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Module 8
(Lecture 33)
PILE FOUNDATIONS
Topics

1.1 PILE-DRIVING FORMULAS

1.2 NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION

 Clay Fill over Granular Soil

 Granular Soil Fill over Clay

1.3 GROUP PILES

1.4 GROUP EFFICIENCY
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PILE-DRIVING FORMULAS

To develop the desired load-carrying capacity, a point bearing pile must penetrate the
dense soil layer sufficiently or have sufficient contact with a layer of rock. This
requirement cannot always be satisfied by driving a pile to a predetermined depth
because soil profiles vary. For that reason, several equations have been developed to
calculate the ultimate capacity of a pile during driving. These dynamic equations are
widely used in the field to determine whether the pile as reached satisfactory bearing
value at the predetermined depth. One of the earliest of these dynamic equations-
commonly referred to as the Engineering News Record (ENR) formula-is derived from
the work-energy theory. That is,

Energy imparted by the hammer per blow = (pile resistance) (penetration per hammer
blow)

According to the ENR formula, the pile resistance is the ultimate load 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 , expressed as
𝑊𝑊 𝑅𝑅 ℎ
𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = [8.118]
𝑆𝑆+𝐶𝐶

Where

𝑊𝑊𝑅𝑅 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒, 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐷𝐷. 4𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐷𝐷)

ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

𝑆𝑆 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

𝐶𝐶 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

The pile penetration, S, is usually based on the average value obtained from the last few
driving blows. In the equations’ original form, the following values of C were
recommended.

For drop hammers: C = 1 in. (if the units of S and h are in inches)

For steam hammers: C = 0.1 in. (if the units of S and h are in inches)

Also, a factor of safety, 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 6, was recommended to estimate the allowable pile
capacity. Note that, for single- and double-acting hammers, the term 𝑊𝑊𝑅𝑅 ℎ can be replaced
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by 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (where 𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐻𝐻𝐸𝐸 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎).
Thus
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 𝑆𝑆+𝐶𝐶𝐸𝐸 [8.119]

The ENR formula has been revised several times over the years, and other pile-driving
formulas also have been suggested. Some of them are tabulated in table 1.

The maximum stress developed on a pile during the driving operation can be estimated
from the pile-driving formulas presented in table 11. To illustrate, we use the modified
ENR formula:

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅 ℎ 𝑊𝑊 𝑅𝑅 +𝑛𝑛 2 𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝

𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 𝑆𝑆+𝐶𝐶 𝑊𝑊 𝑅𝑅 +𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝

In this equation, S equals the average penetration per hammer blow, which can also be
expressed as
1
𝑆𝑆 = 𝑁𝑁 [8.120]

Where

𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

𝑁𝑁 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

Table 11 Pile-Driving formulas

Name Formula

Modified ENR 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑅𝑅 ℎ 𝑊𝑊𝑅𝑅 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝

formula 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 =
𝑆𝑆 + 𝐶𝐶 𝑊𝑊𝑅𝑅 + 𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝

Where

𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

𝐶𝐶 = 0.1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. , 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ℎ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

𝑛𝑛 =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

Typical values for E

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Single- and double-acting hammers 0.7-0.85

Diesel hammers 0.8-0.9

Drop hammers 0.7-0.9

Typical values for n

Cast iron hammer and concrete pile (without cap) 0.4-0.5

Wood cushion on steel piles 0.3-0.4

Wooden pile 0.25-0.3

Michigan State 1.25𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑊𝑊𝑅𝑅 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝

Highway 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 =
𝑆𝑆 + 𝐶𝐶 𝑊𝑊𝑅𝑅 + 𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝
Commission
formula (1965)

Where

𝐻𝐻𝐸𝐸 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ′ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 −

𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. )

𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

𝐶𝐶 = 0.1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.

A factor of safety of 6 is recommended.

