Motor ,Types Of Starter & Various Types

Field Instrument Use In Processing Plant

Summer Training Report

Submitted to
Noida Institute of Engineering Technology,
Greater Noida

For the partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award degree of
Bachelor Technology In
(Electrical & Electronics)
Submitted by
Neeraj Singh
ROLL NO. 1613321086

Work done at

ROQUETTE INDIA PVT. LTD, Pantnagar

Under the esteemed
guidance of

Mr. Tilak Raj Mr.Atul Kumar

Senior Executive Engi neer Senior Executive Engineer
Roquette India Pvt. Ltd, Pantnagar Roquette India Pvt. Ltd, Pantnagar
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to express my sincere thanks to the almighty God for his grace and my parents in
the completion of this training report.

Firstly, and special thanks to Ms. Anjali Gupta, Head of the Electrical & Electronics
Department, Noida Institute of Engineering Technology, Greater Noida for providing me the
recommendation opportunity to allow me to undertake my training work in Roquette India Pvt.
Ltd,Pantnagar Unit.

I would like to express my special gratitude to my guide, Mr. Tilak Raj & Mr. Atul Kumar ,
Senior Executive Engineer, Maintenance Department, Roquette India Pvt. Ltd. , Pantnagar
whose patient guidance, suggestions and encouragement, immense knowledge helped me to
coordinate my project work. His hard-working attitude has been always inspiring me to keep
moving forward.

My special thanks go to Mr. Manvendra Singh, Admin & HR Head and Ms. Sonam Giri,
Asst.Manager HR, Roquette India Pvt. Ltd. who gave me tremendous help for my project work.
Whenever I needed a favour, They were alway willing to offer any help. Sincerely thank you for
the advice, discussions, encouragement, comments and all the support you gave to me.

Lastly, I offer my genuine regards and blessings to all those who helped me in any respect in
successfully completion of this training report.

(Neeraj Singh)
CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in this summer training report,
entitled"Motor, Types Of Starter and various types Of Field Instrument Use In
Processing Plant” in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree
of B. Tech in Electrical and Electronics Engineering branch.

The report is being submitted to the Noida Institute of Engineering Technology,

Greater Noida, is an authentic record of my own work carried out during a period of 28
May 2018 to6 July 2018 under the supervision of Mr. Atul Kumar and Mr. Tilak Raj.

(Neeraj Singh)
Noida Institute of Engineering
Date: 27 July , 2019 Technology, Greater Noida
Place: Pantnagar

This is to certify that above statement made by candidate is correct to the best of our

knowledge.

Mr. Atul Kumar Mr. Tilak Raj

Senior Executive Engineer Senior Executive Engineer
Roquette India Pvt Ltd, Pantnagar Roquette India Pvt Ltd,Pantnagar
CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the work reported in this training report entitled “Motor, Types
Of Starter and Various Types Of Field Instrument Use In Processing Plant”,
submitted by Mr. Neeraj Singh at Noida Institute of Engineering Technology, Greater
Noida is a bonafide record of his original work carried out under my supervision.

Head of Department
Mrs. Anjali Gupta
Department of Electrical & Electronics
Noida Institute of Engineering Technology
Greater Noida

Date:
 INTRODUCTION

Executive Summary
The global economy of the day has endangered the survival of every organization and in
particular, those who want to have a competitive edge over the others. The competitive edge may
be a distant dream in the absence of Superior Quality Product which otherwise is the function of
well trained employees. Today resources are scare and have to be used carefully and trainers are
of all kind are required to justify their position and account for their activities. Training activities
which are direct and inadequately focused, don’t serve the purpose of the trainers. Identification
of training needs become the top priority of every progressive organization. Identification of
training needs, if done properly provide the basis in which all other training activities can be
considered and well lead to multitasking, fitting people to take extra responsibilities increasing
all-around competence and preparing employee to take on higher level responsibilities.

This report is based on the internship experience I had during the internship. This report contains
three main chapters namely- Introduction of Roquette, Literature Review and Training
Programme & Experience in Roquette and these are explained briefly.

The chapter contains all the information regarding Roquette’s history, vision, mission, values,
and ambitions, about the Pantnagar plant, products, customers, and literature review of the topic,
as well as the training experience. Apart from this I personally feel that Roquette has a familiar
environment, and the employee’s over here are very helpful.
 Company Profile

Roquette India Private Ltd.

History:-

ROQUETTE “Improving well-being by offering the best of nature”

Roquette India Pvt. Ltd. (RRSPL) is the successor of Riddhi Siddhi Corn Processing Pvt Ltd.
which was previously part of Riddhi Siddhi Gluco Biols Ltd (incorporated in 1990).It was
founded in 1933 in Lesterm, France, by Dominique & Germain Roquette and today is owned by
200 family shareholders. It is the largest Indian starch and starch derivatives’ company and
possesses a basket of 35 products.

Roquette’s offer is produced from plant-based raw materials such as corn, wheat, potatoes, and
peas. Product profile comprises maize starch powder, liquid glucose, dextrose monohydrate,
maltodextrin, high maltose corn syrup, dextrose syrup and allied by-products.

Plant based raw materials, land and water ecosystem, and renewable resources constitute natural
capital of the Roquette group.

Part of the Roquette Group, 2nd largest European player and 5th largest global player in Starch
Industry & Bio-refinery. Roquette Group has 21 production units, 6 application labs, more than
30 sales offices, 7800 employees, over 700 products, International Network of more than 100
Countries. It achieved the turnover of 3.1 billion Euros in 2012.

Roquette India Presence Corporate Headquarters in Ahmedabad, Gujrat. Three manufacturing

facilities in Viramgam (Gujarat), Gokak (Karnataka) and Pantnagar (Uttarkhand). Expansion of
all the 3 facilities is under process, with new Greenfield Project under study. Five Marketing
offices in North, South and West India, sophisticated Application Lab at Mumbai.

Export presence across 25 countries. Acquired a multi-national corn processing unit (Glaxo).
Attracted Roquette Frères (France), one of the largest maize starch companies in the world.

Invested in gross block every single year of its existence through inorganic and organic means,
enhancing its installed capacity more than 20-fold in 15 years Hindustan Unilever) in the last 15
years.

Since its foundation over 80 years ago, growth has been based on innovation, passion for the job
and a commitment to achieve.
The Roquette Group Organization

One of the commitments of the group is to minimize the impact of its industrial activities on the
local and global environment, as well as to always comply with local regulations. Deeply
committed to sustainable development, Roquette applies multiple environmental best practices in
order to moderate its impact on the climate and to take care of local communities through
renewable energy, energy efficiency, water and air management, etc.The company has long term
and good relations with its suppliers, out of which mostly are located close to Roquette’s
factories. This helps in the minimum emission of CO2 from transport while meeting the highest
quality and industrial standards.

Vision

Become a leading global player on identified markets, for bio refinery-based solutions and
products.

Mission

“Serving men and women by offering of best nature and transform agricultural raw materials into
products that are directly or indirectly used in food, health and consumer and capital goods, with
an approach based on the principles of sustainable development.”

Ambition

Global leader in starches and their specialities with sustainable and health advantages.

Values

▪ Authenticity
▪ Well being
▪ Forward looking
▪ Excellence

Business Priorities

▪ PEOPLE
▪ INNOVATION
▪ DIGITAL
▪ QUALITY
▪ INVESTMENT

▪ Roquette India

Roquette in India is no. 1 starch industry and employees more than 15000 employees and has a
turnover of around INR 330 crores in 2018. Our mission is “serve men and women by offering
the best of nature”. Roquette in India is headquartered at Ahmadabad and has 3 manufacturing
units- at Viramgam (Gujrat), Pantnagar (Uttrakhand) and Gokak (Karnataka).

