Evolution of Muslim Rule over Sub-Continent

The foundations of Islam in the subcontinent stretch out back to the battles of triumph pursued by Arab
armed forces in the principal years after the introduction of their religion in the 7 th century. Its genuine
effect started when Muslim rulers from Central Asia attacked the subcontinent through what is currently
Pakistan in the 11th century. For 500 years succession of Islamic traditions, the Ghaznavids, Ghurids, and
Delhi Sultanate among them, governed critical parts of the locale, engaging. Hindu realms and relocating
migrants. These administrations established the framework for probably the best realm the world has
seen: the Mughal Empire. The subcontinent was familiar with attacks from outcasts looking for land,
fortunes, and domain. However, in contrast to the migrants, Persians, or Greeks who went before them,
the Muslims presented solid focal government and numerous other social advancements. Their impact
changed the subcontinent and left an inheritance of unique workmanship and engineering, logical
information, and different precious commitments to world legacy.

Umayyad Dynasty
Islam spread rapidly in the world as soon as it surfaced in the world, but it established its foothold in the
Indo-Pak Sub-continent in the beginning of 8th Century A.D. It was during the rule of sixth Umayyad
caliph, Walid bin Abdul Malak (705-715 A.D), when an overarching incidence of ship looting occurred
near Debal, a sea port. The ships, carrying widows and children of deceased Arab soldiers, sent by the
king of Ceylon (present day Sri-Lanka) to the Umayyad Governor, Hajjaj bin Yousef, of Baghdad were
ransacked by a contingent of ferocious Hindu pirates. Hajjaj sent his emissary to the Rajput king, Raja
Dahir under whose jurisdiction the pirates carried out the loot. The raja bluntly turned down the
Governor’s claim said the pirates were not under his sway. Hajjaj decided to send the young Imaduddin
Muhammad bin Qasim to teach the raja a lesson and release the prisoners.
Muhammad bin Qasim
Muhammad bin Qasim then led a glorious Muslim army and invaded Sindh in 712 A.D. During his short
stay in Niran he was reinforced by four thousands Jats who were long subdued by the self-righteous king.
Raja Dahir came with his 40,000 soldiers along with contingents of elephants. However, the Raja was
killed in the battle field and his demoralized army retreated. Muhammad bin Qasim not only released the
prisoners along with the looted ships but also established Islamic society/rule in Sindh. Qasim continued
to expand the Muslim society beyond Sindh. He marched up to Multan where he defeated Raja Gor
Singh. During this time several changes occurred that made his expeditions slow down and finally put a
halt. Hajjaj bin Yousef died in 714 A.D and, within months administrative changes wrought in Damascus.
In 715 Ummayd Ruler, Walid bin Abdul Malak was replaced by his brother Suleman bin Abdul Malak
(715-717 A.D). The new ruler was extravagantly luxury loving and quite incompetent for the accession to
the throne. Suleman called off the best Generals from around their respective destinations and through
intrigues executed them one by one. These Generals brought laudable victories to Walid. They included:
 Qutaiba bin Muslim, the conqueror of Turkistan
 Tariq bin Ziad, the conqueror of Andalus
 Musa bin Nasir, the conqueror of North Africa
 Muhammad bin Qasim, the conqueror of Sindh
Muhammad bin Qasim died languishing in the prison at the age of just 22. He was replaced by Yazid bin
Kabashi. Qasim’s rule, though short, is marked by the historians as marvelous and magnificent. He gave
relieved the local population scourged by the extra judicious rule of the erstwhile rajas in general and
Raja Dahir in particular. Furthermore, he espoused inter-religious harmony and brought prosperity and
good governance in the areas under his domain. Italian scholar F. Gabrieli said: “Present day Pakistan,
holding the values of Islam in such a high esteem, should look upon the young Arab conqueror,
Muhammad bin Qasim, almost as a distant Kistes (founding father), a hero of South Asian Islam”.