Danish formula 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

(Olson and Flaate, 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 =
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐿𝐿
1967) 𝑆𝑆 + �2𝐴𝐴 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝

Where
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𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

𝐻𝐻𝐸𝐸 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝐿𝐿 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Pacific Coast 𝑊𝑊𝑅𝑅 + 𝑛𝑛𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝

(𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ) � 𝑊𝑊 + 𝑊𝑊 �
Uniform Building 𝑅𝑅 𝑝𝑝
𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 =
𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 𝐿𝐿
Code formula 𝑆𝑆 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑝𝑝
(International
Conference of
Building Officials,
1982) The value of n should be 0.25 for steel piles and 0.1 a for all other
piles. A factor of safety of 4 is generally recommended.

Janbu’s formula 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 =
(Janbu, 1953) 𝐾𝐾′𝑢𝑢 𝑆𝑆

Where

𝜆𝜆′
𝐾𝐾′𝑢𝑢 = 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 �1 + �1 + �
𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑

𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝
𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 = 0.75 + 0.14 � �
𝑊𝑊𝑅𝑅

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐿𝐿
𝜆𝜆′ = � �
𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 𝑆𝑆 2

Gates formula 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 𝑎𝑎�𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (𝑏𝑏 − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑆𝑆)

(Gates, 1957)

If 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 is in 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, then S is 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝑎𝑎 = 27, 𝑏𝑏 = 1, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐻𝐻𝐸𝐸 is in

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓.
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If 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 is in 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, then S is in mm, 𝑎𝑎 = 104.5, 𝑏𝑏 = 2.4, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐻𝐻𝐸𝐸 is in

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝑚𝑚

𝐸𝐸 = 0.75 for drop hammer; 𝐸𝐸 = 0.85 for all other hammer

Use a factor of safety of 3.

Navy-McKay 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 =
formula 𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝
𝑆𝑆 �1 + 0.3 𝑊𝑊 �
𝑅𝑅

Use a factor of safety of 6.

Thus

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ℎ
𝑅𝑅 𝑊𝑊 𝑅𝑅 +𝑛𝑛 2 𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝
𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = (1/𝑁𝑁)+0.1 [8.121]
𝑊𝑊 𝑅𝑅 +𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝

Different values of N may be assumed for a given hammer and pile and 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 calculated.
The driving stress can then be calculated for each value of N and 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 /𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 .

𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 = 100 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖2

The weight of the pile is

100 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 2
𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 𝐿𝐿𝛾𝛾𝑐𝑐 = � � (80 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓)(150 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 3 ) = 8.33 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
144

If the weight of the cap is 0.67 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘,

𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝 = 8.33 + 0.67 = 9 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Again, from for an 11B3 hammer,

Rated energy= 19.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝐻𝐻𝐸𝐸 = 𝑊𝑊𝑅𝑅 ℎ

Weight of ram= 5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Assume that the hammer efficiency is 0.85 and that 𝑛𝑛 = 0.35. Substituting these values
in equation (121) yields

(0.85)(19.2×2) 5+(0.35)2 (9) 85.37

𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = � 1 �� �= 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
+0.1 5+9 +0.1
𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁

Now the following table can be prepared:

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𝑁𝑁 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) 𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖2 ) 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 /𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖2 )

0 0 100 0

2 142.3 100 1.42

4 243.9 100 2.44

6 320.1 100 3.20

8 379.4 100 3.79

10 426.9 100 4.27

12 465.7 100 4.66

20 569.1 100 5.69

Both the number of hammer blows per inch and the stress can now be plotted in a graph,
as shown in figure 8.47. If such a curve is prepared, the number of blows per inch of pile
penetration corresponding to the allowable pile-driving stress can be easily determined.

Figure 8.47

Actual driving stresses in wooden piles are limited to about 0.7𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢 . Similarly, for concrete
and steel piles, driving stresses are limited to about 0.6𝑓𝑓′𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 0.85𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 , respectively.
NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

In most cases, wooden piles are driven with hammer energy of less than 45 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
(≈ 60 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝑚𝑚). Driving resistances are limited are limited mostly to 4-5 blows per inch of
pile penetration. For concrete and steel piles, the usual N values are 6-8 and 12-14,
respectively.

