Mount Barclay Christian Academy

Peter’s Town, Nimba United Community

Montserrado County, Republic of Liberia

Grade 12
1st Period Physics Notes [2021/2022]

‘’The study of Physics is also an adventure. You will find it challenging, sometimes frustrating,
occasionally painful, and often richly rewarding.” - Hugh D. Young

Prepared By: Alphonso Tulay

Cell #: 0770143316/0880717013
Email: alphonsotulay23@gmail.com

Table Of Contents
1. Reflection ………………………….………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………. 1

2. Refraction …………………………………….……………………………………………..………………………………………………………………… 4

3. Refractive Index and Snell’s Law …………………………………………………………………………………………………………....… 4

4. Critical Angle and the Total Internal Reflection ………………………………………………………………………..………. 7

5. Mirror ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 9

6. Lenses ……………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………….……………………………. 13

7. Dispersion ………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………… 20
Reflection
Types of Reflection

Reflection
Reflection is defined as the turning back or change in
direction of rays of light when they are allowed to fall or
shine on a surface such as plane mirrors, human bodies,
pages of books, walls and chalk boards.
1. Regular or Specular Reflection
This type of reflection occurs on a smooth or plane
surface such as a plane mirror.
2. Irregular or Diffuse Reflection
This type of reflection occurs on rough surfaces
such as human bodies, pages of books, walls and
chalk boards.

Basic terms of Reflection

1. Incident ray is the ray of light that falls on a

mirror.
2. Reflected ray is the ray of light thrown off from
the mirror surface when the incident ray falls on
it.
3. Normal is a line perpendicular to the mirror
surface.
4. Incident angle is the angle between the incident
ray and the normal.
5. Reflected angle is the angle between the reflected
ray and the normal.
6. Glancing angle is the angle between either the
reflected ray or the incident ray and the mirror
surface.

Laws of Reflection on a Plane Mirror

1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal

at the point of incidence all lie on the same plane

1
 2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection. θI = θR

Sample Problems:

1. A light strikes a smooth surface making an

incident angle of 60 degrees.
i. What is the angle of reflection?
ii. What is the angle of glance?
iii. What is the angle of deviation?
[Note: Angle of deviation = 2 x Angle of Glance]

Characteristics of Images Formed by Plane Mirrors

1. The images are the same size as the object.

Differences Between Real and Virtual Images
2. The image is the same distance as the object in
front of it.
Real Image Virtual Image
3. The image is laterally inverted.
It is always inverted It is always erect or upright
4. The image is virtual. It is formed on a photo It cannot be formed on a
5. The image is erect. graphic screen photographic screen
Formation is by the Formation is by the
intersection of real or true intersection of apparent rays
rays

Applications of Reflection

1. Periscope
It is a device used in viewing an object behind or in
front of an obstacle such as a wall. It consists of
two parallel plane mirrors at 450 at the opposite
ends of a long tube with two openings.

Real and Virtual Image

Real image is the image of an object which can be cast on a

screen. Virtual image is one which cannot be cast on a
screen.

2. Kaleidoscope
Also known as inclined mirrors, is a device used in
producing multiple images. It consists of two plane
mirrors inclined at an angle to each other. The
angle determines the amount of images formed by
the inclined mirrors. The number of images formed
can be mathematically represented as:

2
 Number of images =
3600 - 1
Inclined Angle
Nm =
3600 - 1
θ

Sample Problems:

1. If the inclined angle of two inclined mirrors is 60

degrees, what is the number of images formed?
2. Compute the number of images for the following
inclined angles: a). 450 b). 1800 c). 900
0 0
d). 10 e). 2
3. Compute the incident angle for the following
number of images formed by two inclined mirrors:
a). Nm = 8 b). Nm = 11 c). Nm = 5
d). Nm = 9 e). Nm = 59

Note: For parallel mirrors, infinite number of images are

formed at infinity.

