Chapter 10

FAILURE

Chapter 3 - 502
 Failure of Engineering Materials
• Almost always an undesirable event:
– Putting human lives in jeopardy
– Causing economic losses
– Interfering with availability of “Products &
Services”

• Sometimes, intentionally designed for:

– Pull tab on aluminum beverage cans
– Aluminum utility light poles (design to inflect
minimum damage to vehicles colliding with it)
– Shear pin connecting “Gear/Pulley” to “Shaft”
shearing preferentially during overload
Chapter 3 - 503
 Fundamentals of Fracture

• Simple Fracture is “The separation of a

body into two or more pieces in
response to an imposed stress”
• This stress might be:
– Static (i.e. Constant or Slowly changing
with time @ T < Tm)
– Fatigue (i.e. due to Cyclic/Dynamic
Loading
– Creep (i.e. Time-dependent deformation @
Elevated Temp)
Chapter 3 - 504
• This chapter only discusses “Uniaxial
Tensile Loading leading to Fracture”
• There are TWO possible modes of
fracture for metals
– Ductile
– Brittle
• Classification is based on ability of
materials to experience plastic
deformation (hence, it is relative)
Chapter 3 - 505
Chapter 3 - 506
• Ductile metals exhibit:
– Substantial Plastic Deformation
– High energy absorption before fracture (Go
back to definition of toughness)
– Quantified in terms of (%EL, %RA)
– Ductility = f (Temp, Strain Rate and stress state)
• Brittle metals exhibit:
– Very little or NO plastic deformation
– Low energy absorption before fracture
An inherently ductile metal might be made to
fail in a brittle manner by loading in cryogenic
conditions below Tglass Chapter 3 - 507
Any fracture process in response to an
imposed stress . . .

If fractures eventually undergoes TWO

steps:
– Crack Initiation/formation
– Crack Propagation
Mode of fracture is highly dependent on
the mechanism of “Crack Propagation”

Chapter 3 - 508
 Generally, for a “DUCTILE” Fracture
• A characteristic extensive “Plastic
Deformation” is encountered in the vicinity
of the advancing crack [Specifically, ahead
of the “Crack Tip”]
• Hence, propagation proceeds relatively
slowly as crack length is extended (allowing
sufficient time for the deformation ahead of
the crack to pick favorably oriented “Slip
Systems”)
• Such a crack is often said to be “Stable”
• i.e. it resists any further EXTENSION unless
there is an increase in the applied stress
Chapter 3 - 509
 Fractography

• Evidence of appreciable gross plastic

deformation is often observed on
fracture surfaces
➔ in the form of (twisting and
tearing)

Chapter 3 - 510
 For Brittle Mode of Fracture . . .

• Cracks spread extremely rapidly

• Very little accompanying “Plastic
Deformation”
• Such cracks may be said to be
“Unstable”
• Crack propagation, ONCE STRATED,
continues spontaneously without an
increase in magnitude of a the applied
stress
Chapter 3 - 511
We prefer materials to fail through . . .
• The ductile Failure mode. Why?
– Rate of propagation
• Brittle mode: spontaneous crack propagation
➔ catastrophic failure [NO WARNING]

• Ductile mode: Plasticity WARNS of imminent

failure ➔ remedial measures might be taken

– Required strain energy

• Relatively more “Strain Energy” required to
induce ductile fracture ➔ inherently tougher
Chapter 3 - 512
material
 Fractography of Ductile Mode of
Fracture
Necking Down to POINT fracture
• Found for extremely SOFT
METALs @ TR
– PURE Au
– PURE Pb
• Other materials at
ELEVATED temps
– HARDER METALS
– Polymers
– Inorganic Glasses

Virtually, 100%RA Chapter 3 - 513

 Fractography of Ductile Mode of Fracture
Moderate Necking Fracture
Characteristic of most ductile materials
➔ occurs in different stages:
– 1st Shortly after necking ➔ microvoids*
(small cavities) begin to form in interior
of cross-section

– 2nd As deformation continues ➔

microvoids enlarge, cluster & coalesce
to form an elliptical crack [For which
long axis is perpendicular to applied
Chapter 3 - 514
stress axis]
 Fractography of Ductile Mode of Fracture
Moderate Necking Fracture
Characteristic of most ductile materials
➔ occurs in different stages:
– 3rd Crack continues to grow in a
direction parallel to its major axis
[through microvoid coalescence]