Gokak
• Gujrat • Uttrakhand
• Karnataka
Viramgam Pantnagar

Fig 1.

Roquette Pantnagar

Pantnagar plant is located in Uttrakhand. It was a family-owned company started in 2006 and
acquired 100% share in 2012 and is responsible for the business & operation since then.Safety is
the first preference at Roquette. All the employees over here first get known about safety and
helmet and shoes also provided to everyone even visitors too. At Roquette Pantnagar all
employees wear the uniform from Monday to Friday in a week and on Saturday uniform is not
compulsory. But safety equipment is a necessary thing that has to carry by everyone.At Roquette
Pantnagar, everyone has to follow rules i.e. no use of mobile phone while walking on roads, wear
helmets and safety shoes and walk on the footpath at the side of the road.

Corn Wet Milling

Designed capacity : 1200 TPD

Budget Output 2016 : 374000 MT

Sales : 800 crore

Market : Food, Pharma & Industry

Employees : 537

It possesses a basket of 35 products. The products and solutions developed by the Group deliver
proven technological, nutritional and health benefits precisely tailored to the pharma, nutrition,
food and selected industrial markets. Company’s offer is produced from plant-based raw
materials, such as corn, wheat, potatoes, and peas. Product profile comprises maize starch
powder, liquid glucose, dextrose, monohydrate, maltodextrin, high maltose corn syrup, dexterous
syrup and allied by-products.Plant-based raw materials, land and water ecosytems; and
renewable resource constitute natural capital for the Roquette group. It encourages local supply
and optimizing means of transportation, combine, economic profitability and a low
environmental footprint.Improves continuously its raw material quality by clearly specifying our
needs, strictly selecting our suppliers and reinforcing the quality control chain from field to
biorefinery. One of the commitment of the group s to minimize the impact of its industrial
activities on the local and global environment, as well as to always comply with local
regulations.

FREIGHT-PMT RAIL
STATES KM’s
(INR/MT)

Bihar 1050 1610

West Bengal 1150 1740
Madhya Pradesh 1200 1746
Chhattisgarh 1300 1886

Maharashtra 1250 1880

Karnataka 2300 2795

Welfare (canteen, transportation, uniforms, dispensary)

Bus services (locally) in all shifts

Charges- Rs. 250(WC) Rs. 150(BC)

Coupon system for Meal-@ 12 per meal

Coupon system for Tea-@ 1.35 per cup

Uniform- 2 sets per year

Shoes-1 pair per year
Safety PPEs-Yearly and as per requirement

Dispensary-All time availability of attendant

Doctor Visit-Every Friday (12pm-2pm)
Plant capacity Pantnagar

Description Capacity (TPD)

GRINDING 1200

LG (ENZ.) 300

DMH 115

STARCH EVAPORATOR 65+

UTILITY

BOILER CO-GeN 12 Mwe

COOLING TOWER 4000 M3/HR

COMPRESSORS 2900 CFM

CHILLERS 1126 TR

ETP PLANT 3000 M3/DAY

Pantnagar’s plant products

• Modified starch powder
• LG (Liquid Glucose)
• HMCS (High Maltose Corn Syrup)
• MD (Maltodextrin)
• DMH ( Dextrose Monohydrate)

Quality and safety Policy

Quality:

• Continuous improvement of reliability, capacity, and efficiency of processes, products,

and services.
 • Confirming all activities in a lawful manner and obeying legal regulations which extend
to a commitment to customers.
• Compliance with production practices for pharmaceutical excipients with worldwide best
practices.
• Integrated quality management system (QMS), regularly re-evaluates by recognized
authorities, ensuring that products comply with all appropriate standards.
• Roquette’s manufacturing plants are regularly audited by international regulatory bodies
(US FDA) and the European authorities (French ANSM).
• Plants that manufacture pharmaceuticals products, notably actives, operate by GMP
standards.
• Central quality control laboratory in Lustrum has been awarded the COFRAC
accreditation for analysis in raw materials.
• Professional in-house audit teams provide inclusive services for all pharmaceutical
ingredients ensuring regulatory compliance.
• Roquette ensures full traceability and guarantees the use of conventional corn (maize).

Safety and Health first

Health and safety are two top priorities for the Roquette group. The objectives re clear:

➢ Zero accidents at work,

➢ Zero work related illness

Roquette India private Limited, Pantnagar, is committed to providing a clean and safe work
environment for its employees, customers, and neighbors around. Elimination of unsafe and
unhygienic condition in all the operating areas and prevention of unsafe work practices are gven
prime importance by the management.

Control Measures for human safety

▪ Elimination
▪ Engineering control
▪ Substitution
▪ Administrative control
▪ Person protective Equipment
Similar to hazard and risk for human safety, we have aspects and impact on environment
safety.
▪ Elimination
▪ Engineering control
▪ Substitution
▪ Administrative control
Induction motor

Fig 2
An induction motor or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which the electric
current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic induction from
the magnetic field of the stator winding. An induction motor can therefore be made without
electrical connections to the rotor. An induction motor's rotor can be either wound
type or squirrel-cage type.
Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used as industrial drives because they are
self-starting, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are used extensively for
smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans. Although traditionally used in fixed-speed
service, induction motors are increasingly being used with variable-frequency drives (VFDs) in
variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially important energy savings opportunities for existing
and prospective induction motors in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump and compressor load
applications. Squirrel cage induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed
and variable-frequency drive (VFD) applications.

Principle of operation
In both induction and synchronous motors, the AC power supplied to the motor's stator creates
a magnetic field that rotates in synchronism with the AC oscillations. Whereas a synchronous
motor's rotor turns at the same rate as the stator field, an induction motor's rotor rotates at a
somewhat slower speed than the stator field. The induction motor stator's magnetic field is
therefore changing or rotating relative to the rotor. This induces an opposing current in the
induction motor's rotor, in effect the motor's secondary winding, when the latter is short-circuited
or closed through an external impedance. The rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the
windings of the rotor, in a manner similar to currents induced in a transformer's secondary
winding(s).
The induced currents in the rotor windings in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor that react
against the stator field. Due to Lenz's Law, the direction of the magnetic field created will be
such as to oppose the change in current through the rotor windings. The cause of induced current
in the rotor windings is the rotating stator magnetic field, so to oppose the change in rotor-
winding currents the rotor will start to rotate in the direction of the rotating stator magnetic field.
The rotor accelerates until the magnitude of induced rotor current and torque balances the
applied mechanical load on the rotation of the rotor. Since rotation at synchronous speed would
result in no induced rotor current, an induction motor always operates slightly slower than
synchronous speed. The difference, or "slip," between actual and synchronous speed varies from
about 0.5% to 5.0% for standard Design B torque curve induction motors. The induction motor's
essential character is that it is created solely by induction instead of being separately excited as in
synchronous or DC machines or being self-magnetized as in permanent magnet motors.
For rotor currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be lower than that of the
stator's rotating magnetic field otherwise the magnetic field would not be moving relative to the
rotor conductors and no currents would be induced. As the speed of the rotor drops below
synchronous speed, the rotation rate of the magnetic field in the rotor increases, inducing more
current in the windings and creating more torque. The ratio between the rotation rate of the
magnetic field induced in the rotor and the rotation rate of the stator's rotating field is called
"slip". Under load, the speed drops and the slip increases enough to create sufficient torque to
turn the load. For this reason, induction motors are sometimes referred to as "asynchronous
motors".
An induction motor can be used as an induction generator, or it can be unrolled to form a linear
induction motor which can directly generate linear motion. The generating mode for induction
motors is complicated by the need to excite the rotor, which begins with only residual
magnetization. In some cases, that residual magnetization is enough to self-excite the motor
under load. Therefore, it is necessary to either snap the motor and connect it momentarily to a
live grid or to add capacitors charged initially by residual magnetism and providing the required
reactive power during operation. Similar is the operation of the induction motor in parallel with a
synchronous motor serving as a power factor compensator. A feature in the generator mode in
parallel to the grid is that the rotor speed is higher than in the driving mode. Then active energy
is being given to the grid. Another disadvantage of induction motor generator is that it consumes
a significant magnetizing current I0 = (20-35)%.