3

Refraction
Refraction at Plane Surfaces
Refraction is due to changes in speed, direction and wave
length of light when it travels from one medium to another.
When a light ray travels through a different media, there
is always a change in speed, direction and wave length but
frequency remain unchanged.
Basic Terms of Refraction
1. Angle of incidence (θ I) is the angle between the
incidence ray and the normal at the point of
incidence.
2. Angle of refraction (θ R) is the angle between the
refracted ray and the normal.
Effects of Refraction of Light
1. A straight stick placed in water appears to be
bent when viewed through the surface.
2. An object, for example, a coin, fish, stone etc at
the bottom of water appears to be raised to the
surface when viewed.
Laws of Refraction
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal
at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of the sin of the incident angle (sinθ I )
to the sin of the refracted angle (sinθ R ) is
practically constant between any two media. This
is referred to as the Snell’s law.
Refractive Index and Snell’s Law
Snell’s Law
Snell’s law states that the ratio of the sin of the incident
angle (sinθI ) to the sin of the refracted angle (sinθ R ) is
practically constant between any two media.
sinθ I
n= or nI SinƟI = nRSinƟR
sinθ R
Where ‘n’ is the normal, SinƟI is the angle of incident and
SinƟR is the angle of reflection.
Refractive Index
Refractive index gives a measure of refraction that takes
place between any two surfaces. It is denoted by n and has
no unit. It can be expressed in many forms:
velocity of light ∈a vacuum
1. n=
velocity of light ∈a medium
4
 2. In removing chromatic aberration by using a
sinθ I double of two lenses made up of materials of
2. n= where n = refractive index, θI =
different refractive indices.
sinθ R
3. In analyzing mixtures, a method of using
incident angle and θ R = refracted angle
refractive index may be employed.

Real depth
3. n= Sample Problems:
Apparent depth
1. Light is incident upon a piece of crown glass at an
angle of 45.0o. What is the angle of refraction?
2. A ray of light passes from air into water at an
angle of 30.0o. Find the angle of refraction.
3. The speed of light in a plastic is 2.00 X 108 m/s.
What is the index of refraction of the plastic?
4. In an experiment using a glass block, the angle of
incidence was measured at 300 and the angle of
refraction was 190. Compute the refractive index
of the glass block.
5. A coin is placed at the bottom of a 40 cm deep
pound. The refractive index for water, nw, is 1.3.
How does the coin appear to be?
6. A metal rod appears to be 7 cm in a colorless
liquid. The depth of the liquid is 10.43 cm. compute
the refractive index of the liquid.
7. An object is placed directly below a glass block of
thickness 3 cm. calculate the lateral displacement
of the glass block if the refractive index, ng, for
glass is 1.5.
1
4. d = t(1 - ) where d = lateral displacement, t = 8. Light is incident upon a piece of quartz at an angle
n
of 45.0o. Find the angle of refraction to the
thickness
nearest degree?
9. A ray of light is incident upon a diamond at 45.0o.
d = Real depth – Apparent depth
Compute the angle of refraction.
Real depth
t= 10. The speed of light in a glass plate is 196,890 km/s.
Heigth of block
Find the index of refraction of this material.
11. A ray of light strikes a mirror at an angle of 53.0 o
to the normal. (a) What is the angle of reflection?
Indices of Refraction of Some Material (b) What is the angle between the incident ray and
the reflected ray?

Medium n Medium n 12. The speed of light in a clear plastic is 1.90 X 108
Vacuum 1.00 Crown glass 1.52 m/s. A ray of light enters the plastic at an angle
Air 1.0003 Quartz 1.54 of 22.0o. At what angle is the ray refracted?
Water 1.33 Flint glass 1.61
Ethanol 1.36 Diamond 2.42

Refractive Index of Triangular prisms

Practical Applications of Refractive Index

1. To confirm the identity of a substance, refractive

index may be employed.

5
Mathematically the refractive index of a triangular prism
can be stated as follows:

n = sin ¿ ¿

⁡( A+ Dmin)
θ I = sin
2

⁡( A)
θ R = sin
2

Where Dmin = minimum deviation

If A = 600, the prism is equilateral

6
 Total Internal Refraction

When a ray of light passes from an optically denser medium

to an optically less dense medium, there exists a weak
internal reflection and a strong refraction. But as the angle
of incidence increases, the angle of refraction also
increases and at the same time the intensity of the
reflected ray gets stronger and that of the refracted ray
become weaker.

