J. Construct.

Steel Research 31 (1994) 187-220

© 1994 Elsevier Science Limited
Printed in Malta. All rights reserved
0143-974X/94/$7.00
ELSEVIER

First-Order Generalised Beam Theory

J. M. Davies & P. L e a c h
Department of Civil Engineering and Construction, University of Salford,
Salford, UK, M5 4WT

(Received 5 January 1994)

ABSTRACT

This paper introduces the basic principles of Generalised Beam Theory and shows
how this theory may be used to analyse cold-formed sections in which distortion of
the cross-section is significant. The calculation procedure is illustrated by a detailed
numerical example.

NOTATION

A Area of cross-section
a, b, c Ordinates of warping function
B,C,D Section properties for individual modes
bi Width of bith plate element
E Young's modulus
F-L In-plane movement of a face at its mid-point
F-Q Movement normal to a face at its mid-point
F-O Rotation of the chord line of a face
G Shear modulus
I Second m o m e n t of area
i,j,k Mode number (usually in the form of a forward superscript)
J St Venant torsional constant
K Stiffness matrix
k Foundation constant
L Span of member
M Bending m o m e n t
m Uniformly applied torque or transverse bending m o m e n t
N Axial load

187
188 J. M. Davies, P. Leach

P Point load
q Uniformly distributed load for individual mode
S Shear force
s Distance around member
t Thickness
V Generalised displacement function
13, W Displacement components in GBT
W Stress resultant
x, y Horizontal and vertical axes
z Distance along member

,fl,2 Non-dimensional coefficients defined in text

F Warping constant
v Poisson's ratio
O" Direct stress
T Shear stress
4, Rotation
O~ Sectorial coordinate

Primes indicate differentiation with respect to the distance z along the

member.
,~ indicates a unit value of a quantity, e.g. a warping function.
A forward superscript indicates the mode number.

INTRODUCTION

Generalised Beam Theory (GBT) seeks, at the same time, both to unify
and to extend conventional theories for the analysis of prismatic thin-
walled structural members. The analytical treatment of the four fundamen-
tal modes of deformation, namely extension, bending about the two
principal axes and torsion, is united within a consistent notation. These
four modes may be referred to as the 'rigid-body' modes because they do
not involve any distortion of the cross-section. The notation is then
extended to include higher-order modes of deformation which involve
cross-sectional distortion. This allows elegant and economical solutions to
a wide range of complex problems and provides a natural transition from
beam theory to folded plate theory. Generalised Beam Theory can also be
further extended to include second-order effects (local and global buck-
ling), and this is considered in a companion paper.
Evidently, Generalised Beam Theory is particularly applicable to the
analysis of cold-formed steel sections and, in this paper, it will be intro-
 First-order Generalised Beam Theory 189

duced from this standpoint. At the same time, it should be appreciated

that it also has much wider application.
The development of the theory has been pioneered by Professor R.
Schardt and his colleagues at the University of Darmstadt in Germany, a
work that has extended over more than 20 years. Unfortunately, little has
been written during this period and almost nothing in English. The
definitive reference at this present time is a recent book by Schardt.1 This
paper attempts a somewhat different and more concise presentation of
the fundamentals of the theory. By doing so it hopes to introduce the
English-speaking world to a major step forward in structural mechanics.

MODES OF DEFORMATION AND WARPING

FUNCTIONS

A unifying feature of the theory is the concept of 'warping functions'

whereby each mode k of deformation is associated with a distribution of
axial strain kt~.
Thus, the first mode of deformation is a uniform distribution of axial
strain over the cross-section. For this mode, the 'warping function'
1~= _ 1 for all points s of the cross-section. The second and third modes
are bending modes and the associated warping functions are linear
distributions of strain about the two principal axes. The fourth mode is
torsion and here the term warping has its conventional meaning as the
warping function is the sectorial coordinate which reflects the distribution
of axial strain due to a bi-moment.
It is important to realise at the outset that all these warping functions
are orthogonal. Practically, this means that in any first-order analysis they
can be considered quite independently and their effects combined by
simple superposition. Mathematically, the orthogonality condition is ex-
pressed as

f
A
i~kl]dA=0 for i # k (1)

The above concepts are illustrated in Fig. 1. Figure l(a) shows a cross-
section with five nodes. According to GBT, the five nodes can 'warp'
independently and the warping functions are linear between the nodes.
Therefore, the warping functions each have five degrees of freedom and
the section has five orthogonal deformation modes together with their
associated warping functions. Four of these are the rigid-body modes
190 J. M. Davies, P. Leach

J /

®®
(a) Cross - section with five nodes

1. Axial 8tress

2. Bending
'L_I-- \

3. Bending

4. Torsion

Dleplaced 8hape Wa n

(b) Rigid body modes (k-1... 4)

Displaced Shape WarpingFunction

(c) Cross - section distortion mode (k-S)

Fig. 1. Typical displaced shapes and warping functions.

shown in Fig. l(b) and the fifth is the mode of cross-sectional distortion
shown in Fig. l(c). In simple applications, the number of modes is equal
to the number of nodes (or fold lines) in the cross-section. More modes of
distortion can be introduced by inserting intermediate nodes between the
primary nodes.
Each mode k has associated with it:

• a warping function as already described;

• a corresponding pattern of cross-sectional displacements;
• distortional bending stresses (for modes 5 and above);
• section properties kc, kD and kB.
 First-order Generalised Beam Theory 191