Islam left profound effects on minds of people of the Sub-continent. Islam completely changed the living
standard and style of thinking of the people of the Sub-continent. The Muslim society gave a welcome
fillip to the cultural, economic and, social development in the Sub-continent and boosted inter-religious
harmony as well. Turks introduced Persian language which intermingled with Arabic and other local
languages gave birth to several new languages including Urdu. Though the Muslim society experienced
ups and downs throughout the history, yet it yielded positive effects on the minds of people at large in
Indo-Pak Sub-continent.

Abbasiid’s Dynasty
With the passage of time rule of Umayyads finally evaporated in 750 A.D. They were succeeded by the
Abbasids. The Abbasid rulers time after time sent their governors in the Sub-continent. According to Ibn
Haukal, who traveled extensively through the Arab domains around the middle of the 8th Century,
particularly mentioned the affluence of the people of Sindh.
During the rule of Abbasid caliph Al-Mansur (754-775 A.D), scholars from the Sindh were welcomed at
the court of Baghdad. In the north Islam was making inroads from Afghanistan into the north-western
region of Pakistan. Islamic missionaries were actively spreading their faith among the tribes. Due to weak
Abbasid ruler, who acceded to the throne later on, lost sway over the territories of the Sub-continent at the
end of 9th Century.

Ghanzavi Dynasty
In the 10th Century Turks invaded the Sub-continent through renowned Khyber Pass. The rulers include:
 Sabuktigin (977–997 AD)
 Ismail (997–998)
 Mahmud (998–1030 AD)
The most important of them was Mahmud of Ghazni, the son of Sabuktagin the great General. Mahmud
ruled the sub-continent from 997 A.D. He wanted to expand his rule across India and attacked 17 times in
this regard. He was a great warrior. He reduced the influence Hindushahi Kingdom being prevalent in
India. He became known as an Idol Breaker after the destruction of Somnath temple. However, he died in
1030.
The Ghaznavid dynasty was a Persianate Muslim dynasty of Turkic mamluk origin. At their greatest
extent ruling large parts of Iran, much of Transoxiana, and North India from 977–1186. The dynasty was
founded by Sabuktigin, upon his succession to rule of Ghazna after the death of his father-in-law,
Alptigin.
Sabuktigin
He was son-in-law of Alptigin and founder of the Ghaznavid Empire, began expanding it by capturing
Samanid and Kabul Shahi territories, including most of what is now Afghanistan and part of Pakistan.
The 16th century Persian historian, Firishta, records Sabuktigin’s genealogy as descended from the
Sasanian emperors. However, modern historians believe this was an attempt to connect himself with the
history of old Persia. After the death of Sabuktigin, his son Ismail claimed the throne for a temporary
period, but he was defeated and captured by Mahmud in 998 at the Battle of Ghazni.
Mahmud of Ghazni
In 997, Mahmud, another son of Sebuktigin, succeeded the throne, and Ghazni and the Ghaznavid
dynasty have become perpetually associated with him. He completed the conquest of the Samanid and
Shahi territories, including the Ismaili Kingdom of Multan, Sindh, as well as some Buwayhid territory.
By all accounts, the rule of Mahmud was the golden age and height of the Ghaznavid Empire. Mahmud
carried out 17 expeditions through northern India to establish his control and set up tributary states, and
his raids also resulted in the looting of a great deal of plunder. He established his authority from the
borders of Ray to Samarkand, from the Caspian Sea to the Yamuna.
The wealth brought back from the Mahmud’s Indian expeditions to Ghazni was enormous, and
contemporary historians (e.g. Abolfazl Beyhaghi, Ferdowsi) give glowing descriptions of the
magnificence of the capital and of the conqueror’s munificent support of literature. Mahmud died in 1030.