Example 11

A precast concrete pile 12 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.× 12 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. in cross sections in driven by a hammer. Given:

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 30 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0.8

𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 7.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ = 80 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 0.4

𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 550 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 = 3 × 106 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖2

Number of blow for last 1 in. of penetration = 8

Estimate the allowable pile capacity by the

a. Modified ENR formula (use 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 6)

b. Danish formula (use 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 4)
c. Gates formula (use 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 3)

Solution

Part a
(0.8)(30×12 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 .) 7.5+(0.4)2 (12.55)
𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 1 × = 607 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
8
+0.1 7.5+12.55

𝑄𝑄 607
𝑄𝑄𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑢𝑢 = ≈ 101 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
6

Part b
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐿𝐿
𝑆𝑆+� 𝐸𝐸
2𝐴𝐴 𝐸𝐸 𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝

Use 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 = 3 × 106 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖2 .

NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐿𝐿 (0.8)(30×12)(80×12)
�2𝐴𝐴 =� 3×10 6
= 0.566 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.
𝑝𝑝 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 2(12×12)� 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 /𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 2 �
1000

(0.8)(30×12)
𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 1 ≈ 417 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
8
+0.566

417
𝑄𝑄𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = ≈ 104 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
4

Part c

𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 𝑎𝑎�𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (𝑏𝑏 − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑆𝑆) = 27�(0.8)(30) [1 − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙�18�] ≈ 252 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

252
𝑄𝑄𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = 84 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
3

NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION

Negative skin friction is a downward drag force exerted on the pile by the soil
surrounding it. This action can occur under conditions such as the following:

1. If a fill of clay soil is placed over a granular soil layer into which a pile is driven,
the fill will gradually consolidate. This consolidation process will exert a
downward drag force on the pile (figure 8.48a) during the period of
consolidation.
2. If a fill of granular soil is placed over a layer of soft clay, as shown in figure 8.
48b, it will induce the process of consolidation in the clay layer and thus exert a
downward drag on the pile.
3. Lowering of the water table will increase the vertical effective stress on the soil at
any depth, which will induce consolidation settlement in clay. If a pile is located
in the clay layer, it will be subjected to a downward drag force.

In some cases, the downward drag force may be excessive and cause foundation failure.
This section outlines two tentative methods for the calculation of negative skin friction.
NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Figure 8.48 Negative skin friction

Clay Fill over Granular Soil (Figure 8.48a)

Similar to the 𝛽𝛽 method presented in section 12, the negative (downward) skin stress on
the pile is
′
𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 = 𝐾𝐾 ′𝜎𝜎 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛿𝛿 [8.122]

Where

𝐾𝐾 ′ = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐾𝐾𝑜𝑜 = 1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝜎𝜎′𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ℎ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝛾𝛾′𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧

𝛾𝛾′𝑓𝑓 = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

𝛿𝛿 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ≈ 0.5 − 0.7𝜙𝜙

Hence the total downward drag force, 𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛 , on a pile is

𝐻𝐻 𝑝𝑝𝐾𝐾 ′ 𝛾𝛾′ 𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛿𝛿

𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛 = ∫0 𝑓𝑓 (𝑝𝑝𝐾𝐾 ′ 𝛾𝛾 ′ 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛿𝛿)𝑧𝑧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = [8.123]
2

Where

𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 = ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

If the fill is above the water table, the effective unit weight, 𝛾𝛾′𝑓𝑓 , should be replaced by the
moist unit weight.
NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Granular Soil Fill over Clay (figure 8.48b)

In this case, the evidence indicates that the negative skin stress on the pile may exist from
𝑧𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿1 , which is referred to as the neutral depth (see Vesic, 1977, pp. 25-26, for
discussion). The neutral depth may be given as (Bowles, 1982):
(𝐿𝐿−𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 ) 𝐿𝐿−𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 𝛾𝛾′ 𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 2𝛾𝛾′ 𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓
𝐿𝐿1 = � 2 + �− [8.124]
𝐿𝐿1 𝛾𝛾′ 𝛾𝛾′

Where

𝛾𝛾′𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝛾𝛾 ′ =
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙, 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

For end-bearing piles, the neutral depth may be assumed to be located at the pile tip (that
is, 𝐿𝐿1 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 ).