For the rigid-body modes 1 to 4 the section properties are familiar, thus:
1C = cross-sectional area; 1D -- IB = 0
2C= second m o m e n t of area about first principal axis; 2D = 2B=0
3C = second m o m e n t of area about second principal axis; 3D = 3B = 0
4C = warping constant;
4D = St Venant torsional constant; 4B = 0
For the higher-order modes which involve cross-sectional distortion, all
three section properties are in general non-zero.
The analogy between conventional theory and GBT for section proper-
ties is summarised in Table 1. It can be seen that C represents the stiffness
(in the relevant mode) with regard to direct stress, D represents the stiffness
with regard to the shear stresses arising from twisting, and B represents
the stiffness with regard to transverse bending stress. B therefore exists
only for the distortional modes 5 and above.
Schardt 1 traces the history of structural mechanics and shows how early
investigators found the first four orthogonal modes of deformation of
prismatic elements but made no attempt to unify them. Later work on
prismatic folded plate structures moved away from these classical begin-
nings and a totally independent theory was created. This work has now
evolved into the finite strip method with its implicit assumption that all
problems can be solved numerically and there is little need to return to
classical structural mechanics.
Wlassow 2 came closest to GBT and Schardt believes that, but for his
early death, it would have been only a matter of time before his research
into prismatic structures evolved into a similar formulation.
This paper and its companion paper on second-order theory demon-
strate, among other things, that there is still some life in classical structural
mechanics and that this is not just a matter for academics but has practical
usefulness. Indeed, ultimately, GBT may offer the most practical way to
deal with the difficult problem of the distortional buckling of cold-formed

TABLE 1
Section Properties in GBT and Conventional Notations

Deformation mode Conventional theory Generalised beam theory

1 A ~C
2 I~ 2C
3 Iyr 3C
4 F J 4C 4D
k ? ? ? kC gD kB
192 d. M. Davies, P. Leach

sections. However, before we can consider this, there is much basic ground
to be covered.

GBT NOTATION

The notation used for GBT in this paper follows that developed by
Schardt I and is summarised at the start of the paper. In general, terms will
also be defined as they are introduced, but two points are worthy of
particular note:
• a forward superscript is used to denote the mode number;
• ~ over a symbol denotes a unit value of a quantity, e.g. a warping
function or a related quantity derived from it.

THE FUNDAMENTAL BEAM EQUATION

The basic equation of GBT is

g k c k v " ' _ _ G k O k V " d-kBkV:kq (2)

In this equation,

E = Young's modulus;
G = shear modulus;
kc, kD, kB = section properties applicable to mode k;
kv =generalised deformation in mode k;
kq = distributed load applicable to mode k;

and primes indicate differentiation with respect to z which lies along the
length of the member. That eqn (2) includes the basic modes of bending
and torsion is easy to see. In conventional notation, the differential equa-
tions for bending about the two principal axes and torsion are

d4y
EIx~ d z 4 = qy

d4x
Elyy ~ = q:, (3)

d4q~ d2~
E F -d~z4 -- G J -d~z~ = m
 First-order Generalised Beam Theory 193

These are evidently special cases of eqn (2). The full eqn (2) applies to
modes 5 and above.

EQUIVALENCE OF GBT AND CONVENTIONAL

NOTATIONS

The full equivalence between the conventional and GBT notations is

shown in Table 2. One of the most powerful features of GBT is that it
extends naturally from the familiar rigid-body modes into the higher-order
modes using a unified notation. This notation also includes a unified
treatment of stresses and stress resultants so that, in GBT terms,

kw = - E kc kv t, ~_ f a k~l d A (4)

is a generalisation of

Mx= - E l x x dz 2 = try dA (bending moment)

(5)
B = -- E F d2rp
~z 2 = f ago dA (bi-moment)

where F is the warping constant and go is the sectorial coordinate.

SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS UTILISING GBT

The use of GBT to obtain the stresses and deformations of a member

under specified loading and support conditions involves two quite distinct
steps. In the first step, only the cross-section is considered in order to
obtain for each mode k the warping functions k/~ and the associated section
properties RC, kD and kB, together with other relevant information con-
cerning the deformations and stresses induced by this mode. In the second
step, this basic information is used to obtain solutions of eqn (2) for
particular cases. The analysis implicit in the first step can be complex and,
in general, it is carried out using standard computer programs. It is the
authors' experience that GBT is best introduced without going into the
details of the general form of the first step, but rather concentrating on the
general principles and applications. This allows the power and versatility
 TABLE 2
Equivalence of Conventional Theory and Generalised Beam Theory

Quantity Extension Bendin9 1 Bendin9 2 Warpin9 torsion GBT-includin9 higher modes

Deformation u v w q~ %
Unit warping 1 y x c5 k~
Warping u yv' xw' ~¢p' ku = k~ kv,

Area A = [" dA
A

Second moment of area lxx = f y2 dA Iyr= f x2 dA i C = fkfi2 dA

A A A
Torsional constant F = / (/)2 dA
,.I
A

Stress resultant N=fadA Mx=faydA Mr=faxda B=fecoda kw=fak~da

A A A A A
Compatibility equation N = EAu' Mx = - EIxxy" My= - Elvrx" B = - EF~p" kW= -- E kC ~V"
N Mzy Myx -Bo~ k W k6
Normal stress ¢r= - - ¢rx= ~ry= - - or,- k~ =
A lxx lrr F kC

Shear stress r l(s) o ~2(s) = o ~(s)- ~ k,(s) = o

Ixxt(s) Iyyt(s) Ft(s) kCt(s)

Differential equation EAu"= - N EIxxy"=qr EIyrx"=q~ EFq)''-GJq)"=m EkCkV"--kGkDV"+kBkV=kq

 First-order Generalised Beam Theory 195

of the method to be appreciated before the more complex consider-

ations become dominant. This is possible because, for simple problems,
the first step can be carried out manually, an operation which has much
to commend it as it provides a valuable insight into the principles
involved.
Furthermore, explicit expressions have been derived 1 for the properties
of channel, z- and hat sections, including the higher-order modes, so that
GBT can be readily used for a wide range of practical problems with the
minimal introduction given in this paper.