When the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle,

there exists no refraction and a total reflection occurs.
This phenomenon is called Total Internal Reflection.

Critical Angle and the Total Internal

Reflection

Critical Angle

Critical angle is the angle of incidence in the denser

medium when the angle of refraction in the less dense
medium is 900. It is denoted as c.

sinθ I
n=
sinθ R Conditions Under Which Total internal Reflection Occurs

sin 90 1 1. Light rays must travel through a denser medium to

n= =
sinθ R sin C a less dense medium.
2. The angle of incidence must exceed the critical
sin 900 = 1 and θ R = C angle.

Applications Of Refraction

1. Mirage
This occurs in hot weather when a ray of light
passes from a cooler air layer to a warmer a layer.
The ray bends away gradually from the incident
direction until it enters a layer of air of hot air. A
person caught with the rays sees a pool of water in
front but if caught off, the pool of water
(reflection of the sun’s ray) seems to vanish.

Sample Problems:

1. The refractive index of a certain glass is 1.45.

Calculate the critical angle.

7
2. Total reflecting prisms are employed in periscope,
prisms, binoculars, projection lanterns and
cameras.
3. Total internal reflection of radio waves is
employed.
4. The use of optical fibers in communication and in
medicine to examine the inside of the throat is
based on total internal reflection.

8

Mirror
Mirror is any highly polish surface that forms images by
regular reflection of light. There are two kinds of mirror:
1. Plane Mirror
The image form by a plane mirror is neither
enlarged nor reduced but is always virtual, erect
and appears to be far behind the mirror as the
object is in front of it.
To summarize an image formed in a plane mirror:
i. Has the same size as the object in front.
ii. Is the same distance behind the mirror
as the object is in front the mirror.
iii. Is laterally inverted.
Some Uses of Plane Mirror
i. Some uses of plane mirror are as follows:
ii. Hair dressing
iii. Mirror in shops to detect thieves
iv. In cameras and microscope to reflect light on
the objective lens
v. The meters to eliminate parallel error.
2. Curved Spherical Mirror
Spherical mirror is a small portion of the surface
of a sphere. Spherical mirror are classified as
concave , convex or parabolic depending on
whether the reflecting mirror is an inner or an
outer segment of a sphere.
Types of Curved Mirrors
1. Concave (Converging) Mirror
The concave mirror is a type of spherical mirror in
which the reflecting surface bends inwards. It
causes rays of light to converge. They are used as
shaving mirrors etc
2. Convex (Diverging) Mirror
The convex mirror is a type of mirror in which the
reflecting surface bends outwards. It causes
incident rays to diverge after reflection. They are
used for driving mirrors for the following reasons:
a). It forms a virtual image. b). It has large field
of view
3. Parabolic mirrors
These are spherical mirrors which produce a
parallel beam of light. They are used in searching
head lamps of vehicles and reflecting telescopes.
9
 Images Formed by a Convex Mirror

1. Virtual
2. Diminished (Smaller than the object)
3. Erect images which are always positioned between
the focal point and the pole of the mirror.

Uses of Convex Mirror

Basic Terms
Convex mirrors are used as car driving mirrors because
1. Principal axis - is a straight line passing they form upright image and also give wide field of view
through the center of curvature and the pole than plane mirrors of same aperture.
of the mirror.
2. Pole - is the midpoint of the mirror surface.
3. Center of curvature - is the center of the
sphere of which the mirror is a part.
4. Radius of curvature - is the distance
between the pole and the center of curvature.

5. Aperture - is that part of the surface of the

sphere or the distance between the opposite
points on the edge of the mirror.
6. Principal focus (F) - is the point on the
principal axis to which close parallel ray
parallel to the principal axis converge or
appear to diverge after reflection.
7. Focal length (F) - is the distance between Images Formed by Concave Mirror

the pole and the principal focus.