Ghaznavid’s Decline
Sultans were ethnically Turkish, but the sources, all in Arabic or Persian, do not allow us to estimate the
persistence of Turkish practices and ways of thought amongst them. Yet given the fact that the essential
basis of the Ghaznavids’ military support always remained their Turkish soldiers, there must always have
been a need to stay agreed to their troops’ needs and aspirations; also, there are indications of the
persistence of some Turkish literary culture under the early .At its height, the Ghaznavid empire grew to
cover large parts of present-day Iran, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, all of Afghanistan, Pakistan, and
large parts of northwest India.
The Ghaznavid rulers are generally credited with spreading Islam into the Indian subcontinent. In addition
to the wealth accumulated through raiding Indian cities, and exacting tribute from Indian rajas, the
Ghaznavids also benefited from their position as an intermediary along the trade routes between China
and the Mediterranean. They were, however, unable to hold power for long and by 1040 the Seljuks had
taken over their Persian domains and a century later the Ghurids took over their remaining sub-
continental lands.

Ghurid Dynasty
Mahmud appointed Khusru Malik as the governor of Lahore. However, Khusru Malik was killed by the
Ghoris headed by Muhammad Ghori and paced their empire around 1185. Muizz-ud-din Muhammad bin
Sam, known as Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Ghuri is among the one who played a paramount role in the
establishment of Muslim rule, especially in North India. He defeated the fearsome army of Prithvi Raj
Chauhan in 1192 in the second battle of Tarain. He had has the credit to establish the first Muslim in
Delhi. In 1206, Ghori had to travel to Lahore to crush a revolt. On his way back to Ghazni, his caravan
halted at Damik near Jehlum. He was killed while offering his evening prayers.
The Ghurids or Ghorids were a dynasty of Eastern Iranian descent the exact ethnic origin from the Ghor
region of present-day central Afghanistan. The dynasty converted to Sunni Islam from Buddhism, after
the conquest of Ghor by the Ghaznavid emperor Mahmud of Ghazni in 1011. Abu Ali ibn Muhammad
(reigned 1011–1035) was the first Muslim king of the Ghurid dynasty to construct mosques and Islamic
schools in Ghor.
Muhammad bin Shihab-ad-Din (1149-1206), also known as Muhammad of Ghor, was Sultan of the
Ghurid Empire along with his brother Ghiyath ad-Din Muhammad from 1173 to 1202, and as the supreme
ruler of the Ghurid Empire from 1202 to 1206.Mu’izz ad-Din was one of the greatest rulers of the Ghurid
dynasty, and is credited with laying the foundation of Muslim rule in South Asia, that lasted for several
centuries. He reigned over a territory spanning over parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Iran,
India, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan.
The Ghurids were great patrons of Persian culture and literature and lay the basis for a Persianized state in
India. They also transferred Iranian architecture of their native lands to India, of which several great
examples have been preserved to this date. However, most of the literature produced during the Ghurid
era has been lost.

Delhi Sultanate
Delhi Sultanate rose to power. It is believed, however, that the period of Delhi Sultanate was politically
turbulent but the Muslim society under the Sultanate period flourished at a great length. Sufism also made
it way during this era.
The Delhi Sultanate was based mostly in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent
for 320 years (1206–1526). Five dynasties ruled over Delhi Sultanate sequentially as following:
 Mamluk or Slave Dynasty (1206–1290)
 Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320)
 Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414)
 Sayyid Dynasty (1414–51)
 Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526)
Mamluk or Slave Dynasty
Qutb-ud-din Aibak was a slave of Mu’izz al-Din, whose reign began the Delhi Sultanate. Aibak was of
Cuman-Kipchak origin, and due to his lineage, his dynasty is known as the Mamluk (slave) Dynasty.
Aibak reigned as the Sultan of Delhi for four years. Qutb-ud-din Aibak initiated the construction of Qutub
Minar and the Quwwat-ul-Islam (literally, Might of Islam) Mosque, now a UNESCO world heritage site.