SECTION PROPERTIES AND WARPING FUNCTIONS

Table 3 shows the full results obtained by applying the first part of GBT to
the cross-section shown in Fig. 2. The various terms are defined for each
mode k as follows:
kc, kD kB are section properties;
k/~ = warping function defined at each node of the cross-section
and assumed to be linear between the nodes (the remaining
quantities are associated with unit value of this warping
function);
kF-L = in-plane movement of a face at its mid-point;
kF-Q = movement normal to the face at its mid-point;
kF-O = rotation of chord line of face;
k/,~ = transverse bending moment at each node (distortional modes
only);
ks = shear force in each face (as a function of kw');
kr7' k~ = nodal displacements in horizontal and vertical directions.
It should be noted that all the quantities tabulated for modes 1 to 4 are
already obtainable from the standard procedures of structural mechanics
which are given in basic texts on the subject. Those tabulated for mode 5
can also be derived manually using the fact that the warping function 5t~
must be orthogonal to ~ , 2t~, 3t~, 4~. The manual evaluation of all the
quantities in Table 3 will be illustrated in detail later.
Once the section properties have been evaluated, solutions to eqn (2) for
different load and boundary conditions can be found. After obtaining a
solution to eqn (2) for a particular case, multiplying the tabulated quan-
tities by the relevant value of kv allows a complete pattern of transverse
stresses and displacements to be obtained.
The section shown in Fig. 2 is an open section that is unrestrained in
space and with nodes only at the fold lines. Various other features may be
 TABLE 3
Cross-Sectional Values for Section s h o w n in Fig. 2

Node ~ F-L F- Q F- 0 ~ ~ rfi S/W'

M o d e k = 1:
1 - 1.0000 0.0000 0-0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 - 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0'0000 0.0000 0.0000 0-0000
3 - 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
4 - 1-0000 0.0000 0.0000 0-0000 0.0000 0.0000 0"0000 0.0000
5 - 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 e:
C = 10.8 D =0-00 B=O.O0

Mode k=2:
1 - 8.4853 0"7071 - 0-7071 0-0000 1"00(30 0"0000 0"01300 - 0"0247
2 - 10-6066 -0.7071 -0.7071 0"0000 1'0000 0"0000 0"0000 -0"7318
t'.,,
3 0.00013 -0.7071 0"7071 0-0000 1"0000 0-0000 0-0000 - 0"7318
e'~
4 10"6066 0'7071 0-7071 0-0000 1"0000 0"0000 0-0(030 - 0.0247
5 8-4853 1'0000 0'0000 0"0000
C = 502"2 D = 0-00 B=O'O0

Mode k=3:
1 6'3640 0"7071 0"7071 0-0000 0-0000 - 1"0000 0-0000 0'0524
2 4'2426 0'7071 -0-7071 0"0000 0"0000 - 1'0000 0"0000 0"6545
3 -6"3640 --0'7071 -0-7071 0'0000 0"00(30 - 1-0000 0"0000 - 0-6545
4 4"2426 --0'7071 0'7071 0"0000 0"0000 - 1-0000 0-0000 - 0.0524
5 6'3640 0-00013 - 1"0000 0"0000
C = 145"8 D =0-00 B=O-O0
Mode k=4:
1 38.7097 15.5242 -2.0242 1.0000 13.4692 -8-4853 0.0000 0-0331 r,~
2 - 7.8629 - 0.5242 - 8-0242 1.0000 11-3479 - 10.6066 0.00130 0.0331
3 0-0000 -0.5242 8.0242 1.0000 0.7413 0.0000 0.0000 0.0331
4 7.8629 15.5242 2-0242 1.00~ 11-3479 10.6066 0.0000 0.0331
5 -38-7097 13.4692 8-4853 0.0000 ~t

C =939.0 D =0.324 B =0.00

Mode k=5:
1 - 1'0000 -0'4444 0"1076 --0"0480 -0-4412 0"1873 0.0000 - 1"0417
2 0'3333 0-0356 0"2044 -0"0320 -0"3394 0'2891 0"0000 1'0417
3 -0-2000 -0"0356 0"2044 0'0320 0"0000 -0"0503 -0"3323 - 1"0417 ,..q
4 0"3333 0'4444 0"1076 0'0480 0-3394 0"2891 0-0000 1.0417
5 - 1-0000 0-4412 0"1873 0.0000
C = 0"720 D =0'000401 B =0.02127
198 J. M. Davies, P. Leach

A
z,w

b z - 15 (~)i b 2 • 15 0.741

b •
•/ ..... . . .

Fig. 2. Cross-section for example.

.

"3
1
6.364

2.121

incorporated in the derivation of the section properties and warping

functions, namely:

The section may be open or closed.

The section may include branches, though at the present time this is
not so well documented.
Intermediate nodes may be added in order to increase the number of
distortional modes.
The free movement of the cross-section may be restrained either
rigidly or elastically. This latter facility has many applications,
some of which are illustrated in Fig. 3. Bearing in mind that these
are cross-sections of members which may have arbitrary load-
ing and support conditions in the longitudinal direction, the
wide range of problems to which GBT is applicable becomes ap-
parent.

SOLUTION OF THE FUNDAMENTAL BEAM EQUATION

Equation (2) may be solved in a number of different ways depending on

the nature of the relevant modes of deformation and the loading and
boundary conditions. As the unique features of GBT are revealed only
when cross-section distortion is present, attention here is concentrated on
the general case.
Equation (2) is identical in form to the differential equation for the
displacement of an axially loaded beam on an elastic foundation. In order
to apply beam on elastic foundation solutions to GBT problems, the
 First-order Generalised Beam Theory 199

°l |
® ® ® ®
(a) Lateral restraint of (b) Elastic lateral and
purlin from sheeting torsional restraint of purlin

C~Cy-y-y-,Cy-v~Cv--y~ Cy-~Cy~C~

\ \
\ \

Ic) Symmetry condition (d) antisymmetry condition

// . . . . . . . . . . .
"........
®
:
,¢ ®
, ', ,

® ®
(e) Periodic construction (f) Rigid restraint
Fig. 3. Examples of restrained cross-sections.