.
Construction

Fig 2a.
The stator of an induction motor consists of poles carrying supply current to induce a magnetic
field that penetrates the rotor. To optimize the distribution of the magnetic field, windings are
distributed in slots around the stator, with the magnetic field having the same number of north
and south poles. Induction motors are most commonly run on single-phase or three-phase power,
but two-phase motors exist; in theory, induction motors can have any number of phases. Many
single-phase motors having two windings can be viewed as two-phase motors, since a capacitor
is used to generate a second power phase 90° from the single-phase supply and feeds it to the
second motor winding. Single-phase motors require some mechanism to produce a rotating field
on startup. Cage induction motor rotor's conductor bars are typically skewed to avoid magnetic
locking.
Standardized NEMA & IEC motor frame sizes throughout the industry result in interchangeable
dimensions for shaft, foot mounting, general aspects as well as certain motor flange aspect. Since
an open, drip proof (ODP) motor design allows a free air exchange from outside to the inner
stator windings, this style of motor tends to be slightly more efficient because the windings are
cooler. At a given power rating, lower speed requires a larger frame.

Rotation reversal
The method of changing the direction of rotation of an induction motor depends on whether it is
a three-phase or single-phase machine. In the case of three-phase, reversal is straightforwardly
implemented by swapping connection of any two phase conductors.
In a single-phase split-phase motor, reversal is achieved by changing the connection between the
primary winding and the start circuit. Some single-phase split-phase motors that are designed for
specific applications may have the connection between the primary winding and the start circuit
connected internally so that the rotation cannot be changed. Also, single-phase shaded-pole
motors have a fixed rotation, and the direction cannot be changed except by disassembly of the
motor and reversing the stator to face opposite relative to the original rotor direction.
Power factor

The power factor of induction motors varies with load, typically from around 0.85 or 0.90 at full
load to as low as about 0.20 at no-load, due to stator and rotor leakage and magnetizing
reactances. Power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors either on an individual motor
basis or, by preference, on a common bus covering several motors. For economic and other
considerations, power systems are rarely power factor corrected to unity power factor. Power
capacitor application with harmonic currents requires power system analysis to avoid harmonic
resonance between capacitors and transformer and circuit reactances. Common bus power factor
correction is recommended to minimize resonant risk and to simplify power system analysis.

Efficiency

• Friction and windage, 5–15%

• Iron or core losses, 15–25%
• Stator losses, 25–40%
• Rotor losses, 15–25%
• Stray load losses, 10–20%.
Various regulatory authorities in many countries have introduced and implemented legislation to
encourage the manufacture and use of higher efficiency electric motors. There is existing and
forthcoming legislation regarding the future mandatory use of premium-efficiency induction-
type motors in defined equipment.

Types Of Starter in Induction Motor

• Direct on line Starter

• Star Delta Starter
• Variable Frequency drive Starter
• Soft Starter

Direct On Line (DOL) Motor Starter

 Fig 3a

Different starting methods are employed for starting induction motors because Induction Motor
draws more starting current during starting. To prevent damage to the windings due to the high
starting current flow, we employ different types of starters.

The simplest form of motor starter for the induction motor is the Direct On Line starter. The
Direct On Line Motor Starter (DOL) consist a MCCB or Circuit Breaker, Contactor and an
overload relay for protection. Electromagnetic contactor which can be opened by the thermal
overload relay under fault conditions.

Typically, the contactor will be controlled by separate start and stop buttons, and an auxiliary
contact on the contactor is used, across the start button, as a hold in contact. I.e. the contactor
is electrically latched closed while the motor is operating.

Principle of Direct On Line Starter (DOL)

To start, the contactor is closed, applying full line voltage to the motor windings. The motor will draw a
very high inrush current for a very short time, the magnetic field in the iron, and then the current will be
limited to the Locked Rotor Current of the motor. The motor will develop Locked Rotor Torque and
begin to accelerate towards full speed.

As the motor accelerates, the current will begin to drop, but will not drop significantly until the motor is
at a high speed, typically about 85% of synchronous speed. The actual starting current curve is a
function of the motor design, and the terminal voltage, and is totally independent of the motor load.
The motor load will affect the time taken for the motor to accelerate to full speed and therefore the
duration of the high starting current, but not the magnitude of the starting current.

Provided the torque developed by the motor exceeds the load torque at all speeds during the start
cycle, the motor will reach full speed. If the torque delivered by the motor is less than the torque of the
load at any speed during the start cycle, the motor will stops accelerating. If the starting torque with a
DOL starter is insufficient for the load, the motor must be replaced with a motor which can develop a
higher starting torque.

The acceleration torque is the torque developed by the motor minus the load torque, and will change as
the motor accelerates due to the motor speed torque curve and the load speed torque curve. The start
time is dependent on the acceleration torque and the load inertia.

DOL starting have a maximum start current and maximum start torque.
This may cause an electrical problem with the supply, or it may cause a mechanical problem
with the driven load. So this will be inconvenient for the users of the supply line, always
experience a voltage drop when starting a motor. But if this motor is not a high power one it
does not affect much.

Parts of DOL Starters

Contactors & Coil

Fig 3b
Magnetic contactors are electromagnetically operated switches that provide a safe and
convenient means for connecting and interrupting branch circuits.

Magnetic motor controllers use electromagnetic energy for closing switches. The
electromagnet consists of a coil of wire placed on an iron core. When a current flow through
the coil, the iron of the magnet becomes magnetized, attracting an iron bar called the armature.
An interruption of the current flow through the coil of wire causes the armature to drop out due
to the presence of an air gap in the magnetic circuit.

Line-voltage magnetic motor starters are electromechanical devices that provide a safe,
convenient, and economical means of starting and stopping motors, and have the advantage of
being controlled remotely. The great bulk of motor controllers sold are of this type.

Contactors are mainly used to control machinery which uses electric motors. It consists of a
coil which connects to a voltage source. Very often for Single phase Motors, 230V coils are
used and for three phase motors, 415V coils are used. The contactor has three main NO
contacts and lesser power rated contacts named as Auxiliary Contacts [NO and NC] used for
the control circuit. A contact is conducting metal parts which completes or interrupt an
electrical circuit.

• NO-normally open
• NC-normally closed

Over Load Relay (Overload protection)

Overload protection for an electric motor is necessary to prevent burnout and to ensure
maximum operating life.

Under any condition of overload, a motor draws excessive current that causes overheating.
Since motor winding insulation deteriorates due to overheating, there are established limits on
motor operating temperatures to protect a motor from overheating. Overload relays are
employed on a motor control to limit the amount of current drawn.

The overload relay does not provide short circuit protection. This is the function of over
current protective equipment like fuses and circuit breakers, generally located in the
disconnecting switch enclosure.

The ideal and easiest way for overload protection for a motor is an element with current-
sensing properties very similar to the heating curve of the motor which would act to open the
motor circuit when full-load current is exceeded. The operation of the protective device should
be such that the motor is allowed to carry harmless over-loads but is quickly removed from the
line when an overload has persisted too long .
 Fig 3c.

Normally fuses are not designed to provide overload protection. Fuse is protecting against
short circuits (over current protection). Motors draw a high inrush current when starting and
conventional fuses have no way of distinguishing between this temporary and harmless inrush
current and a damaging overload. Selection of Fuse is depend on motor full-load current,
would “blow” every time the motor is started. On the other hand, if a fuse were chosen large
enough to pass the starting or inrush current, it would not protect the motor against small,
harmful overloads that might occur later.