The characteristics of images formed by concave mirror
depends on the position of the object from the mirror.
These positions are:

i. Before C
ii. On C
iii. Between C and F
iv. On F

10
 v. Between F and the pole
vi. At infinity

Characteristics of the images

1. Before or beyond C
The nature of the image is: a). inverted b). real
c). diminished d). formed between c and F
2. On C
The nature of the image is: a). inverted
b). same as the object c). formed on C
3. Between C and F
The nature of the image is : a). inverted
b). real c). magnified d). formed beyond C
4. On F
The image is formed at infinity
Uses of Concave Mirror
5. Between F and the pole
The nature of the image is: a). virtual b). erect
i. Used as dentist mirror and as shaving mirror
c). magnified d). formed beyond the mirror
because of its magnification.
6. At infinity ii. In focusing stars for astronomical studies
The nature of the image is : a). real b). inverted when used in astronomical telescopes
c). smaller than the object iii. For focusing radiant heat energy like the case
in solar cooker.

Magnification

Magnification is the ratio of the image distance (or height)

to the object distance (or height).

image distance Image Height

Magnification = =
Object distance Object Height

dI
M =
dO

11
1 1 1 2. A convex mirror of focal length 15 cm produces an
+ =
dI dO f image on its axis 5 cm away from the mirror.
Calculate the position of the object.
dI
M+1= 3. An object 3.0 mm high is 10.0 cm in front of a
F
concave mirror having a 6.0 cm focal length. Find
Where di = image distance from pole, do = object distance
the image by means of a). a ray diagram b). The
from pole and f = focal length
mirror equation c). Find the magnification of
the mirror d). What is the height of the image?
4. A 4.0 cm high candle is placed 10.0 cm from a
concave mirror having a focal length of 16.0 cm. a).
Where is the image located? b). What is the
height of the candle’s image?
5. The image of an object is 30.0 cm from a concave
mirror with a 20.0 cm radius of curvature. Locate
the object.
6. A concave mirror has a 20.0-cm radius of
curvature. Find the image of an object located
15.0-cm from the mirror using a). a ray diagram
b). The mirror equation.

Note:

i. The focal length of a concave mirror is

positive.
ii. The focal length of a convex mirror is
negative

Sample Problems:

1. An object of height 2.5 cm is placed 20 cm from a

concave mirror of focal length 10 cm. What is the
height of the image formed?

12
 inwards. These types of lens causes close parallel
rays of light to diverge after refraction.

Basic Terms

1. Optical center - is the center of the glass of the

lens.
2. Principal axis - is a line drawn through the optical
center and perpendicular to the lens.
3. Principal focus - is the point on either side of the
lens on the principal axis to which parallel rays of
light close to the principal axis converge or appear
to diverge after refraction.
4. Focal length - is the distance between the
principal focus and the center of the lens.
5. Aperture - is the width of the lens from one edge
Lenses to the other.

Lenses

A lens is a piece of glass which is curved on both sides. It

is made of glass or plastic with a refractive index larger
than that of air.

Types of Lens

There are two main types of lens, namely:

1. Convex lenses - are curve out ward. Convex lens

causes close parallel rays of light to converge at a
point after refraction.

2. A concave lens - has centered thinner than the

Uses of the Lens
ends. This makes the lens surface to curve

13
 1. It helps to correct eyesight when the eyes start 5. Between F and the lens
suffering from poor vision. The nature of the image is a). behind the object
2. It helps in taking pictures as is the case in b). virtual c). erect d). magnified
cameras. 6. At infinity
3. It also helps in bringing into focus image of At infinity the nature of the image is a). at F
objects when used in projection lantern or to see b). real c). inverted d). diminished
distance objects as in the case of telescope.

Images Formed by Convex Lens

The characteristics of the images formed by convex lens

depend on the position of the object from the lens. These
positions are:

i. Beyond or before 2F
ii. At 2F
iii. Between F and 2F
iv. At F
Characteristics of Images formed by Concave lens
v. Between F and the lens
vi. At infinity
The nature of the image formed by a concave mirror is not
affected by the position of the object from the mirror.
Therefore, the image is always: a). virtual b). erect
c). diminished
The Characteristics are:

1. Beyond or before 2F
The nature of the image is a). between F and 2F
b). real c). inverted d). diminished
2. At 2F
The nature of the image is a). at 2F b). real
c). inverted d). same as the object
3. Between F and 2F
The nature of the image is a). beyond 2 F
b). real c). inverted d). magnified
4. At F
The nature of the image is at infinity