Once the value of 𝐿𝐿1 is determined, the downward drag force is obtained in the following
manner. The unit negative skin friction at any depth from 𝑧𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿1 is

𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 = 𝐾𝐾 ′ 𝜎𝜎′𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛿𝛿 [8.125]

Where

𝐾𝐾 ′ = 𝐾𝐾𝑜𝑜 = 1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜙𝜙

𝜎𝜎′𝑣𝑣 = 𝛾𝛾′𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 + 𝛾𝛾 ′ 𝑧𝑧

𝛿𝛿 = 0.5 − 0.7𝜙𝜙
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛 = ∫0 1 𝑝𝑝𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫0 1 𝑝𝑝𝐾𝐾 ′ �𝛾𝛾 ′ 𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 𝛾𝛾 ′ 𝑧𝑧� 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛿𝛿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝐿𝐿21 𝑝𝑝𝐾𝐾 ′ 𝛾𝛾 ′ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛿𝛿

= (𝑝𝑝𝐾𝐾 ′ 𝛾𝛾 ′ 𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛿𝛿)𝐿𝐿1 + [8.126]
2

If the soil and the fill are above the water table, the effective unit weights should be
replaced by moist unit weights. In some cases, the piles can be coated with bitumen in the
downdrag zone to avoid this problem. Baligh et al. (1978) summarized the results of
several field tests that were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of bitumen coating in
reducing the negative skin friction. Their results are presented in table 12.

A limited number of case studies on negative skin friction is available in the literature.
Bjerrum et al. (1969) reported monitoring of downdrag force on a test pile at Sorenga in
the harbor of Oslo, Norway (noted as pile G in the original paper). This was also
discussed by Wong and The (1995) in terms of the pile being driven to bedrock at 40 m.
Figure 8.49 a shows the soil profile and the pile. Wong and The (1995) estimated the
following:
NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Figure 8.49 Negative skin friction on a pile in the harbor of Oslo, Norway [based on
Bjerrum et al., (1969); and Wong and The (1995)]

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹: 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑡𝑡, 𝛾𝛾𝑓𝑓 = 16 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑡𝑡, 𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (𝑓𝑓) = 18.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3

So

𝛾𝛾′𝑓𝑓 = 18.5 − 9.81 = 8.69 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3

𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 = 13 𝑚𝑚

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶: 𝐾𝐾 ′ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛿𝛿 ≈ 0.22

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑡𝑡, 𝛾𝛾 ′ = 19 − 9.81 = 9.19 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃: 𝐿𝐿 = 40𝑚𝑚

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷, 𝐷𝐷 = 500𝑚𝑚

Thus, the maximum downdrag force on the pile can be estimated from equation. (126).
Since it is a point bearing pile, the magnitude of 𝐿𝐿1 = 27 𝑚𝑚, so

𝐿𝐿21 𝑝𝑝𝛾𝛾 ′ (𝐾𝐾 ′ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛿𝛿)

𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛 = (𝑝𝑝)(𝐾𝐾 ′ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛿𝛿)[𝛾𝛾𝑓𝑓 × 2 + (13 − 2)𝛾𝛾 ′ 𝑓𝑓 ](𝐿𝐿1 ) + 2
NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Or
(27)2 (𝜋𝜋×0.5)(9.19)(0.22)
𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛 = (𝜋𝜋 × 0.5)(0.22)[(16 × 2) + (8.69 × 11)](27) + = 2348 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
2

The measured value of maximum 𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛 was about 2500 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (figure 8. 49b), which is in
good agreement with the calculated value.

Table 12 Summary of Case Studies of Bitumen-Coated Piles(After Baligh et al.