The overload relay is the heart of motor protection. It has inverse-trip-time characteristics,
permitting it to hold in during the accelerating period (when inrush current is drawn), yet
providing protection on small overloads above the full-load current when the motor is running.
Overload relays are renewable and can withstand repeated trip and reset cycles without need of
replacement. Overload relays cannot, however, take the place of over current protection
equipment.

The overload relay consists of a current-sensing unit connected in the line to the motor, plus a
mechanism, actuated by the sensing unit, which serves, directly or indirectly, to break the
circuit.

Overload relays can be classified as being thermal, magnetic, or electronic:

1. Thermal Relay: As the name implies, thermal overload relays rely on the rising
temperatures caused by the overload current to trip the overload mechanism. Thermal
overload relays can be further subdivided into two types: melting alloy and bimetallic.
2. Magnetic Relay: Magnetic overload relays react only to current excesses and are not
affected by temperature.
3. Electronic Relay: Electronic or solid-state overload relays, provide the combination of
high-speed trip, adjustability, and ease of installation. They can be ideal in many precise
applications.
Wiring of DOL Starter

1. Main Contact

• Contactor is connecting among Supply Voltage, Relay Coil and Thermal Overload
Relay.
• L1 of Contactor Connect (NO) to R Phase through MCCB
• L2 of Contactor Connect (NO) to Y Phase through MCCB
• L3 of Contactor Connect (NO) to B Phase through MCCB.
NO Contact (-||-):

• (13-14 or 53-54) is a normally Open NO contact (closes when the relay energizes)
• Contactor Point 53 is connecting to Start Button Point (94) and 54 Point of Contactor is
connected to Common wire of Start/Stop Button.
NC Contact (-|/|-):

• (95-96) is a normally closed NC contact (opens when the thermal overloads trip if
associated with the overload block)

2. Relay Coil Connection

• A1 of Relay Coil is connecting to any one Supply Phase and A2 is connecting to

Thermal over Load Relay’s NC Connection (95).

3. Thermal Overload Relay Connection:

• T1,T2,T3 are connect to Thermal Overload Relay

• Overload Relay is Connecting between Main Contactor and Motor
• NC Connection (95-96) of Thermal Overload Relay is connecting to Stop Button and
Common Connection of Start/Stop Button.
Wiring Diagram of DOL Starter

Fig 3d.

Working principle of DOL Starter

The main heart of DOL starter is Relay Coil. Normally it gets one phase constant from
incoming supply Voltage (A1).when Coil gets second Phase relay coil energizes and Magnet of
Contactor produce electromagnetic field and due to this Plunger of Contactor will move and
Main Contactor of starter will closed and Auxiliary will change its position NO become NC
and NC become (shown Red Line in Diagram) .

Pushing Start Button

When We Push the start Button Relay Coil will get second phase from Supply Phase-Main
contactor(5)-Auxiliary Contact(53)-Start button-Stop button-96-95-To Relay Coil (A2).Now
Coil energizes and Magnetic field produce by Magnet and Plunger of Contactor move. Main
Contactor closes and Motor gets supply at the same time Auxiliary contact become (53-54)
from NO to NC .

Release Start Button

Relay coil gets supply even though we release Start button. When We release Start Push
Button Relay Coil gets Supply phase from Main contactor (5)-Auxiliary contactor (53) –
Auxiliary contactor (54)-Stop Button-96-95-Relay coil (shown Red / Blue Lines in Diagram).

In Overload Condition of Motor will be stopped by intermission of Control circuit at Point 96-
95.

Pushing Stop Button

When we push Stop Button Control circuit of Starter will be break at stop button and Supply of
Relay coil is broken, Plunger moves and close contact of Main Contactor becomes Open,
Supply of Motor is disconnected .

Fig 3e.

Motor Starting Characteristics on DOL Starter

• Available starting current: 100%.

• Peak starting current: 6 to 8 Full Load Current.
 • Peak starting torque: 100%

Advantages of DOL Starter

1. Most Economical and Cheapest Starter

2. Simple to establish, operate and maintain
3. Simple Control Circuitry
4. Easy to understand and trouble‐shoot.
5. It provides 100% torque at the time of starting.
6. Only one set of cable is required from starter to motor.
7. Motor is connected in delta at motor terminals .

Disadvantages of DOL Starter

1. It does not reduce the starting current of the motor.

2. High Starting Current: Very High Starting Current (Typically 6 to 8 times the FLC of the
motor).
3. Mechanically Harsh: Thermal Stress on the motor, thereby reducing its life.
4. Voltage Dip: There is a big voltage dip in the electrical installation because of high in-rush
current affecting other customers connected to the same lines and therefore not suitable for
higher size squirrel cage motors
5. High starting Torque: Unnecessary high starting torque, even when not required by the
load, thereby increased mechanical stress on the mechanical systems such as rotor shaft,
bearings, gearbox, coupling, chain drive, connected equipments, etc. leading to premature
failure and plant downtimes.

Features of DOL starting

• For low- and medium-power three-phase motors

• Three connection lines (circuit layout: star or delta)
• High starting torque
• Very high mechanical load
• High current peaks
• Voltage dips
• Simple switching devices
Direct On Line Motor Starter (DOL) is suitable for:

• A direct on line starter can be used if the high inrush current of the motor does not cause
excessive voltage drop in the supply circuit. The maximum size of a motor allowed on a
direct on line starter may be limited by the supply utility for this reason. For example, a
utility may require rural customers to use reduced-voltage starters for motors larger than
10 kW.
• DOL starting is sometimes used to start small water pumps, compressors, fans and
conveyor belts.

Direct On Line Motor Starter (DOL) is NOT suitable for:

• The peak starting current would result in a serious voltage drop on the supply s ystem
• The equipment being driven cannot tolerate the effects of very high peak torque loadings
• The safety or comfort of those using the equipment may be compromised by sudden
starting as, for example, with escalators and lifts.

Star-delta motor starter

Introduction to Star-Delta motor starter

Most induction motors are started directly on line, but when very large motors are started that
way, they cause a disturbance of voltage on the supply lines due to large starting current
surges.
 Fig 3f.

To limit the starting current surge, large induction motors are started at reduced voltage and
then have full supply voltage reconnected when they run up to near rotated speed .

Star-delta starter panel

Fig 3g.

Two methods used for reduction of starting voltage are: Star delta starting and Auto
transformer starting.

Working Principle of Star-Delta Starter

This is the reduced voltage starting method. Voltage reduction during star-delta starting is
achieved by physically reconfiguring the motor windings as illustrated in the figure below.
During starting the motor windings are connected in star configuration and this reduces the
voltage across each winding 3. This also reduces the torque by a factor of three.
 Scheme – Working Principle of Star-Delta Starter

After a period of time the winding are reconfigured as delta and the motor runs normally.
Star/Delta starters are probably the most common reduced voltage starters. They are used in an
attempt to reduce the start current applied to the motor during start as a means of reducing the
disturbances and interference on the electrical supply .
Traditionally in many supply regions, there has been a requirement to fit a reduced voltage
starter on all motors greater than 5HP (4KW). The Star/Delta (or Wye/Delta) starter is one of
the lowest cost electromechanical reduced voltage starters that can be applied .

The Star/Delta starter is manufactured from three contactors, a timer and a thermal overload.
The contactors are smaller than the single contactor used in a Direct on Line starter as they are
controlling winding currents only. The currents through the winding are 1/root 3 (58%) of the
current in the line.

There are two contactors that are close during run, often referred to as the main contractor and
the delta contactor. These are AC3 rated at 58% of the current rating of the motor. The third
contactor is the star contactor and that only carries star current while the motor is connected in
star.