following substitutions must be made:

second m o m e n t of area I :~ k c
axial load (tension positive) N - G kD
foundation constant k -- kB
uniformly distributed load q = kq

and, when the solution has been completed, the stress resultant
M --kw

It follows that the solutions for many relatively simple loading and
support conditions are well documented. 3'4 Indeed, Ref. 3 is a whole book
devoted to the topic and explicit solutions such as those given therein will
provide an appropriate method for a wide range of practical problems.
However, many other practical problems do not have simple loading and
boundary conditions and for these it is necessary to resort to numerical
methods of solution. Two such methods have been widely used in practice,
namely the finite difference method and the finite element method.
200 J. M. Davies, P. Leach

FINITE DIFFERENCE SOLUTION O F E Q N (2)

Schardt and his associates at Darmstadt have exclusively used the finite
difference method in their solutions of the general case of the fundamental
beam equation. The method is most easily understood when it has a
readily visualised physical form and, for this reason, it is usually described
with reference to a beam on an elastic foundation. The solution system for
this problem is given in Appendix A.
As with many finite difference applications, the treatment of the relevant
boundary conditions is non-trivial and the treatment for the cases usually
encountered is also given in Appendix A.

FINITE ELEMENT SOLUTIONS OF GBT PROBLEMS

To the best of the authors' knowledge, they were the first to utilise the
finite element method in the context of GBT. The advantage of this
approach is that eqn (2) falls into the class of equations for which the finite
element solution is exact. This means that, for many first-order problems,
the computational requirements become almost trivial.
The detailed derivation of the relevant element and consistent load vector
has been given by the first author 5 for the beam on elastic foundation
problem shown in Fig. 4, for which the governing differential equation is

E l y " ' - Ny" + ky = q (6)

The element stiffness equations have the form

ry,l[]r,l
M'/= K
Py2
Y'I (7)

Yl:~ PY~I
N ~ '~M1
I ' ~ M .~Y2
" ' ' ' 6PY2
elaatic foundation
L
Fig. 4. Beam on elastic foundation element.
 First-order Generalised Beam Theory 201

where the terms of the 4 x 4 stiffness matrix [K] are given in Appendix
B.
The consistent load vector for a uniformly distributed load has the form

MF
(8)
PF
--MF

where PF and MF are also given in Appendix B. It may be noted that with
this formulation, nodal loads and boundary conditions can be applied
directly in the usual way.

MANUAL CALCULATION USING GBT

As an illustration of manual calculation using GBT, the problem shown

in Fig. 5 will be solved. A beam with the cross-section shown in Fig. 2 is
simply supported over a span of 120cm and subject to a vertical
uniformly distributed load acting along the centre of the cross-section.
It is immediately obvious that, in order to obtain a sensible solution to
this problem, it is essential to take into account distortion of the cross-
section.
As has already been explained, the warping functions for modes 1 to
4, the rigid-body modes, may be obtained using elementary structural
mechanics. For any section, mode 1 is always a unit axial strain and the
warping function lt~= - 1 across the entire section.
Mode 2 represents bending about the vertical axis through the centroid.
The associated warping function is a linear distribution of strain in the

li

/f / / / / / / / /

Fig. 5. Example using GBT.

202 J. M. Davies, P. Leach

horizontal direction, the strain at any point being proportional to the

horizontal distance from the z-axis.
Similarly, mode 3 represents bending about the horizontal axis through
the centroid and the associated warping function is the vertical distance of
the various points of the cross-section from this axis.
Finally, mode 4 represents a unit twist about the shear centre and the
warping function 4~ is the sectorial coordinate. The calculation of sectorial
coordinates is not trivial but computational algorithms have been pub-
lished 6 and they have been tabulated for some common sections]
Once the warping functions for modes 1 to 4 have been identified, the
other associated quantities in Table 3 for these modes follow directly. If
they are not obvious by inspection, they can be calculated using the
general procedures which will now be explained with reference to mode 5.
The warping function for mode 5 can be determined from the condition
that it must be orthogonal to the other modes, i.e.

f
A
ill k/~ dA = 0 for i ¢- k (9)

For the symmetrical section shown in Fig. 2 subject to a vertical load, it

is evident that the mode required must be symmetrical. A symmetric
mode will automatically be orthogonal to the antisymmetric modes 2
and 4 so that it is only necessary to ensure orthogonality with modes 1
and 3. If the warping function is assumed to have ordinates {a, b, c, b, a},
then

f
A
it7 5fidA gives

3×0"3×(-1)× -- +15×0"3x(-1)× =0

i.e. - 0-45a -- 2"7b - 2.25c = 0

and
f
A
ail St~dA=0 gives

[6"3640a 3 4"2426b 6"3640b6 4"2426a ]

3xO-3x
 First-order Generalised Beam Theory 203

I4'2426b 3 6"3640c 4"2426c- 6"3640b1

+15x0.3 t 6 =0

i.e. 2.5456a+3"8183b-6.3640c=O

Solving these two simultaneous equations gives

b = -0.3333a
c=0.2000a

The absolute magnitudes of the warping ordinates for modes 5

and above are indeterminate and it is usual to normalise them to make
the largest numerically equal to plus or minus unity. It then follows
that

sO1 = - 1

~u2 =0"3333
5~3 =0"2000
5~4=0"3333
s~s = - - 1

These values of fi give rise to slopes Of~/Os which cause in-plane displace-
ments of each element of the section in the s-direction. Thus

5F_L 1 _ ~ 1 - f i 2 _ - 1 - 0 . 3 3 3 3 _ -0.4444
bl 3

5F_L2_ fi2-tt3 0"3333+0"2_0.0356

b2 15

and 5 F - L 3 and 5 F - L 4 follow by symmetry:

5F-L3 = -0.0356
5F-L4 = 0-4444

These in-plane displacements define various movements of the plate

elements which can be determined by simple geometry. Neglecting for the
present the implied transverse bending of the plates by considering the
connection at node 3 to be a hinge, the movements shown by the full line
in Fig. 6 can be calculated. It is easy to show that these give rise to the
204 .J. M. Davies, P. Leach

IW V : ,

0.~.0356
(~:~'-~,,-0.4444 0.4444j'~
~(~)
Fig. 6. Cross-sectionalmovementsin mode5. Fig. 7. Bendingmoments for mode 5.

following movements:

5F-Q=0.0836 5F-0=-0.0320 5f=_0.4073 5~= 0.2212

0-2044 --0.0320 -0.3394 0.2891
0.2044 0.0320 0 -0-0503
0.0836 0-0320 0.3394 0-2891
0.4073 0.2212

It is now necessary to introduce continuity at node 3 by rotating plates

2 and 3 at this node without moving nodes 2 and 4, whose positions are
determined by geometry. Nodes 1 and 5 are not constrained during this
operation. This introduces the bending moment distribution shown in
Fig. 7, where

3 Et 3
5ff/3 b2 1 2 [ 1 - v 2] 5F-02

3 x 21 000 × 0"33 x --0"0320

15 × 10.92
= 0.3323 kN/cm

It also introduces additional rotations at nodes 2 and 4 which are

numerically equal to ½(F-02)=0.0160 with corresponding changes in
F-Q and F-O for plates 1 and 4 and ~ and v~ for nodes 1 and 5. This
brings the values calculated above into agreement with Table 3. The final
displaced shape of the cross-section is then shown by the chain-dotted
line in Fig. 6.
 First-order GeneralisedBeam Theory 205

The section properties can now be calculated using generalisations of

the familiar formulae:

5C=fS~2dA [compare I = f y 2 d A , etc.]

A

=2x3x0-3[(- 1)2--1 X 0.33333+0"33332]

0.3[0.33332-0.2×0.33333+0"22]
+ 2 x 15 ×

= 0"720 cm 4 (10)
n
1
5
F-O2b, t 3 [compare J = ½ E b t 3]
D = ~ r=l
-3-1 x 2 × 0"33[0"04802 X 3+0"03202 x 15]
= 0"000401 cm 2 (11)

Note: The formula used above has the advantage of familiarity and gives a
good approximation to RD. The general theory also incorporates a more
precise expression:

5 B = f 1211 - v 2] rfi2 ds
J Et a
S

_ 1 F2 × 0"33232
51"923 / - - 3x 151

= 0"02127 kN/cm 2 (12)

Finally, for completeness, the unit shear flows can now be calculated for
kW'= 1 using

a(s)t(s)
f
S

%(s)t(st=~1d ds
0
(13)
compare zt = -- 1 f y dA for unit shear force]
206 J. M. Davies, P. Leach

The shear force in each face then follows:

r+l

%= f kz~(s)t(s)ds (14)
r

Thus, for face 1

sfi(s) = 0"4444s - 1
q
.'. 5%(s) . t(s)= ~ 2 [O'4444s2 1. sJ = 0-4167/cm for s= 3

5S, = 00@2 [0"44~4sa 1 .s213 -

2- _]o- - 1"0417

and for face 2

5fi(s) = - 0.0356s + 0.3333

5zs(s) • t(s) = - 0.4167 + 00_~732[ -0"0356s2

2 ÷0"3333s]

=0 for s = 15
0.3333s2"~] 1'
2 }Ao
= 1.0417

The full pattern of shear flow for this mode is shown in Fig. 8. This
completes the derivation of the full set of section properties for mode 5
given in Table 3 and concludes the first phase of the calculations.
Having determined the section properties, the next step is to solve the
fundamental beam equation for each of the modes which is to be included
in the solution. It is immediately apparent that the analyst can exercise
choice here and can investigate the significance of individual modes.
Furthermore, the boundary conditions do not have to be the same for the
different modes. These are considerable advantages of GBT which are not
available in other methods.
We note here that as the structure and its loading are symmetrical, the
deformation must be symmetrical. It follows that only modes 3 (bending
 First-order Generalised Beam Theory 207

0.4167

Fig. 8. Shear forces and shear flow for mode 5.

about the horizontal principal axis) and 5 (distortion of the cross-section)

play any role. The section will be considered to be simply supported with
respect to both these modes.
The load terms in the fundamental beam equation represent the
virtual work of the loads acting on the modal displacements. They can
be calculated in two alternative ways, both of which lead to the same
result:
(a) By considering the virtual work of the horizontal and vertical com-
ponents of the nodal loads acting on the modal displacements k~
and k~, i.e.

n+l
kq= Z qY,rk~rq-qz, rk~,r (15)
r=l

so that here, noting that the applied load is in the negative direction and
that both 3/~3 and 5k 3 are also negative,

3q = 1"0
5q = 0"0503

(b) By considering equilibrium of the shears ks as shown in Fig. 9,

where the governing equation is

*q= ~ *q,kSr (16)

r=l

For mode 3, the general beam equation (2) reduces to

E 3C 3V't" = 3q, i.e. E1 V"" = q

208 J. M. Davies, P. Leach

~L1"0

. / N .
O.70~ ~707 1

qr

m\ /, 41"

-0.0524 0.0524
3S r 0.05035 Sr

Fig. 9. Resolution of load between modes.

which is the usual equation of the Engineers' theory of bending neglecting

distortion of the cross-section. The solution is therefore standard and at
mid-span:

3W(L/2)=3qL2
8
I i.e. M - ----ff--[
qL21

1"0 x 1202
- 180 kN cm
8

and
3V(L/2)_ 53qL4 I 5qL4]
384E 3C i.e. w = 384EI

5 x - l ' O x 1204
=0"08818 cm
384 x 21 000 x 145-8

The longitudinal stresses then follow from

k~= kc i.e. a = (17)

 First-order Generalised Beam Theory 209

i.e. for mode 3, node 1,

-- 180 x 6"364
aal- 145-8 -7"857 kN/cm 2 (tension positive)

The complete pattern of mid-span stresses for mode 3 is given in Table

4(a). The deformations at mid-span are also given in Table 4. Because
mode 3 is a rigid-body mode, the calculation of 3v and 3w at the nodes is
trivial.
For mode 5, the general beam equation (2) is complete, i.e.