(1978))

Downward drag Test loadings

Case number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Soil type Fill, Fill and Fill and Sand Silty Silty Sand
sand, and silty clay clay and clay clay fill,
clay silty clay,
clay and peat

Pile type Cast-in- Steel Steel Steel 6 RC 6 RC Precast

place pipe pipe pile piles piles concrete
concrete
380
Pile cross 𝐷𝐷 = 530 × 450
section (mm) 𝐷𝐷 = 300 𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷 300 300
= 500 = 760 × 300 × 300

Length in 25 26 40 25 7-17 9-16 24

contact with
settling soil
(m)

Installation Predriven Enlarged Enlarge Driving Driving Driving Driving

method casing tip and tip and
slurry casing

Bitumen
coating

Type (pen
°
25 𝐶𝐶) 20/30 80/100 80/10 60/70 60/70 80-100 43
RC-0 special
Coating cutback grade
thickness
(mm) 10 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.2 1.2 10
NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Measured
shaft
resistance

Uncoated 70-80 120 300 180 31-40 31-40 160

pile (ton)

Coated pile
(ton) 5-7 10 15 3 10-33 20-42

Coating
effectiveness
(%) 92 92 95 98 30-80 30-80

Predicted
downdrag

Coated pile
(ton) 0.1 2-11 5 0-23

Coating
Effectiveness
(%)
100 91-98 98 87-100

Example 12

Refer to figure 8. 48a; 𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 = 3 𝑚𝑚. The pile is circular in cross section with a diameter of
0.5 m. For the fill that is above the water table, 𝛾𝛾𝑓𝑓 = 17.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜙𝜙 = 36° .
Determine the total drag force. Use 𝛿𝛿 = 0.7 𝜙𝜙.

Solution

From equation. (123),

𝑝𝑝𝐾𝐾 ′ 𝛾𝛾 𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛿𝛿

𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛 = 2

𝑝𝑝 = 𝜋𝜋(0.5) = 1.57 𝑚𝑚

𝐾𝐾 ′ = 1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜙𝜙 = 1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 36° = 0.41

𝛿𝛿 = (0.7)(36) = 25.2°
(1.57)(0.41)(17.2)(3)2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 25.2
𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛 = = 23.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
2
NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Example 13

Refer to figure 8. 48b. Here, 𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 = 2 𝑚𝑚, 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0.305 𝑚𝑚, 𝛾𝛾𝑓𝑓 = 16.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 ,
𝜙𝜙𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 34° , 𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 17.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 , 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿 = 20 𝑚𝑚. The water table coincides with the top
of the clay layer. Determine the downward drag force. Assume 𝛿𝛿 = 0.6𝜙𝜙𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 .

Solution

The depth of the neutral plane in given in equation (124) as

𝐿𝐿−𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 𝐿𝐿−𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 𝛾𝛾 𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 2𝛾𝛾 𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓
𝐿𝐿1 = � + �−
𝐿𝐿1 2 𝛾𝛾′ 𝛾𝛾′

Note that 𝛾𝛾′𝑓𝑓 in equation (124) has been replaced by 𝛾𝛾𝑓𝑓 because the fill is above the water
table, so
(20−2) (20−2) (16.5)(2) (2)(16.5)(2)
𝐿𝐿1 = � + (17.2−9.81)� − (17.2−9.81)
𝐿𝐿1 2

242.4
𝐿𝐿1 = − 8.93; 𝐿𝐿1 = 11.75 𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝐿1

Now, referring to equation (126), we have

𝐿𝐿21 𝐾𝐾 ′ 𝛾𝛾 ′ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛿𝛿
𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛 = (𝑝𝑝𝐾𝐾 ′ 𝛾𝛾𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛿𝛿)𝐿𝐿1 + 2

𝑝𝑝 = 𝜋𝜋(0.305) = 0.958 𝑚𝑚

𝐾𝐾 ′ = 1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 34° = 0.44

𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛 = (0.958)(0.44)(16.5)(2)[𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(0.6 × 34)](11.75)

(11.75)2 (0.958)(0.44)(17.2−9.81)[𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (0.6×34)]
+ = 60.78 + 79.97 = 140.75 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
2

GROUP PILES

GROUP EFFICIENCY

In many cases, piles are used in groups, as shown in figure 8.50, to transmit the structural
load to the soil. A pile cap is constructed over group piles. The pile cap can be contact
with the ground, as in most cases (figure 8.50a), or well above the ground, as in the case
of offshore platforms (figure 8.50b).
NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Figure 8.50 Pile groups

Determining the load-bearing capacity of group piles is extremely complicated and has
not yet been fully resolved. When the piles are placed close to each other, a reasonable
assumption is that the stresses transmitted by the piles to the soil will overlap (figure 8.
50c), reducing the load-bearing capacity of the piles. Ideally, the piles in a group should
be spaced so that the load-bearing capacity of the group should not be less than the sum
of the bearing capacity of the individual piles. In practice, the minimum center-to-center
pile spacing, 𝑑𝑑, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 2.5 𝐷𝐷, and in ordinary situations, is actually about 3 − 3.5𝐷𝐷.