The current in star is one third of the current in delta, so this contactor can be AC3 rated at one
third (33%) of the motor rating.

Star-delta Starter Consists following units

1. Contactors (Main, star and delta contactors) 3 No’s (For Open State Starter) or 4 No’s
(Close Transient Starter).
2. Time relay (pull-in delayed) 1 No.
3. Three-pole thermal overcurrent release 1 No.
4. Fuse elements or automatic cut-outs for the main circuit 3 Nos.
5. Fuse element or automatic cut-out for the control circuit 1No.
Power Circuit of Star Delta Starter

The main circuit breaker serves as the main power supply switch that supplies electricity to the
power circuit.

The main contactor connects the reference source voltage R, Y, B to the primary terminal of
the motor U1, V1, W1.

In operation, the Main Contactor (KM3) and the Star Contactor (KM1) are closed initially, and
then after a period of time, the star contactor is opened, and then the delta contactor (KM2) is
closed. The control of the contactors is by the timer (K1T) built into the starter. The Star and
Delta are electrically interlocked and preferably mechanically interlocked as well.

Fig 3h.Power circuit of Star-Delta starter

In effect, there are four states:
The star contactor serves to initially short the secondary terminal of the motor U2, V2, W2 for
the start sequence during the initial run of the motor from standstill. This provides one third of
DOL current to the motor, thus reducing the high inrush current inherent with large capacity
motors at startup.

Controlling the interchanging star connection and delta connection of an AC induction

motor is achieved by means of a star delta or wye delta control circuit. The control circuit
consists of push button switches, auxiliary contacts and a timer.

Control Circuit of Star-Delta Starter (Open Transition)

Fig 3i. Scheme – Control Circuit of Star-Delta Starter

(Open Transition)

The ON push button starts the circuit by initially energizing Star Contactor Coil (KM1) of star
circuit and Timer Coil (KT) circuit. When Star Contactor Coil (KM1) energized, Star Main and
Auxiliary contactor change its position from NO to NC.

When Star Auxiliary Contactor (1) (which is placed on Main Contactor coil circuit ) become
NO to NC it’s complete The Circuit of Main contactor Coil (KM3) so Main Contactor Coil
energized and Main Contactor’s Main and Auxiliary Contactor Change its Position from NO
to NC. This sequence happens in a friction of time .
After pushing the ON push button switch, the auxiliary contact of the main contactor coil (2)
which is connected in parallel across the ON push button will become NO to NC, thereby
providing a latch to hold the main contactor coil activated which eventually maintains the
control circuit active even after releasing the ON push button switch.

When Star Main Contactor (KM1) close its connect Motor connects on STAR and it’s
connected in STAR until Time Delay Auxiliary contact KT (3) become NC to NO.

Once the time delay is reached its specified Time, the timer’s auxiliary contacts (KT)(3) in Star
Coil circuit will change its position from NC to NO and at the Same Time Auxiliary contactor
(KT) in Delta Coil Circuit(4) change its Position from NO To NC so Delta coil energized and
Delta Main Contactor becomes NO To NC. Now Motor terminal connection change from star
to delta connection.

A normally close auxiliary contact from both star and delta contactors (5&6)are also placed
opposite of both star and delta contactor coils, these interlock contacts serves as safety
switches to prevent simultaneous activation of both star and delta contactor coils, so that one
cannot be activated without the other deactivated first. Thus, the delta contactor coil cannot be
active when the star contactor coil is active, and similarly, the star contactor coil cannot also be
active while the delta contactor coil is active.

The control circuit above also provides two interrupting contacts to shutdown the motor.
The OFF push button switch break the control circuit and the motor when necessary. The
thermal overload contact is a protective device which automatically opens the STOP Control
circuit in case when motor overload current is detected by the thermal overload relay, this is to
prevent burning of the motor in case of excessive load beyond the rated capacity of the motor
is detected by the thermal overload relay.

At some point during starting it is necessary to change from a star connected winding to a delta
connected winding. Power and control circuits can be arranged to this in one of two ways –
open transition or closed transition.

.
Size of each part of Star-Delta starter

1. Size of Over Load Relay

For a star-delta starter there is a possibility to place the overload protection in two positions, in
the line or in the windings.

Overload Relay in Line:

In the line is the same as just putting the overload before the motor as with a DOL starter.

The rating of Overload (In Line) = FLC of Motor.

Disadvantage: If the overload is set to FLC, then it is not protecting the motor while it is in
delta (setting is x1.732 too high).

Overload Relay in Winding:

In the windings means that the overload is placed after the point where the wiring to the
contactors are split into main and delta. The overload then always measures the current inside
the windings.

The setting of Overload Relay (In Winding) =0.58 X FLC (line current).

Disadvantage: We must use separate short circuit and overload protections .

2. Size of Main and Delta Contractor

There are two contactors that are close during run, often referred to as the main contractor and
the delta contactor. These are AC3 rated at 58% of the current rating of the motor .

Size of Main Contactor= IFL x 0.58

3. Size of Star Contractor

The third contactor is the star contactor and that only carries star current while the motor is
connected in star. The current in star is 1/ √3= (58%) of the current in delta, so this contactor
can be AC3 rated at one third (33%) of the motor rating.

Size of Star Contactor= IFL x 0.33

Motor Starting Characteristics of Star-Delta Starter

• Available starting current: 33% Full Load Current.
• Peak starting current: 1.3 to 2.6 Full Load Current.
• Peak starting torque: 33% Full Load Torque.

Advantages of Star-Delta starter

• The operation of the star-delta method is simple and rugged

• It is relatively cheap compared to other reduced voltage methods.
 • Good Torque/Current Performance.
• It draws 2 times starting current of the full load ampere of the motor connected

Disadvantages of Star-Delta starter

1. Low Starting Torque (Torque = (Square of Voltage) is also reduce).

2. Break In Supply – Possible Transients
3. Six Terminal Motor Required (Delta Connected).
4. It requires 2 set of cables from starter to motor.
.
5. It provides only 33% starting torque and if the load connected to the subject motor requires
higher starting torque at the time of starting than very heavy transients and stresses are
produced while changing from star to delta connections, and because of these transients
and stresses many electrical and mechanical break-down occurs.
.
6. In this method of starting initially motor is connected in star and then after change over the
motor is connected in delta. The delta of motor is formed in starter and not on motor
terminals.
.
7. High transmission and current peaks: When starting up pumps and fans for example, the
load torque is low at the beginning of the start and increases with the square of the speed.
When reaching approx. 80-85 % of the motor rated speed the load torque is equal to the
motor torque and the acceleration ceases. To reach the rated speed, a switch over to delta
position is necessary, and this will very often result in high transmission and current peaks.
In some cases the current peak can reach a value that is even bigger than for a D.O.L start.
.
8. Applications with a load torque higher than 50 % of the motor rated torque will not be able
to start using the start-delta starter.
.
9. Low Starting Torque: The star-delta (wye-delta) starting method controls whether the
lead connections from the motor are configured in a star or delta electrical connection. The
initial connection should be in the star pattern that results in a reduction of the line voltage
by a factor of 1/√3 (57.7%) to the motor and the current is reduced to 1/3 of the current at
full voltage, but the starting torque is also reduced 1/3 to 1/5 of the DOL starting torque.
.
10. The transition from star to delta transition usually occurs once nominal speed is reached,
but is sometimes performed as low as 50% of nominal speed which make transient Sparks.
Features of star-delta starting

1. For low- to high-power three-phase motors.

2. Reduced starting current
3. Six connection cables
4. Reduced starting torque
5. Current peak on changeover from star to delta
6. Mechanical load on changeover from star to delta

Application of Star-Delta Starter

The star-delta method is usually only applied to low to medium voltage and light starting
Torque motors.