E sc SV"'--G SD Sv"+SB SV=Sq

The analogous beam on elastic foundation equation is

E I y " - Ny" + ky = q

TABLE 4
Resultant Stresses and Deflections a t M i d - S p a n
(a) L o n g i t u d i n a l s t r e s s e s a t m i d - s p a n

Node: 1 2 3 4 5

aa 7'86 5"24 - 7'86 5'24 7"86

sa - 26'40 8"800 - 5"28 8"80 - 26' 40

Ztr -- 18'54 14"04 - 13"14 14"04 - 18-54

(b) Horizontal deflections a t m i d - s p a n

Node: 1 2 3 4 5

3v 0 0 0 0 0
5v - 0"909 - 0-700 0 0"700 0"909

Ev - 0"909 - 0"700 0 0"700 0"909

(c) V e r t i c a l d e f l e c t i o n s a t m i d - s p a n ( u p w a r d s p o s i t i v e )

Node: 1 2 3 4 5

Sw -- 0.088 -- 0.088 -- 0.088 - 0.088 - 0.088

Sw 0-386 0-596 -- 0" 104 0-596 0.386

Zw 0-298 0-508 - 0' 192 0"508 0"298

210 J. M. Davies, P. Leach

with the following substitution:

Span L -- 120 cm
Young's modulus E = 21 000 kN/cm 2
Second moment of area I =SC = 0"72 cm 4
(Tensile) axial force N = G SD = 8077 × 0.000401 = 3-239 kN
Foundation modulus k = SB = 0-02127 kN/cm 2
Distributed load q = Sq = 0-0503 kN/cm
This can be solved in one of three ways:
(a) Using an explicit solution (as given, for example, by Hetenyi3):

q f 1
[2~fl(cosh ~x cos fix'
y= ~ 1 2atfl(cosh ~L + cos ilL)

+cos cosh ~ x ' ) + ( ~ z - fl2)(sinh ~x sin fix' + s i n fix sinh atx')]t

./

(18)
where x = distance along the beam, x ' = L - x and

= 22 + 4E----] fl = 4EI F.I

Substituting into this e q u a t i o n gives, at mid-span,

y(L/2) = sV(L/2) = 2-061 cm

and, either explicitly by differentiation, or numerically,

EIy"(L/2) = M ( L / 2 ) - 5W(L/2)= 19.01 k N cm

(b) Using finite differences. If the span is divided into 6 slices, the finite
difference p r o b l e m expressed in matrix form is s h o w n in Table 5. It is
necessary to solve 14 simultaneous equations. These are simple to pro-
g r a m b u t the use of a c o m p u t e r is, of course, m a n d a t o r y .
The solution gives values of SV a n d SWat each node. At mid-span, the
values are

y(L/2) - sV(L/2) = 2.060 cm

M(L/2) =- sW(L/2) = 19.03 k N cm

(c) Using finite elements. If only the stresses a n d deflections at m i d - s p a n

are required, the simple two-element model s h o w n in Fig. 10 will suffice
 TABLE 5
Finite Difference Solution for M o d e 5 of Example

Y2 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6 ~76 R1 M2 Ma M4 M5 M6 R7

-a ma - 2Ax - 2
m a
0 2a 0 - 10 -1 .~.
--a 2a -1 - 10 -1
-a 2a -a -1 -10 -1
a 2a -a -1 -10 -1 0
-a 2a 0 -1 -10 0 0
-a -a -2 -- 2Ax 0

b+ 2N b+ 2N 2Ax - 2 qAx 2
0 c 0 2 -1 qAx 2
b -1 2 -1 qAx 2
-1 2 -1 qAx 2
b -1 2 -1 qAx 2
c 0 -1 2 0 qAx 2
b+2N b+2N -2 2Ax qAx 2

12EI 12 x 21000 x 0"720

Ax = 120/6 = 20 cm; a Ax 2 202 = 453"6 kN; N = 3"2389 k N (axial force)

kAx 2 0"02127 x 202 kAx 2

b= -N+ = -3"2389÷ +2.5299 kN; c = 2 N + - 7 ~ . = 13.568 k N
12 12 1.2
bO
212 J. M. Davies, P. Leach

I I I I 111 I I 111111IIIIII1

Fig. 10. Model for finite element analysis.

and give exact answers. This model has only four degrees of freedom and
therefore requires the solution of just four simultaneous equations. The
solution is

y ( L / 2 ) - 5 V ( L / 2 ) = 2.061 cm
M ( L / 2 ) - s W ( L / 2 ) = 19.01 k N cm

The longitudinal stresses for this mode then follow from eqn (14) as for
mode 3, e.g.

5W stY1 19-01 × ( - 1)
5trl- 5C 0-72 - 2 6 . 4 0 k N c m 2, etc.

The complete pattern of stresses is given in Table 4(a).