List of Rulers include the following:
 Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206–1210)
 Aram Shah (1210–1211)
 Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (1211–1236), son-in-law of Qut-bud-din Aibak
 Rukn-ud-din Firuz (1236), son of Iltutmish
 Raziyyat-ud-din Sultana (1236–1240), daughter of Iltutmish
 Muiz-ud-din Bahram (1240–1242), son of Iltutmish
 Ala ud din Masud (1242–1246), son of Ruk-nud-din
 Nasir ud din Mahmud (1246–1266), grandson of Iltutmish
 Ghiyas ud din Balban (1266–1286)
 Muiz ud din Qaiqabad (1286–1290)
Khilji Dynasty
The first ruler of Khilji dynasty was Jalal-ud-din Khilji. He came to power in 1290 after killing the last
ruler of the Mamluk dynasty, Muiz ud din Qaiqabad, at the command of Turkic, Afghan, and Persian
Amirs. Jalal-ud-din Firoz Shah Khilji was of Turko-Afghan origin, and ruled for 6 years before he was
murdered in 1296 by his nephew Juna Khan, who was also his son-in-law. Juna Khan later came to be
known as Ala al-din Khilji. Ala al-din is also known for his cruelty against attacked kingdoms after wars.
Historians note him as a tyrant and that anyone Ala al-din Khilji suspected of being a threat to this power
was killed along with the women and children of that family. In 1298, between 15,000 and 30,000 people
near Delhi, who had recently converted to Islam, were slaughtered in a single day, due to fears of an
uprising. The last Khilji ruler was Ala-ud-din’s 18-year-old son Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah Khilji, who
ruled for four years before he was killed by Khusro Khan. Khusro Khan’s reign lasted only a few months,
when Ghazi Malik, later to be called Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, killed him and assumed power, in 1320,
thus beginning the Tughluq dynasty of Delhi Sultanate. The rulers of this dynasty include:
 Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji (1290–1296)
 Alauddin Khilji (1296–1316)
 Umar Khan Khilji (1316)
 Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah (1316–1320)
 Khusro Khan (1320)
Tughlaq Dynasty
This dynasty lasted from 1320 to nearly the end of 14th century. The first ruler Ghazi Malik rechristened
himself as Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq and is also referred to in scholarly works as Tughlak Shah. He was of
Turko-Indian origins, with a Turkic father and a Hindu mother. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq ruled for five years
and launched a town near Delhi named Tughlaqabad.According to some historians such as Vincent
Smith,] he was killed by his son Juna Khan, who then assumed power in 1325. Juna Khan rechristened
himself as Muhammad bin Tughlaq and ruled for 26 years. During his rule, Delhi Sultanate reached its
peak in terms of geographical reach, covering most of the Indian subcontinent. The rulers includes:
 Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (1320–1325)
 Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325–1351)
 Mahmud Ibn Muhammad (March 1351)
 Firuz Shah Tughluq (1351–1388)
 Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq II (1388–1389)
 Abu Bakr Shah (1389–1390)
 Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III (1390–1393)
 Sikander Shah I (March–April 1393)
 Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq (Sultan Mahmud II) at Delhi (1393–1413
 Nasir-ud-din Nusrat Shah Tughluq (1394–1414), grandson of Firuz Shah Tughluq
Sayyid Dynasty
The Sayyid dynasty was a Turkic dynasty thatt ruled Delhi Sultanate from 1415 to 1451. The Timur
invasion and plunder had left Delhi Sultanate in shambles, and little is known about the rule by Sayyid
dynasty. The Sayyid dynasty was displaced by the Lodi dynasty in 1451.It’s rulers are listed below:
 Khizr Khan (1414–1421)
 Mubarak Shah (1421–1434)
 Muhammad Shah (1434–1445)
 Alam Shah (1445–1451)
Lodi Dynasty
Lodi dynasty had its origins in the Afghan Lodi tribe. Bahlol Lodi was the first Afghan, Pathan, to rule
Delhi Sultanate and the one who started the dynasty. He began his reign by attacking the Muslim
controlled Kingdom of Jaunpur to expand the influence of Delhi Sultanate, and was partially successful
through a treaty. Thereafter, the region from Delhi to Benares was back under influence of Delhi
Sultanate. After Jalal Khan’s death, the governor of Punjab, Dawlat Khan Lodī reached out to the Mughal
Babur and invited him to attack Delhi Sultanate. Babur came, defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi, during