The received starting current is about 30 % of the starting current during direct on line start
and the starting torque is reduced to about 25 % of the torque available at a D.O.L start. This
starting method only works when the application is light loaded during the start.

If the motor is too heavily loaded, there will not be enough torque to accelerate the motor up to
speed before switching over to the delta position.

Variable Frequency Drive or VFD

It is interesting to know that the first A.C. drive (400 HP) based on thyratron cycloconverter-fed
WRIM was installed in 1932 by F.E. Alexanderson of General Electric in the Logan Power
Station of Pacific Gas and Electric Company. From then industrial drives have evolved rapidly
by dedicated effort of many scientists and engineers all over the world resulting in development
of advanced drive technology such as Variable Frequency Drive(VFD).
VFD is a power electronics based device which converts a basic fixed frequency, fixed voltage
sine wave power (line power) to a variable frequency, variable output voltage used to control
speed of induction motor(s). It regulates the speed of a three phase induction motor by
controlling the frequency and voltage of the power supplied to the motor.
 Since the number of pole is constant the speed Ns can be varied by continuously changing
frequency.

Fig 4a.

Working of Variable Frequency Drive

Any Variable Frequency Drive or VFD incorporates following three stages for controlling a
three phase induction motor.

Rectifier Stage
A full-wave power diode based solid-state rectifier converts three-phase 50 Hz power from a
standard 220, 440 or higher utility supply to either fixed or adjustable DC voltage. The system
may include transformers for high voltage system.

Inverter Stage
Power electronic switches such as IGBT, GTO or SCR switch the DC power from rectifier on
and off to produce a current or voltage waveform at the required new frequency. Presently most
of the voltage source inverters (VSI) use pulse width modulation (PWM) because the current and
voltage waveform at output in this scheme is approximately a sine wave. Power Electronic
switches such as IGBT; GTO etc. switch DC voltage at high speed, producing a series of short-
width pulses of constant amplitude. Output voltage is varied by varying the gain of the inverter.
Output frequency is adjusted by changing the number of pulses per half cycle or by varying the
period for each time cycle.
The resulting current in an induction motor simulates a sine wave of the desired output
frequency. The high speed switching action of a PWM inverter results in less waveform
distortion and hence decreases harmonic losses.
Control System
Its function is to control output voltage i.e. voltage vector of inverter being fed to motor and
maintain a constant ratio of voltage to frequency (V/Hz). It consists of an electronic circuit which
receives feedback information from the driven motor and adjusts the output voltage or frequency
to the desired values. Control system may be based on SPWM (Sine Wave PWM), SVPWM
(Space Vector modulated PWM) or some soft computing based algorithm.

Induction Motor Characteristic under Variable Frequency Drive

In an induction motor induced in stator, E is proportional to the product of the slip frequency and
the air gap flux. The terminal voltage can be considered proportional to the product of the slip
frequency and flux, if stator drop is neglected. Any reduction in the supply frequency without a
change in the terminal voltage causes an increase in the air gap flux which will cause magnetic
saturation of motor. Also the torque capability of motor is decreased. Hence while controlling a
motor with the help of VFD or Variable Frequency Drive we always keep the V/f ratio constant.
Now define variable ‘K’ as,

For operation below K < 1 i.e. below rated frequency we have constant flux operation. For this
we maintain constant magnetization current Im for all operating points.

For K > 1 i.e. above rated frequency we maintain terminal voltage V rated constant. In this field
is weakened in the inverse ratio of per unit frequency ‘K’.
For values of K = 1 we have constant torque operation and above that we have constant power
application.
Merits of using Variable Frequency Drives
Energy Saving

Primary function of VFD in industry is to provide smooth control along with energy savings. The
variable speed motor drive system is more efficient than all other flow control methods including
valves, turbines, hydraulic transmissions, dampers, etc. Energy cost savings becomes more
pronounced in variable-torque ID fan and pump applications, where the load’s torque and power
is directly proportional to the square and cube of the speed respectively.

Increased Reliability

Adjustable speed motor-drive systems are more reliable than traditional mechanical approaches
such as using valves, gears, louvers or turbines to control speed and flow. Unlike mechanical
control system they don’t have any moving parts hence they are highly reliable.

Speed Variations

Beyond energy saving, applications such as crushers, conveyors and grinding mills can use the
motor and VFD’s packages to provide optimal speed variations. In some crucial applications, the
operating speed range can be wide, which a motor supplied with a constant frequency power
source cannot provide. In the case of conveyors and mills, a VFD and motor system can even
provide a “crawl” speed foe maintenance purposes eliminating the need for additional drives.

Soft Starting

When Variable Frequency Drives start large motors, the drawbacks associated with large
inrush current i.e. starting current (winding stress, winding overheating and voltage dip on
connected bus) is eliminated. This reduces chances of insulation or winding damage and
provides extended motor life.
Extended Machine Life and Less Maintenance

The VFD’s greatly reduce wear to the motor, increase life of the equipment and decrease
maintenance costs. Due to optimal voltage and frequency control it offers better protection to the
motor from issues such as electro thermal overloads, phase faults, over voltage, under voltage
etc. When we start a motor (on load) with help of a VFD, the motor is not subjected to “instant
shock” hence there is less wear and tear of belt, gear and pulley system.

Applications of Variable Frequency Drive

1. They are mostly used in industries for large induction motor (dealing with variable load)
whose power rating ranges from few kW to few MW.
 2. Variable Frequency Drive is used in traction system. In India it is being used by Delhi
Metro Rail Corporation.
3. They are also used in modern lifts, escalators and pumping systems.
4. Nowadays they are being also used in energy efficient refrigerators, AC’s and Outside-air
Economizers.

Soft Starters

A Soft Starter is a device that starts motors with reduced power supplied at start-up. Reducing
the power reduces potentially damaging electrical and mechanical shocks on the system.

As the name implies, starters "start" motors. They can also stop, reverse, accelerate and protect
them. Whether it's a small fan, or piece of mining equipment, electric motor are often the driving
force behind them. Electric motors consume 60% to 70% of all energy used in the United States.

Soft Starters are a combination of a controller and overload protection.

• CONTROLLERS - turns electric current to the motor on and off. A contactor is a

controller that is controlled by an electromagnet.
• OVERLOAD PROTECTION - protects a motor from drawing too much current and
"burning out" from overheating. The overload relay is the motor overload protection used in
soft starters. It limits the time the overload current is drawn and protects the motor from
overheating.

Soft Starters place a device called a reduced voltage starter, or soft starter, between the motor
and the incoming utility line to regulate the amount of current fed to the motor. Soft Starters
enable the AC induction motor to speed up in smaller, resulting in less current drawn than with a
traditional motor starter. Due to decreased voltage, torque is also reduced resulting in a soft, or
easy start. Soft Starters are used on all types of AC and DC motors. They are most commonly
used with the AC squirrel cage induction motor because of its simplicity, ruggedness and
reliability.

Shop Soft Starters

Why Soft Starters are Needed

1. To avoid overloading the power distribution system

2. To avoid unnecessary wear and tear on equipment by reducing starting torque

A typical NEMA design B motor can draw six to eight times its full load operating current when
it's first started. If the utility's power distribution network is loaded to capacity, the current inrush
from starting up large motors can result in anything from flickering lights to brownouts. It can
also result in nuisance tripping of circuit breakers and protective devices on the system. Many
utilities impose limits on the amount of power customers can draw at any one time, enabling a
balance in their distribution system. Reducing voltage to motor terminals at startup reduces the
current surge.