The deflections at different points of the cross-section can also be easily
calculated. For instance, at section 1,

5W 1 = 5V 5w 1 = 2"061 × 0"1873 = 0"3860 cm

The remaining deflections at mid-span can be calculated similarly and

these are also given in Table 4. The discerning reader will immediately
notice the significance of the distortion terms. Quite clearly, a conven-
tional analysis based on the Engineers' theory of bending would give the
mode 3 terms only and hence, quite misleading results.
It should be noted at this point that the transverse bending m o m e n t
distribution due to distortion of the cross-section is also available. Thus, at
mid-span,

5m 3 = s V ( L / 2 ) s~ 3 = 2.061 x (-0.3323) = -0-6849 k N cm/cm

It follows that GBT can provide the complete pattern of quantities that
are of interest to the designer/analyst and it can do this in a particularly
concise and useful form. The authors believe that for this, and for m a n y
other reasons, it deserves to be more widely known.
 First-order Generalised Beam Theory 213

CONCLUSIONS

Generalised Beam Theory is important for two reasons:

• The purely theoretical reason that it represents a major step forward
in our understanding of structural principles.
• The very practical reason that it provides a powerful and economical
method of analysis for a wide range of problems.
This paper has described the principles of the theory (largely without
formal proof) and shown how it may be applied to bending problems in
which cross-sectional distortion is important. Subsequent papers will
generalise the derivation of section properties and present a computer
program whereby they may be calculated. They will also show how the
method may be applied to other practical problems. In a companion
paper, the authors show how second-order effects may be included in the
analysis and apply it to a range of buckling problems. The investiga-
tion of buckling problems using Generalised Beam Theory is particularly
important because, by separating and then combining the various buck-
ling modes, such problems as the interaction between local and global
buckling are amenable to a particularly elegant treatment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to pay tribute to Professor R. Schardt for sharing his
ideas so readily with the authors in many fruitful discussions. They also
acknowledge that a number of the ideas presented in this paper find their
inspiration in Chapter 1 of Ref. 1.

REFERENCES

1. Schardt, R., Verallgemeinerte Technische Biegetheorie [Generalised Beam Theory].

Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1989.
2. Wlassow, W. S., Allgemeine Schalentheorie und ihre Anwendung in der Technik.
Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 1958.
3. Hetenyi, M., Beams on Elastic Foundations. University of Michigan Press, Ann
Arbor, MI, 1946.
4. Schardt, R. & Okur, H., Hilfswerte f/ir die L6sung der Differential-gleichung
[Aids for the solution of the differential equation] ayiV(x)-by"(x)+cy(x)=
p(x). Stahlbau, 1 (1971) 6-17.
5. Davies, J. M., An exact finite element for beam on elastic foundation problems.
J. Struct. Mech., 14(4) (1986) 489-99.
214 J. M. Davies, P. Leach

6. Roberts, T. M., Section properties of thin-walled bars of open cross-section.

Struct. Engr, 4313(3) (1985) 63-7.
7. Davies, J. M., Torsion of light gauge steel members. In Design of Cold-Formed
Steel Members, ed. J. Rhodes. Elsevier Science Publishers, London, 1991,
pp. 229q54.

A P P E N D I X A: F I N I T E D I F F E R E N C E S O L U T I O N
OF FUNDAMENTAL BEAM EQUATION

The solution is presented in terms of the beam on elastic foundation which

has the following differential equations:

Ei d4Y_~z d2y
dx 4 .. dx2 +ky=q (A1)

E1 d 2 y - M (A2)
dx 2

where E1 =flexural rigidity of the beam;

N = axial force (tensile positive);
k = modulus of elastic foundation (kN/mm);
q = uniformly distributed load;
M = bending moment (hogging positive).

The notation is further illustrated in Fig. A1.

Equations (A1) and (A2) are more conveniently expressed as

d2y +
-M-N~x 2 ky=q (A3)

P Point Load

I cl''' M
I
Jq' I el'°' Di stLri:(~ t e d
X N N
| ,I- ...- • . . . . I .... .- . . -.~ Beam
' ; , ~ ; ,'..' ", " . i '.,(.
lY Foundation of
' " " '
•
"
•
I " ' " • J "
"
'
.
"
.
•
.
"
.
,
. .
"
.
" ' •
.''
"
•
"
• .
• '
Modulus 'k'
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / // / / / / /

Fig. AI. Notation for finite difference solution.

 First-order Generalised Beam Theory 215

M+EZ3=0
dx2
644)

Using this form of the equations, the finite difference operations for point i
are expressed in terms of the two variables y and M:

(for A3) -Uyi-,+2Uyi-_y,+,-Mi_,-lOMi-Mi+,=PiAX (A5)

(for A4) byi-,+Cyi+byi+,-M~-~+2Mi_Mi+~=[Pi+P,i]Ax (A6)

12EZ
where a=-jQ-

b= -Iv+% c=2N+
5kAx2
6
kAx2 2kAx2
d= -2N+3 e=2N+
3

Equations (A5) and (A6) can be conveniently expressed in terms of a coeffi-

cient table:

Yi-1 Yi Yi+l Mi-1 Mi Mi+l Right-hand side

---a 2a -a -1 -10 -1 AxPi

b c b -1 2 -1 Ax(Pi + Fqi)

Boundary conditions

As with all finite difference solutions, the boundary conditions introduce

non-standard coefficients into the equations. The following coefficient
tables cover the cases most usually encountered.

1. Clamped end
216 J. M. Davies, P. Leach

Instead of Yl = 0 , the support force R is introduced as an additional un-

known.

R Y2 Y3 M1 M2 M3 Right-hand side

-2Ax -2a 0 -10 -2 0 -2API

0 2a -a -1 -10 -1 -AP2
2Ax 2a 0 2 -2 0 2Ax(P1 +Fql)
0 c b - 1 2 - 1 Ax(P 2 q- fq2 )

2. Sliding clamp

Yl Y2 Y3 M1 Mz M3 Right-hand side

2a -2a 0 - 10 -2 0 -2AxP1
-a 2a -a -1 -10 -1 AxP2
c 2b 0 2 -2 0 2Ax(P1 +Fql)
b c b - 1 2 - 1 Ax(P2 + Fq2)

3. Pinned

(~

Ill

Instead of M t = 0 and Yl =0, the fictitious deflection .~2 and the support
force R are introduced, respectively, as unknowns.
 First-order Generalised Beam Theory 217

)72 Y2 Y3 R M2 Ma Right-hand side

--a -a 0 -2Ax -2 0 -2AxP1

0 2a -a 0 - 10 - 1 -AxP2
(b + 2 N ) ( b + 2 N ) 0 2Ax -2 0 2Ax(PI+Fq~)
0 c b 0 2 - 1 Ax(P2 + Fq2)

4. Free

I n s t e a d of M~ = 0 , the fictitious deflection )72 is i n t r o d u c e d as u n k n o w n .