The efficiency of the load-bearing capacity of a group pile may be defined as

𝑄𝑄𝑔𝑔(𝑢𝑢 )
𝜂𝜂 = [8.127]
𝛴𝛴𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢

Where

𝜂𝜂 = 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

𝑄𝑄𝑔𝑔(𝑢𝑢) = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 − 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 − 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑦𝑦 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

Many structural engineers use a simplified analysis to obtain the group efficiency for
friction piles, particularly in sand. This type of analysis can be explained with the aid of
figure 8. 50a. Depending on their spacing within the group, the piles may act in one of
two ways: (1) as a block with dimensions 𝐿𝐿𝑔𝑔 × 𝐵𝐵𝑔𝑔 × 𝐿𝐿, or (2) as individual piles. If the
piles act as a block, the frictional capacity is 𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑔𝑔 𝐿𝐿 ≈ 𝑄𝑄𝑔𝑔(𝑢𝑢) . [Note: 𝑝𝑝𝑔𝑔 = perimeter of
the cross section of block= 2(𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑛𝑛2 − 2)𝑑𝑑 + 4 𝐷𝐷, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = average unit frictional
resistance.] Similarly, for each pile acting individually, 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 ≈ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 . (Note: 𝑝𝑝 =
perimeter of the cross section of each pile.) Thus
𝑄𝑄𝑔𝑔(𝑢𝑢 ) 𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 [2(𝑛𝑛 1 +𝑛𝑛 2 −2)𝑑𝑑+4𝐷𝐷]𝐿𝐿 2(𝑛𝑛 1 +𝑛𝑛 2 −2)𝑑𝑑+4𝐷𝐷
𝜂𝜂 = = = [8.128]
𝛴𝛴 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 𝑛𝑛 1 𝑛𝑛 2 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 1 𝑛𝑛 2

Hence
2(𝑛𝑛 1 +𝑛𝑛 2 −2)𝑑𝑑+4𝐷𝐷
𝑄𝑄𝑔𝑔(𝑢𝑢) = � � 𝛴𝛴 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 [8.129]
𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 1 𝑛𝑛 2

From equation (129), if the center-to-center spacing, 𝑑𝑑, s large enough, 𝜂𝜂 > 1. In that
case, the piles will behave as individual piles. Thus, in practice, if 𝜂𝜂 < 1,

𝑄𝑄𝑔𝑔(𝑢𝑢) = 𝜂𝜂 𝛴𝛴 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢

And, if 𝜂𝜂 ≥ 1,

𝑄𝑄𝑔𝑔(𝑢𝑢) = 𝛴𝛴 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢

There are several other equations like equation (129) for the group efficiency of friction
piles. Some of these are given in table 13.

Feld (1943) suggested a method by which the load capacity of individual piles (friction)
in a group embedded in sand could be assigned. According to this method, the ultimate
capacity of a pile is reduced by one-sixteenth by each adjacent diagonal or row pile. The
technique can be explained by referring to figure 8.51, which shows the plan of a group
pile. For pile type A, there are eight adjacent piles; for pile type B, there are five adjacent
piles; and for pile type C, there are three adjacent piles. Now the following table can be
prepared:
NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Figure 8.51 Feld’s method for estimation of group capacity of friction piles

Table 13 Equations for Group Efficiency of Friction Piles

Converse-Labarre equation (𝑛𝑛1 − 1)𝑛𝑛2 + (𝑛𝑛2 − 1)𝑛𝑛1

𝜂𝜂 = 1 − � � 𝜃𝜃
90𝑛𝑛1 𝑛𝑛2

𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃 (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 (𝐷𝐷/𝑑𝑑)