Types of Soft Starters

There are five main varieties of Soft Starters:

1. Primary Resistor
2. Auto Transformer
3. Part Winding
4. Wye Delta
5. Solid State

Choosing a Soft Starter

Soft starters have properties that are more suited to specific applications. To make the proper
selection, the following is needed:

• Motor nameplate full load amps, locked rotor amps, HP rating, motor torque/speed curve if
available.
• Starting and stopping requirements - Longer start and stop times allow for smoother
operation. Pulse start and/or jog option is useful for dough mixers, coal handlers or plastic
extruders. Pump applications require smooth stops to prevent water hammer damage.
• Torque requirements of machinery driven and load inertia.
• Number of starts required per hour - Heat dissipation could pose a problem if the number of
starts is excessively high.
• Overload protection requirement - Overload protection is based on class. Class 10 starters
trip of the current draw is 6 times the motor's fill load amps for more than 10 continuous
seconds. A Class 20 starter trips in 20 seconds.
• Electrical service range (line voltage)
• Enclosure type
Field Instrument

ON/OFF Valve
An ON/OFF Valve is the fluid equivalent of an electrical switch, a device that either allows
unimpeded flow or acts to prevent flow altogether.
These valves are often used for routing process fluid to different locations, starting and stopping
batch processes, and engaging automated safety (shutdown) functions.

Valve styles commonly used for on/off service include ball, plug, butterfly (or disk), gate, and
globe.
Large on/off valves are generally of such a design that the full-open position provides a nearly
unimpeded path for fluid to travel through. Ball, plug, and gate valves provide just this
characteristic:

A plug valve is very much like a ball valve, the difference being the shape of the rotating
element. Rather than a spherical ball, the plug valve uses a truncated cone as the rotary element,
a slot cut through the cone serving as the passageway for fluid.
The conical shape of a plug valve’s rotating element allows it to wedge tightly into the “closed”
(shut) position for exceptional sealing.
A series of photographs showing a cut-away ball valve (hand-actuated) in three different
positions reveals the inner workings common to all ball valve mechanisms:

The left-hand image shows the valve in the shut position, with the bore axis facing the viewer
(preventing fluid flow).
The right-hand image shows the valve in the open position, with the bore axis perpendicular to
view and allowing flow. The middle image shows the valve in a partially-open condition.

Control valve
A control valve is a valve used to control fluid flow by varying the size of the flow passage as
directed by a signal from a controller.[1] This enables the direct control of flow rate and the
consequential control of process quantities such as pressure, temperature, and liquid level.
In automatic control terminology, a control valve is termed a "final control element".

Operation

The opening or closing of automatic control valves is usually done

by electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic actuators. Normally with a modulating valve, which can be
set to any position between fully open and fully closed, valve positioners are used to ensure the
valve attains the desired degree of opening.
Air-actuated valves are commonly used because of their simplicity, as they only require a
compressed air supply, whereas electrically-operated valves require additional cabling and
switch gear, and hydraulically-actuated valves required high pressure supply and return lines for
the hydraulic fluid.
The pneumatic control signals are traditionally based on a pressure range of 3-15psi (0.2-1.0
bar), or more commonly now, an electrical signal of 4-20mA for industry, or 0-10V
for HVAC systems. Electrical control now often includes a "Smart" communication signal
superimposed on the 4-20mA control current, such that the health and verification of the valve
position can be signalled back to the controller. The HART, Fieldbus Foundation,
and Profibus are the most common protocols.
An automatic control valve consists of three main parts in which each part exist in several types
and designs:

• Valve actuator - which moves the valve's modulating element, such as ball or butterfly.
• Valve positioner - Which ensures the valve has reached the desired degree of opening. This
overcomes the problems of friction and wear.
• Valve body - in which the modulating element, a plug, globe, ball or butterfly, is contained.

Control action
Globe control valve with pneumatic diaphragm actuator and "smart" positioner which will also
feed back to the controller the actual valve position
Taking the example of an air-operated valve, there are two control actions possible:

• "Air or current to open" - The flow restriction decreases with increased control signal value.
• "Air or current to close" - The flow restriction increases with increased control signal value.
There can also be failure to safety modes:

• Air or control signal failure to close" - On failure of compressed air to the actuator, the valve
closes under spring pressure or by backup power.
• Air or control signal failure to open" - On failure of compressed air to actuator, the valve
opens under spring pressure or by backup power.
The modes of failure operation are requirements of the failure to safety process control
specification of the plant. In the case of cooling water it may be to fail open, and the case of
delivering a chemical it may be to fail closed.

Valve positioners
The fundamental function of a positioner is to deliver pressurized air to the valve actuator, such
that the position of the valve stem or shaft corresponds to the set point from the control system.
Positioners are typically used when a valve requires throttling action. A positioner requires
position feedback from the valve stem or shaft and delivers pneumatic pressure to the actuator to
open and close the valve. The positioner must be mounted on or near the control valve assembly.
There are three main categories of positioners, depending on the type of control signal, the
diagnostic capability, and the communication protocol: pneumatic analog and digital.[2]
Processing units may use pneumatic pressure signaling as the control set point to the control
valves. Pressure is typically modulated between 20.7 to 103 kPa (3 to 15 psig) to move the valve
from 0 to 100% position. In a common pneumatic positioner the position of the valve stem or
shaft is compared with the position of a bellows that receives the pneumatic control signal. When
the input signal increases, the bellows expands and moves a beam. The beam pivots about an
input axis, which moves a flapper closer to the nozzle. The nozzle pressure increases, which
increases the output pressure to the actuator through a pneumatic amplifier relay. The increased
output pressure to the actuator causes the valve stem to move. Stem movement is fed back to the
beam by means of a cam. As the cam rotates, the beam pivots about the feedback axis to move
the flapper slightly away from the nozzle. The nozzle pressure decreases and reduces the output
pressure to the actuator. Stem movement continues, backing the flapper away from the nozzle
until equilibrium is reached. When the input signal decreases, the bellows contracts (aided by an
internal range spring) and the beam pivots about the input axis to move the flapper away from
the nozzle. Nozzle pressure decreases and the relay permits the release of diaphragm casing
pressure to the atmosphere, which allows the actuator stem to move upward. Through the cam,
stem movement is fed back to the beam to reposition the flapper closer to the nozzle. When
equilibrium conditions are obtained, stem movement stops and the flapper is positioned to
prevent any further decrease in actuator pressure.[2]
The second type of positioner is an analog I/P positioner. Most modern processing units use a 4
to 20 mA DC signal to modulate the control valves. This introduces electronics into the
positioner design and requires that the positioner convert the electronic current signal into a
pneumatic pressure signal (current-to-pneumatic or I/P). In a typical analog I/P positioner, the
converter receives a DC input signal and provides a proportional pneumatic output signal
through a nozzle/flapper arrangement. The pneumatic output signal provides the input signal to
the pneumatic positioner. Otherwise, the design is the same as the pneumatic positioner[2]
While pneumatic positioners and analog I/P positioners provide basic valve position control,
digital valve controllers add another dimension to positioner capabilities. This type of positioner
is a microprocessor-based instrument. The microprocessor enables diagnostics and two-way
communication to simplify setup and troubleshooting.
In a typical digital valve controller, the control signal is read by the microprocessor, processed
by a digital algorithm, and converted into a drive current signal to the I/P converter. The
microprocessor performs the position control algorithm rather than a mechanical beam, cam, and
flapper assembly. As the control signal increases, the drive signal to the I/P converter increases,
increasing the output pressure from the I/P converter. This pressure is routed to a pneumatic
amplifier relay and provides two output pressures to the actuator. With increasing control signal,
one output pressure always increases and the other output pressure decreases
Double-acting actuators use both outputs, whereas single-acting actuators use only one output.
The changing output pressure causes the actuator stem or shaft to move. Valve position is fed
back to the microprocessor. The stem continues to move until the correct position is attained. At
this point, the microprocessor stabilizes the drive signal to the I/P converter until equilibrium is
obtained.
In addition to the function of controlling the position of the valve, a digital valve controller has
two additional capabilities: diagnostics and two-way digital communication.[2]
Widely used communication protocols include HART, FOUNDATION fieldbus,
and PROFIBUS.
Advantages of placing a smart positioner on a control valve:
1. Automatic calibration and configuration of positioner. 2. Real time diagnostics. 3. Reduced
cost of loop commissioning, including installation and calibration. 4. Use of diagnostics to
maintain loop performance levels. 5. Improved process control accuracy that reduces process
variability.