– 4th Ultimately, fracture occurs by rapid

propagation of the crack around the
outer perimeter of the neck

The latter occurs through “shear

deformation” at 45° with tensile axis
Chapter 3 - 515
Chapter 3 - 516
Often a fracture having this characteristic
“Surface Contour” is termed . . .
• “Cup-&-Cone” fracture
• Because,
– One of the mating surfaces resembles a
“Cup”
– The other acts as a “Cone”
• Examining the “Fracture Surface” with
the “Naked-eye” we observe:
“A central interior region exhibiting an
irregular & fibrous appearance” ➔ this
is indicative of “Plastic Deformation” Chapter 3 - 517
Chapter 3 - 518
Forensic Investigation ➔ Fractography

• Postmortem to failure
• Inference on:
– Mechanism of fracture
– Fracture mode [Ductile or Brittle]
– Stress State [static or dynamic* , sudden
or gradual+]
– Crack nucleation/initiation site [Ductility in
remaining ligament$]

Chapter 3 - 519
Forensic Investigation ➔ Fractography
• Using “Scanning Electron Microscopy”

• Why??:

– Improved Resolution

– Enhanced Depth of Field

To reveal “TOPOGRAPHY” relative to “Optical

Microscopy” Chapter 3 - 520

Lets take “Fractography” of Ductile metals
for example . . .
• On a MACRO-scopic scale: Central Fibrous
region on “Cup-&-Cone” fracture surface ➔
to the “Naked-eye”
• On a MICRO-scopic scale: numerous
concaved semi-spherical “Dimples”
• Each is ½ of a microvoid ➔ formed & then
separated during fracture process
• This is found towards the center of a uni-
axially tensile failed sample
Chapter 3 - 521
 However, “Dimples” also form on . . .

• The 45° “shear lip” of “Cup-&-Cone”

• That is, the remaining load bearing ligament

at the final stages prior to fracture

• “DIMPLES” in this case ➔ are

ELONGATED, “C- or Parabolic-shaped”

• The latter is indicative of “Ductile Failure in

Shear” Chapter 3 - 522
Chapter 3 - 523
 Brittle Mode Fractography

• No appreciable “Plastic Deformation”

• Rapid crack propagation
• Crack propagates NEARLY
PERPIDICULAR to applied stress axis
• HENCE, on a MACRO-scopic scale ➔
RALATIVELY FLAT fracture surface

Chapter 3 - 524
Chapter 3 - 525
 On a MICRO-scopic scale . . .
• NO SIGNS of features indicative of gross
“Plastic Deformation” ➔ NO “Micro-void
Coalescence” ➔ NO “Dimples”
• Instead’
– A series of “V-shaped Chevron” markings form
near CENTER of fracture surface ➔ Pointing
BACK towards “Crack Initiation” site ➔ (as crack
initiates as a point and spreads out radially in
successive cleavage outwards to form an ARCH)
– Lines/Ridges radiate from ORIGIN of crack in a
“Fan-like pattern”
Chapter 3 - 526
V-shaped Chevron Markings

Chapter 3 - 527
Fan-like Patterns

Chapter 3 - 528
 These features are visible . . .

• To the “naked-eye”
For coarse-grained metals
• Only under an “SEM”
For very hard and fine-grained metals
• Nearly nonexistent [relatively
smooth/shiny fracture surface]
For amorphous materials (e.g. ceramic
glasses)
Chapter 3 - 529
Trans-granular (or -crystalline) BRITTLE
fracture