Los Angles Group Action 𝐷𝐷

𝜂𝜂 = 1 − [𝑛𝑛 (𝑛𝑛 − 1)] + 𝑛𝑛2 (𝑛𝑛1 − 1)
equation 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑛𝑛1 𝑛𝑛2 1 2
+ √2(𝑛𝑛1 − 1)(𝑛𝑛2 − 1)]

Seiler and Keeney equation 111𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑛𝑛2 − 2 0.3

𝜂𝜂 = �1 − � � � �� +
(Seiler and Keeney, 1944) 7(𝑑𝑑 2 − 1) 𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑛𝑛2 − 1 𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑛𝑛2

𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

Pile type No. of No. of adjacent Reduction Ultimate

Piles piles/pile factor for each capacity
pile

A 1 8 8 0.5𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢
1−
16
B 4 5 5 2.75𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢
1−
16
C 4 3 3 3.25𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢
1−
16
NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

𝛴𝛴 6.5 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢
= 𝑄𝑄𝑔𝑔(𝑢𝑢)

(No. of piles)(𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 ) (reduction factor)

𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

Hence
𝑄𝑄𝑔𝑔(𝑢𝑢 ) 6.5 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢
𝜂𝜂 = = = 72%
𝛴𝛴 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 9𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢

Figure 8.52 shows a comparison of field test results in clay with the theoretical group
efficiency calculated from the Converse-Labarre equation (table 13). Reported by Brand
et al. (1972), these tests were conducted in soil for which the details are given in figure 8.
7 from chapter 3. Other test details include

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 6 𝑚𝑚

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 150 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 2 × 2

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 1.5 𝑚𝑚 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Figure 8.52 Variation of group efficiency with 𝑑𝑑/𝐷𝐷 (after Brand et al., 1972)
NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Pile tests were conducted with and without a cap (free-standing group). Note that for
𝑑𝑑/𝐷𝐷 ≥ 2, the magnitude of 𝜂𝜂 was greater than 1.0. Also for similar values of 𝑑𝑑/𝐷𝐷 the
group efficiency was greater with the pile cap than without the cap. Figure 8.53 shows
the pile group settlement at various stages of the load test.

Figure 8.53 Variation of group pile settlement at various stages of load (after Brand et al.,
1972)

Figure 8.54 Variation of efficiency of pile group in sand (based on Kishida and
Meyerhof, 1965)
NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Figure 8.55 Behavior of low-set ad high-set pile groups in terms of average skin friction
(based on Liu et al., 1985)
NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Figure 8. 55 (Continued)

Figure 8.54 shows the variation of group efficiency (𝜂𝜂) 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 3 × 3 group pile in sand
(Kishida and Meyerhof, 1965). It can be seen that, for loose and medium sands, the
magnitude of group efficiency is larger than one. This is primarily due to the
densification of sand surrounding the pile.

Liu et al. (1985) reported the results of field tests on 58 pile groups and 23 single piles
embedded in granular soil. Test details include

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ, 𝐿𝐿 = 8𝐷𝐷 − 23𝐷𝐷

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, 𝐷𝐷 = 125 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 330 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝑑𝑑 = 2𝐷𝐷 − 6𝐷𝐷

Figure 8. 55 shows the behavior of 3 × 3 pile groups with low-set and high-set pile caps
in terms of average skin friction, 𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 . Figure 8.56 shows the variation of average skin
friction based on the location of a pile in the group.

Figure 8.56 Average skin friction based on pile location (based on Liu et al., 1985)
NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Based on eh experimental observations of the behavior of group piles in sand to date, the
following general conclusions may be drawn.

1. For driven group piles in sand with 𝑑𝑑 ≥ 3𝐷𝐷, 𝑄𝑄𝑔𝑔(𝑢𝑢) may be taken to be
𝛴𝛴 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 , which includes the frictional and the point bearing capacities of individual
piles.
2. For bored group piles in sand at conventional spacings (𝑑𝑑 ≈ 3𝐷𝐷), 𝑄𝑄𝑔𝑔(𝑢𝑢) may be
taken to be 23 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 34 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛴𝛴 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 (frictional and point bearing capacities of individual
piles).