14
Lens Formula

dI HI
M= = Power of a Lens
do Ho
1
1 1 1 The power of a lens is given as: p =
+ = f
dI do f
F = focal length measured in meters and p = power of
lens measured in Dioptres (D)
dI d0
M= = −1
do f

Note:

1. The focal length of a convex lens is positive

2. The focal length of a concave lens is negative

Sample problems:

1. A lens of focal length 12.0 cm forms an upright

image three times the size of a real object. What
is the distance between the object and the image?
2. An object is placed in front of a converging lens of
focal length 20 cm. The image is virtual and has a
magnification of 2. What is the distance of the
object from the lens?

15
 real, inverted and camera.
diminished image.
2. The interior of
Applications of Lenses (Optical Instrument) 2. Nature of the the eye is
interior covered with
The interior is black pigment
made light-proof called the
1. Simple camera
to prevent choroid.
A camera consists of a lens and sensitive film reflection of
mounted in a light – tight box, with provision for stray rays of light
by painting its 3. The images in the
adjusting the distance between the lens and the
interior black. case of the eye
film. are formed on a
3. Screen light-sensitive
Images are retina.
formed on a light-
2. The Human Eye
sensitive film. 4. The iris controls
The human eye consists of a converging crystalline the size of the
lens whose size is controlled by the iris depending 4. Light control pupil and so
ability controls the
on the intensity of the light. The lens forms a
Has a diaphragm amount of light
real, inverted and diminished image on the retina. that controls the entering the eye.
The optic nerve transmits this information to the size of the
brain where it is interpreted in terms of size, aperture of the
amount of light
distance, color and etc.
energy entering
the camera.

Similarities and differences between the human eye and

Differences
the photographic camera
The Camera The Human Eye

Similarities
1. Types of lens 1. The human eye is
The camera lens is crystalline in
The Camera The Human Eye
made of glass. nature.
1. The lens 1. Has convex lens 2. Focal length has 2. Has variable focal
Has a convex lens with same fixed focal length. length effected by
which forms a function as the 3. Image distance the ciliary muscle.

16
 The image distance 3.
can be varied by
moving its lens so as
to focus the image
on the film.
4. Shutter 4.
The shutter of
the camera opens
to allow a
photograph to be
taken at a time.
The image distance
between the lens
and the retina is
fixed (i.e not
adjustable).
The eye lid which is
similar, stays open
throughout,
thereby enabling
the retina to form
series of constant
changing pictures
with a continuous
motion.

3. Presbyopia (Loss of accommodation)

With advancement in age, the eye lens becomes
inelastic and unable to accommodate due to the
ciliary muscles being weak. Accommodation is the
ability of the eye to focus at different distances
on the retina.
A person suffering from this defect requires two
pairs of spectacles (convex and concave) called the
Defects of Vision
bifocal spectacles.
1. Hypermetropia (Long sightedness)
This is where a person clearly sees distant object.
This is because the eye ball is too short, as a
result, images are focused beyond the eyeball
instead of on the retina. This defect can be
corrected by using a convex or converging
spectacle lens.

2. Myopia (Short sightedness)

This is an eye defect where a person clearly sees
near object.

This is because the eyeball is too long, as a result,

parallel rays from objects, a long way off at
infinity, are then brought to a focus in front of
the retina. This defect can be corrected by using
a concave or diverging spectacle lens.

4. Astigmatism
It is caused by uneven curvature of the cornea. It
is corrected by using a cylindrical lens.

17
 lens are adjusted relative to the object,
the final image is inverted.