Battle of Panipat in 1526. Ibrahim Lodi’s death ended the Delhi Sultanate, and Mughal Empire replaced
it. Its rulers included:
 Bahlul Lodi (1451–1489)
 Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517)
 Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526)

Mugual Dynasty
Zaheer-ud-Din Babar entered India in 1526 A.D and remained in power, though nominally, till 1857. The
Mughal epoch is particularly known as the period of Muslim architecture, literature and gave a boost to
religious reformists and saints such as Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, Shah Walliullah, Sheikh Farid-ud-Din
Ganj Shakar, Nizam-ud-Din Chishty, etc. Islam left profound effects on minds of people of the Sub-
continent. Islam completely changed the living standard and style of thinking of the people of the Sub-
continent. The Muslim society gave a welcome fillip to the cultural, economic and, social development in
the Sub-continent and boosted inter-religious harmony as well. Turks introduced Persian language which
intermingled with Arabic and other local languages gave birth to several new languages including Urdu.
Though the Muslim society experienced ups and downs throughout the history, yet it yielded positive
effects on the minds of people at large in Indo-Pak Sub-continent. Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur founded
the Mughal Empire in India after defeating Ibrahim Lodhi in the Battle of Panipat in 1526. At the age of
14, Babur ascended the throne of the Central Asian kingdom of Farghana. His greatest ambition was to
rule Samarkand. He fought many battles in the pursuit of this goal, winning and losing his kingdom many
times in the process. In 1504, he ventured into what is now Afghanistan and conquered Kabul.
Babur Rule
First Mughal Emperor [1526-30], Babur’s position in Central Asia was precarious at best. In order to
consolidate his rule, he invaded India five times, crossing the River Indus each time. The fifth expedition
resulted in his encounter with Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat in April 1526. Babur’s army was
better equipped than Lodhi’s; he had guns while the sultan relied on elephants. The most successful of
Babur’s innovations was the introduction of gunpowder, which had never been used before in the Sub-
continent. This combined with Babur’s newer tactics.1528, he captured Chanderi from the Rajput chief
Medini Rao, and a year later he defeated the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud Lodhi in the battle of Ghagra
at Bihar. These conquests made Babur the “Master of Hindustan”. He was not destined to enjoy the fruits
of his conquests as he died shortly afterwards in Agra on December 26, 1530. He was buried at Kabul in
accordance with his wish.
Humayun’s Rule
Babur was succeeded by his eldest son Humayun. Humayun failed in asserting a strong monarchical
authority. He inherited a freshly won empire with a host of troubles; the Afghan nobles, the Rajputs and
worst of all, his three treacherous brothers. They caused numerous problems for him. Following his
father’s advice, Humayun treated his brothers kindly and appointed them to high positions. In the first ten
years of his rule, he faced so many challenges not only from his younger brothers but also from the
Afghan General Sher Shah Suri who had served under Babur.
Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun in the battles of Chausa and Kanauj in 1540. After recovering his
throne, Humayun devoted himself to the affairs of the kingdom and towards improving the system of
government. Unfortunately, after recovering his empire, Humayun was not destined to rule for long. In
January 1556, he met his tragic end by slipping from the famous building known as Din Panah. After him
his eldest son Akbar took over the rule of the empire.
Suri Dynasty
Sher Shah Suri, was an Afghan leader who took over the Mughal Empire after defeating Humayun in
1540. Sher Shah occupied the throne of Delhi for not more than five years, but his reign proved to be a
landmark in the Sub-continent. He formulated a sound imperial administration that was inspired by the
Safavid regime in Iran. Sher Shah employed a powerful army. He personally inspected, appointed and
paid the soldiers, thus making him the focus of loyalty and subduing the jealousies between clans and
tribes.