Yl Y2 Y3 )72 M2 M3 Right-hand side

2a (-a+N) 0 (--a-N) 2 0 -2AxPI

-a 2a -a 0 - 10 - 1 -AxP2
e d 0 0 -2 0 2Ax(PI +Fql)
b c b 0 2 - 1 Ax(P 2 + Fq2)

5. Internal support

Yj- 1 Rj Yi+ ~ Mr- 1 Mr Mr+ 1 Right-hand side

2a 0 0 -10 -1 0 --AxP~-l
--a -Ax -a - 1 - 10 - 1 -AxPj
0 2a 0 -1 -10 -AxPj+I
c 0 0 2 --1 0 Ax(Pj_,+F~d_,)
b Ax b - 1 2 - I Ax(Pfq,j)
0 0 c 0 -1 2 Ax(Pr+l+Fq,r+l)
218 J. M. Davies, P. Leach

A P P E N D I X B: F I N I T E E L E M E N T S O L U T I O N O F
FUNDAMENTAL BEAM EQUATION

The solution is presented in terms of the beam on elastic foundation which

has the following differential equation:

EI d4Y_ Iv d2y
dx 4 -, d x 2 + k y = q

where El=flexural rigidity of the beam;

N = axial force (tensile positive);
k ---modulus of elastic foundation (kN/mm);
q = uniformly distributed load.
The subject finite element has been shown previously as Fig. 4.

Basic case: - 2x/~EI <~N <~2x/~EI

P=B[A]-~d

where P=
F :l
Py2 Y2
.M2.] y~

I sin flL 0 0 sinh ~L l

A=
oOS , sin ~tL sin flL
k-flc°shctL acoshctL flcosflL -acosflL.J

where ~ = •/ /~2
N
q 4EI

/ N
fl = . / 2 2
V 4EI
 First-order Generalised Beam Theory 219

F B~I
B=/8 1
B12
B22
BI3
B23
B14q
B24]
B31 B32 B33 B341
I_Ba B42 B43 B44_]

w h e r e B11 = -- El" $1 [f13 -- 3~2fl]COSi l L - Nfl cos flL

n 1 2 = - - El" S 2 [(z 3 _ 3aft 2 ] COS flL + Net cos flL
n13 = El" S 1 [ fl 3 _ 3a 2fl] cosh o~L + N ~ cosh ~L
n14 = El" S2[~ 3 -- 3ctfl2]cosh o~L-Nct cosh ~ L
n21 = - E I [~2 _ f l 2 ] s i n flL
B22 = - El" Sl(2afl)sin flL
B23 = EI" S2(2afl)sinh a L
B24 = - - E l [~2 _ f12] sin h otL
n31 = -- El" S i [ fl 3 _ 3a 2fl ] cosh a L - Nfl cosh aL
B32 = - El" $2 [ct 3 _ 3aft 2 ] cosh a L + N a cosh ctL
B33 = E1 " Sl [fl 3 - 3a2 fl ]cos i l L + N i l cos flL
B34 = El" $2 [ a a - - 3aft2 ] cos i l L - Net cos flL
B41 = El" S2(2afl)sinh a L
B42 = - E1 [ct 2 _ fl 2 ] sinh ctL
B43 = - E1 [~2 _ fl 2 ] sin flL
B44 = - E l . Sl(2ctfl)sin flL

a n d w h e r e $1 = S2 = 1-0 for the basic case.

Construction of consistent load vector for a uniformly distributed load

of q per unit length

P= MF

-- M F

ctflq(ct2 + f12)
(cosh a L - cos ilL)
w h e r e Pv = 224(fl sinh a L + a sin ilL)

q(ct2 + f l 2 )
(fl sinh o~L-o~ sin ilL)
M v - 4 2 4 ( f l sinh ~ L + c t sin ilL)
220 J. M. Davies, P. Leach

Case of N > 2 x / / ~
In the equations given above:

(a) ~ is unchanged and = - .

(b) Change sin flL to sinh flL and cos tL to cosh ilL.
(c) Change (~2--fl2) to (0t2"Jt-fl2), (~2"Jt-fl2) to (a2--f12), (a3--3a2) to
(eta + 3~fl 2) and (f13-3a2fl) to (f13 + 3ct2fl).
(d) Change $1 from 1.0 to - 1 . 0 .

Case of N<2x/kEI
In the equations given above:

(a) 0 t = ; / ~ 2 -- 4E--I
N and i = /--~. 2 - ~N (tension positive).

(b) Change sinh aL to sin aL and cosh ~L to cos aL.

(c) Change (a2_f12) to ( _ a 2 _ f 1 2 ) and (a2+f12) to ( _ a 2 + f 1 2 ) .
(d) Change $2 from 1-0 to -1-0.

Special case of zero coefficients

If the axial load is N = 0 , standard beam on elastic foundation theory

suffices. For this case, ~ = fl = 2 and the foregoing derivations simplify but
remain valid. For the special case k = 0 , i.e. no elastic foundation, the
above derivation breaks down. However, there are well-known equations
for the resulting axially loaded bending element that are given in m a n y
standard textbooks. It is therefore necessary to treat k = 0 as a special case
and to use the available explicit stiffness matrix based on stability func-
tions.
As an alternative to treating k = 0 as a special case, solutions that are
sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes can be obtained by inserting
a very small value for k in the general solution.