Resistance thermometer
Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors (RTDs),
are sensors used to measure temperature. Many RTD elements consist of a length of fine wire
wrapped around a ceramic or glass core but other constructions are also used. The RTD wire is a
pure material, typically platinum, nickel, or copper. The material has an accurate
resistance/temperature relationship which is used to provide an indication of temperature. As
RTD elements are fragile, they are often housed in protective probes.
RTDs, which have higher accuracy and repeatability, are slowly replacing thermocouples in
industrial applications below 600 °C.

Resistance/temperature relationship of metals

Common RTD sensing elements constructed of platinum, copper or nickel have a repeatable
resistance versus temperature relationship (R vs T) and operating temperature range.
The R vs T relationship is defined as the amount of resistance change of the sensor per degree of
temperature change.[1] The relative change in resistance (temperature coefficientof resistance)
varies only slightly over the useful range of the sensor.
Platinum was proposed by Sir William Siemens as an element for a resistance temperature
detector at the Bakerian lecture in 1871:[2] it is a noble metal and has the most stable resistance–
temperature relationship over the largest temperature range. Nickel elements have a limited
temperature range because the amount of change in resistance per degree of change in
temperature becomes very non-linear at temperatures over 300 °C (572 °F). Copper has a very
linear resistance–temperature relationship; however, copper oxidizes at moderate temperatures
and cannot be used over 150 °C (302 °F).
The significant characteristic of metals used as resistive elements is the linear approximation of
the resistance versus temperature relationship between 0 and 100 °C. This temperature
coefficient of resistance is denoted by α and is usually given in units of Ω/(Ω·°C):

Level Transmitters
A Level Transmitter is simply an instrument that provides continuous level measurement. Level
transmitters can be used to determine the level of a given liquid or bulk-solid at any given time.
This is different to a level switch which only alarms when the level of material (liquid or bulk-
solid) reaches a predetermined level.
Some of our ultrasonic level transmitters from Nivelco are perfect for level sensing in many
kinds of environment. Nivelco’s ultrasonic level transmitters have been used in level sensing
applications in many areas, from confectionery to oil, and from sewerage to potable water stores.
Our Nivelco ultrasonic level transmitters will continue level sensing accurately even when
gaseous vapours, dust and foam may hinder some other brands.
Our microwave level transmitters can be used in the harshest environments, and come with
IECEx approval, so you know they’ve been tried and tested. We currently have Nivelco’s guided
microwave level transmitters installed all over Australia working in the typically harsh
environmental conditions.
Magnetic flow meter
A magnetic flow meter (mag meter, electromagnetic flow meter) is a transducer that
measures fluid flow by the voltage induced across the liquid by its flow through a magnetic field.
A magnetic field is applied to the metering tube, which results in a potential difference
proportional to the flow velocity perpendicular to the flux lines. The physical principle at work
is electromagnetic induction. The magnetic flow meter requires a conducting fluid, for example,
water that contains ions, and an electrical insulating pipe surface, for example, a rubber-lined
steel tube.
If the magnetic field direction were constant, electrochemical and other effects at the electrodes
would make the potential difference difficult to distinguish from the fluid flow induced potential
difference. To mitigate this in modern magnetic flowmeters, the magnetic field is constantly
reversed, cancelling out the electrochemical potential difference, which does not change
direction with the magnetic field. This however prevents the use of permanent magnets for
magnetic flowmeters.

Pressure Transmitters

Pressure transmitters are used to measure the pressure or level of industrial liquids and gases.
The output is transmitted to a control system. Accurate and stable process measurements ensure
the safe, reliable, and profitable operation of your plant.

Compact, lightweight, intuitive and intelligent, Yokogawa pressure instruments simplify all
aspects of handling, commissioning, installation, operation, and maintenance while delivering
outstanding performance. Whether installed in the harsh environment of an offshore platform or
a refinery in the burning desert heat, our DPharp series delivers accurate, repeatable, and high
integrity process measurements.

Moisture meter

Moisture meters are used to measure the percentage of water in a given substance. This
information can be used to determine if the material is ready for use, unexpectedly wet or dry, or
otherwise in need of further inspection. Wood and paper products are very sensitive to their
moisture content. Physical properties are strongly affected by moisture content and high moisture
content for a period of time may progressively degrade a material.

Load cell
A load cell is a type of force gauge. It consists of a transducer that is used to create an electrical
signal whose magnitude is directly proportional to the force being measured. The various load
cell types include hydraulic, pneumatic, and strain gauge.

Strain gauge load cell

Strain gauge load cells are the most common in industry. These load cells are particularly stiff,
have very good resonance values, and tend to have long life cycles in application. Strain gauge
load cells work on the principle that the strain gauge (a planar resistor) deforms when the
material of the load cells deforms appropriately. Deformation of the strain gauge changes its
electrical resistance, by an amount that is proportional to the strain. The change in resistance of
the strain gauge provides an electrical value change that is calibrated to the load placed on the
load cell.
A load cell usually consists of four strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. Load
cells of one strain gauge (quarter bridge) or two strain gauges (half bridge) are also
available.[1] The electrical signal output is typically in the order of a few millivolts (mV) and
requires amplification by an instrumentation amplifier before it can be used. The output of the
transducer can be scaled to calculate the force applied to the transducer. Sometimes a high
resolution ADC, typically 24-bit, can be used directly.
The gauges themselves are bonded onto a beam or structural member that deforms when weight
is applied. In most cases, four strain gauges are used to obtain maximum sensitivity and
temperature compensation. Two of the gauges are usually in tension can be represented as T1
and T2, and two in compression can be represented as C1 and C2, and are wired with
compensation adjustments. The strain gauge load cell is fundamentally a spring optimized for
strain measurement. Gauges are mounted in areas that exhibit strain in compression or tension.
When weight is applied to the load cell, gauges C1 and C2 compress decreasing their resistances.
Simultaneously, gauges T1 and T2 are stretched increasing their resistances. The change in
resistances causes more current to flow through C1 and C2 and less current to flow through T1
and T2. Thus a potential difference is felt between the output or signal leads of the load cell. The
gauges are mounted in a differential bridge to enhance measurement accuracy. When weight is
applied, the strain changes the electrical resistance of the gauges in proportion to the load. Other
load cells are fading into obscurity, as strain gauge load cells continue to increase their accuracy
and lower their unit costs.

Load cell calibration

Load cells are an integral part of most weighing systems in industrial, aerospace and automotive
industries, enduring rigorous daily use. Over time, load cells will drift, age and misalign
therefore they will need to be calibrated regularly to ensure accurate results are maintained.
ISO9000 and most other standards specify a maximum period of around 18 months to 2 years
between re-calibration procedures, dependant on the level of load cell deterioration. Annual re-
calibration is considered best practice by many load cell users for ensuring the most accurate
measurements.
Standard calibration tests will use linearity and repeatability as a calibration guideline as these
are both used to determine accuracy. Calibration is conducted incrementally starting working in
ascending or descending order. For example, if you have a 60 tonne load cell, then you way use
specific test weights that measure in 5, 10, 20, 40 and 60 tonne increments – A five step
calibration process is usually sufficient for ensuring your device is accurately calibrated.
Repeating this five-step calibration procedure 2-3 times is recommended for consistent results.