Akbar’s Reign
Humayun’s heir, Akbar, was born in exile and was only 13 years old when his father died. Thanks to his
exceptionally capable guardian, Bahram Khan, he survived to demonstrate his worth. Akbar’s reign holds
a certain prominence in history; he was the ruler who actually fortified the foundations of the Mughal
Empire. After a series of conquests he managed to subdue most of India. Areas not under the empire were
designated as tributaries. He also adopted a conciliatory policy towards the Rajputs, hence reducing any
threat from them. Akbar was not only a great conqueror, but a capable organizer and a great administrator
as well. He set up a host of institutions that proved to be the foundation of an administrative system that
operated even in British India.
Akbar’s rule also stands out due to his liberal policies towards the non-Muslims, his religious innovations,
the land revenue system and his famous Mansabdari system. Akbar’s Mansabdari system became the
basis of Mughal military organization and civil administration.
Jehangir’s Reign
Akbar was succeeded by his son, Salim, who took the title of Jehangir, meaning “Conqueror of the
World”. He expanded the empire through the addition of Kangra and Kistwar and consolidated the
Mughal rule in Bengal. Jehangir was renowned for administering impartial justice to his people,
irrespective of their religious faith. Around this time, European traders had started coming to India. The
first ambassador to the Mughal court was Sir Thomas Roe. He was able to secure many trading facilities
for his countrymen.
Shah Jehan’s Rule
Jehangir was succeeded by his second son Khurram in 1628. He took the name of Shah Jehan, which is
the Emperor of the World. He further expanded his Empire to Kandhar in the north and conquered most
of Southern India. The Mughal Empire was at its zenith during Shah Jehan’s rule. As a result, during this
reign, the world witnessed the unique development of arts and culture of the Mughal Empire.
Alamgir’s Reign
Aurangzeb ascended the throne on July 21, 1658 and ruled supreme till 1707. Thus Aurangzeb ruled for
50 years, matching Akbar’s reign in longevity. But unfortunately he kept his five sons away from the
royal court with the result that none of them was trained in the art of government. This proved to be very
damaging for the Mughals later on. Aurangzeb had three brothers. Aurangzeb challenged his father’s rule.
Shah Jahan fell seriously ill and all his sons proclaimed succession. Contrary to everyone’s expectations,
Shah Jehan recovered. On his recovery, he again backed Dara as his successor.
A war of succession broke out among all the brothers. In the long run Aurangzeb was victorious. But as
Shah Jehan was in absolute favor of Dara, Aurangzeb no longer trusted him, and had Shah Jehan placed
under polite restraint in his own palace.
Decline of Mughal Rule and the Battle of Plassey
The death of Alamgir in 1707 is generally regarded as the beginning of the gradual decline of the once
extensive, prosperous and powerful Mughal Empire. Although it took nearly 150 years before the House
of Babur finally disappeared from the scene, the cracks that had appeared at Alamgir’s death widened.
His son Muazzam, who ruled from 1707 to 1712, succeeded Aurangzeb Alamgir. He took for himself the
title of Bahadur Shah. He ruled for five years and momentarily revived the Mughal Empire. But the
Marhatta’s power increased and they became the unchallenged rulers of Deccan. In the province of
Punjab, the Sikhs under Guru Govind Singh became a force to reckon with. One of the reasons that power
centers kept springing up outside Delhi was the frequent change in the succession of Empires. Around 17
kings were crowned during the period spanning from 1707 to 1857 these includes:
 Bahadur Shah (1707-1712)
 Jahandar Shah (1712-1713)
 Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719)
 Muhammad Shah (1719-1748)
 Ahmed Shah (1748-1754)
 Alamgir II (1754-1759)
 Shah Alam II (1759-1806)
 Akbar Shah II (1806-1837)
 Bahadur Shah II (1837-1858)