poner, the ball 1s Yotated wth the thumb, fines, ot the pain or the hand The aah lage of Y-TACKN AT ov 's that the forme al 90 does tot te mouse Wy stationary e nnuch spive 10 use. Moreover, individ val tivektatls can be placed on Y (ype of surface, including the lap. These advantages make tracktalls very popular putting devices for portable computers and mobile phot Note that the working of a trackball is identical to mouse Advantages ckball provides better resolution, 6 Trackball use We a mouse user je 10 USE AS Compared 10 a Mouse as its use involves less hand and arm movements. Disadvantage ackball chamber is often covered with dust, so it must -aned regularly. A touchpad (or trackpad). as shown in Figure 2.7, is a small, flat, rectangular stationary pointing device with'a sensitive surface of 1.52 square inches. The user has to slide his or her fingertips across thé surface of the pad to point to a spe- cific object on the screen. The surface translates the motion and position of the user's fingers to a relative position on the screen. There are also buttons around the edge of the pad that work like mouse buttons. Touchpads are widely used in lap- tops, and are in built on the laptop keyboards. They can also be attached to a PC or be used with personal digital assistants (PDAs) and iPods ‘Touchpad Fig.2.7- Touchpad The working of a touchpad is similar to that of a mouse or a trackball. The pressure of the finger on the surface leads to 4 capacitance effect, which is detected by the sensors. The sensors send appropriate signals to the CPU, which interprets them and displays the pointer on the screen, Advantages * Touchpads occupy less space. * They are easier to use as compared to a mouse as its use involves less hand and arm movements. Input and Ourput Devices 17 +A touchpad 1s in built in the keyboard, and hence negates the need to carry an extra device 2.1.3 Handheld Devices Whandheld device 19 a pocket-sized computing device wath a diyplay Sereen and touch input and/or a miniature keyboard ndheld devices include smart Some common examples of phones, PDAs, handheld game consoles, and portable media players (such as iPod). In this section, we will read about the yhus (pen) and touchscreens, which are the means to input cata to handheld devices. Jhoystick A joystick (refer Figure 2.8) is a cur sor control device widely used in com- puter games and computer aided design (CAD)computer aided manufacturing (CAM) applications. It consists of a handheld lever that piyots on one end and transmits its coordinates to a computer. ‘A joystick has one or more push buttons, called switches, whose position can also be read by tie computer. The lever of a joystick moves in all directions to control the movement of the pointer on the computer screen. A joy stick is similar to a mouse, but with the mouse, the cursor stops moving as soon as you stop moving the mouse. How- ever, in case of a joystick, the pointer continues moving in the direction to which the joystick is pointing. To stop the pointer, the user must return the joystick to its upright position. Stylus A stylus is a pen-shaped input device used to enter informa- tion or write on the touchscreen of Handheld device. It is a small stick that can also be used to draw lines on a surface as input into a device, choose an option from a menu, move the ‘cursor to another location on the screen, take notes, and ere- ate short messages. The stylus usually slides into a slot built into the device for that purpose. om Fig.2.8 Joystick Touchscreen A touchscreen (shown in Figure 2.9) is a display screen that can identify the occurrence and position of a touch inside the display region. The user can touch the screen either by using a finger or a stylus. The touchscreen facilitates the users to interact with what is displayed on the screen in a straight- forward manner, rather than in an indirect way by using a mouse or a touchpad. Touchscreens make using another input device redundant, since the user can interact with the sereen by directly touching it. Such touchscreen displaysW Pandamen FS available on computers. laptops, PDAs, and mobile Touchscreen monitors are an easy way of entering infor- ation into the computer (or mobile phone, etc). Touchscreen jomitors have become more and more commonplace as their * has steadily dropped over the past decade. These days, ‘ouchsereen monitors are widely used in different applica~ uuons including point-of-sale (POS) cash registers, PDAS, automated chines (ATMs), car navigation screens, mobile phones, gaming consoles, and any other type of appli- ce that requires the user to input and receive information 2.1.4 Optical Devices Optical devices, also known as data-scanning devices, use hight as a source of input for detecting or recognizing dif- ferent objects such as characters, marks, codes, and images. The optical device converts these objects into digital data and sends it to the computer for further processing. Some opti- cal devices that are discussed in this section include barcode readers, image scanners, optical character recognition (OCR) devices, optical mark readers (OMR), and magnetic ink char- acter recognition (MICR) devices Barcode Reader A barcode reader (also price scanner or POS scanner) as shown in Figure 2.10, isa handheld input device that is used to capture and read information stored in a bar code. It con- sists of a scanner, a decoder, and a cable used to connect the reader to a computer. The function of the barcode reader is to capture and translate the bar code into numerals and/or alphabets. It is connected to a computer for further process- ing of the captured information. This connection is achieved through a serial port, Keyboard port, or an interface device called a wedge. ig. 2.10 Barcode reader ‘A barcode reader works by directing a beam of light scr the bar code and measuring the amount of light rece, back. The dark bars reflect less light when compared to amount of light reflected by the white spaces betwe bars, The scanner converts this light energy into elec energy. The decoder then converts these signals into data sv: sends it to the computer for processing. ‘These days, barcode readers are widely used in the follow ing areas: * Supermarkets and retail stores as POS devices * To take inventory in retail stores * To check out books from a library * To track manufacturing and shipping movement *+ To keep track of employee login + To identify hospital patients * To tabulate the results of direct mail marketing returns * To tag honeybees used in research Advantages * Barcode readers are cheap. + They are portable * They are handy and easy to use, Disadvantages * Barcode readers must be handled with care. Ifthey develop a seratch, the user may not be abie to read the code. * ‘They can interpret information using a limited series of thin and wide bars, To interpret other unique identifiers. the bar display area must be widened. Image Scanner A scanner is a device that captures images, printed text, and handwriting, from different sources such as-photo- graphic prints, posters, and magazines-amd converts them