Thus,

M=
( FD −1)( FV −1)
2 1

F1 and F2 are the focal length of the two

convex(converging lenses)

Some Optical Instrument

1. Microscope

i. Simple Microscope
Simple microscope is also known as
magnifying glass or hand lens. It is used
by placing an object near the lens that its
focal length or principal focus. The image
2. Film Projector
produced is magnified, erect but virtual.
A film projector is used for showing large or
magnified images of slides or other objects on a
screen to the audience. It consists of:
i. Powerful small source of light
ii. Condenser of two converging lens
iii. Projection lens near the slide which
produces an enlarged inverted image from
the screen.
3. Telescope
Telescopes are generally devices used for viewing
distant objects such as stars and other planets.

ii. Compound Microscope

The compound microscope produces
greater magnification that the simple
microscope. It is made of two short focal
length – converging lenses (one objective
lens and the other eye -piece). The two

18
 They are divided into:
i. Astronomical telescope
The astronomical telescope consists of Angular magnification
two converging lenses mounted so that
they have a common axis. The objective For any type of telescope, angular magnification (M) is
lens has a long focal length and the eye- defined by:
piece has a short focal length for a high
Fo
magnifying power. Image is formed at M=
Fe
infinity, hence astronomical telescope
gives an inverted image.

In normal adjustment, the distance

between the lens (the objective and eye-
piece) is given as: Fo + Fe
Fo = focal length of the objective lens
and Fe = focal length of the eye piece
ii. Terrestrial telescope
This is an astronomical telescope with an
additional converging lens in the middle, to
re invert the image so that it is upright.

4. Prism binoculars
These are short telescopes consisting of a
converging objective lens and a converging
eye-piece together with two total
reflection prisms of 900 and 450. Light
which enters through the objective lens is
reflected in turn from one prism to the
other and then emerges through the eye-
piece. The final image is erect and
magnified.

19
 Deviation
Deviation is the bending of the components of white light
through a triangular prism.
The components of white light are red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo and violet(ROYGBIV). The most deviated
of these colors is violet while red is least deviated by the
prism.

Pure Spectrum and Impure Spectrum

1. Pure spectrum
This occurs when the components of white light do
not overlap. The production of pure spectrum
consists of the following:
i. narrow slit as a source of light
ii. two convex lens
iii. a 600 triangular prism for dispersion
iv. a screen

Dispersion

Dispersion of Light

Dispersion is the separation of light into a spectrum by

refraction. It is also the process of separating
polychromatic light into its component wave lengths. This
is as the result of differences in their wave lengths, speed,
direction and refractive index. The band of colors formed
is called spectrum.
In a vacuum, all colors of white light travels with the same
speed.

2. Impure spectrum
When white light passes through a triangular
prism, its components (ROYGBIV) overlap. This
effect is called impure spectrum.

Color of objects

Color is a property of a lights that reaches our eyes

objects may absorb certain wavelength from the light
falling upon them and reflect other wavelength for example
a cloths that appears blue in sunlight appears black when
held in the red portion of a solar spectrum in a darkened

20
room. A red cloth held in the blue portion of the solar makes each pigment to reflect more than one color. For
spectrum also appears black. example, a yellow paint which is a compound color consisting
of red and green reflected red, yellow itself and green
light and absorbs blue. The process of mixing paints is
called color mixing by subtraction, while that of mixing
colors of light is called color mixing by addition.
Primary and Secondary Colors

1. The primary colors of light are red, green and

blue. These colors of light when equally mixed Mixing of Colored Pigments
produce white light.
2. Secondary colors of light are compound colors Primary color pigments are red, blue and yellow. Secondary

obtained by mixing two of the primary colors. color pigments are obtained by mixing two primary color
pigments
i. Red + Green = Yellow
ii. Red + Blue = Magenta i. Red + Yellow = Orange

iii. Blue + Green = Cyan ii. Blue + Yellow = Green

Infra – red light and Ultra – violet light

Complementary Colors

1. Infra – red light

Complementary colors are any two colors which give a white
This is the invisible part of white light beyond the
color when mixed. This is actually obtained when a
visible red end of the spectrum
secondary colors is mixed with a color not in its component.

i. Yellow + Blue = White 2. Ultra – violet light

ii. Magenta + Green = White This is an invisible part of white light just beyond
iii. Cyan + Red = White the visible violet end of the spectrum

Infra - red Visible spectrum (ROYGBIV) Ultra - violet

The End!!!!!

Colors Pigments

Most color pigments in use have impure color. Each of

them consists of more than one color. Their impure nature

21