• Occurs with most “BRITTLE” crystalline

materials
• “Crack Propagation” occurs through
successive & repeated BREAKAGE of
“atomic bonds” ➔ ALONG specific
“crystallographic planes” ➔ a
PROCESS know as “CLEAVAGE”
• Ultimately, cracks propagate
THROUGH “GRAINS”
Chapter 3 - 530
Chapter 3 - 531
 Topography during Fractographic
Examination
• Grainy & Faceted Texture
• Due to changes in “orientation” in path
tracking “cleavage planes” from one grain to
the adjacent
• This is evident in the following SE
micrograph with a slight perforation by
signs of “Void Coalescence” ➔ “Dimples”
• Why these perforations? Knowing that the
sample is of “Ductile Cast Iron”
Chapter 3 - 532
Chapter 3 - 533
Inter-granular (or -crystalline) BRITTLE
fracture
• Occurs with some “BRITTLE”
polycrystalline metal alloys
• “Crack Propagation” occurs through
successive & repeated BREAKAGE of
“atomic bonds” ➔ ALONG specific “Grain
Boundaries”➔ More SPECIFICALLY
“High Angle GBs”
• The highly unstable HA-GBs are
susceptible to “thermal sensitization” ➔
IGA or IGSCC Chapter 3 - 534
Chapter 3 - 535
Topography during Fractographic
Examination

IG cracking unveils the 3D nature

of grains

Chapter 3 - 536
Chapter 3 - 537
A Brittle Fracture of Normally Ductile Materials

We need a better understanding of mechanism of

fracture . . .
Chapter 3 - 538
 Fracture Mechanics

• This subject allows quantification of the

relationships amongst:
– Material Properties

– Stress Level

– Presence of Crack-Producing Flaws

[Stress Concentrators]

– Crack Propagation Mechanisms

Chapter 3 - 539
 With this . . .

Design engineers are better

equipped to anticipate (and thus
prevent) structural failures

Chapter 3 - 540
 Stress Concentration
• For MOST materials
– σf [Exp. Measured] < < σf [Theorit. Calc. based on
“Atomic Bonding Energies”]
– This is intimately related to geometrical
factors. BUT of WHAT?
– Ans.: of MICRO-scopic FLAWs/CRACKs
– These are ALWAYs present [under
NORMAL conditions]
• At the “Surface”
• Within the “Interior”
of a body of materials
Chapter 3 - 541
 Flaws are a detriment to σf . . .

• As the overall “applied stress” to a

material cross-section ➔ may be
“AMPLIFIED/CONCENTRATED” at the
“Crack Tip”. The magnitude of
“amplification” depends on:
– Crack orientation
– Crack geometry

Chapter 3 - 542
Stress Distribution in Vicinity of Surface
(a) and Interior (2a) Cracks

Chapter 3 - 543
 Observations . . .

• Magnitude of LOCALIZED stress

decreases with distances away from
“Crack Tip”
• At positions FAR REMOVED the stress
reverts back to “Nominal stress (σ°)”
• “Nominal Stress (σ°)”: The applied load
divided by the specimen cross-sectional
area (perpendicular to this load)
Chapter 3 - 544
Because of their ability to amplify an
applied stress in their locale

These “Flaws” are sometimes

called “Stress Raisers”

Chapter 3 - 545
 A Mathematical Expression for “Crack-
Tip Stress”
• Assume,
– Crack resembling an “elliptical hole” through a
plate
– The ellipse is oriented perpendicular to applied
stress
• Then MAX. Stress (or that is at “Crack-Tip)”
is given as,
1Τ2
𝑎
σ𝑚 = 2σ°
𝜌𝑡

Chapter 3 - 546
 1Τ2
𝑎
σ𝑚 = 2σ°
𝜌𝑡
where,
σm is magnitude of nominal applied
tensile stress
ρt is radius of curvature of crack-tip
a is length of a “surface crack” or
half the length of an “internal crack”

Chapter 3 - 547
For a relatively LONG “micro-crack” that
has a SMALL “tip-radius of curvature” . .

• The factor (a/ρt)1/2 may be VERY LARGE ➔

Yielding a σm value that is MANY TIMES the
value of σo.
This is OFTEN EXPRESSED in ANOTHER
WAY . . .
“Stress Concentration Factor (K)” ➔

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒂 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (σ)

𝑲=
𝑶𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 (σ°)
Chapter 3 - 548
 This is OBVIOUSLY MAXIMUM at
“Crack-tip”

• So “K” approaches its maximum

towards “Kt”; specifically for “Crack-tip”,

1Τ2
σ𝑚 𝑎
𝐾𝑡 = =2
σ𝑜 𝜌𝑡
i.e. SIMPLY this is a measure of the
“DEGREE to which an external stress is
AMPLIFIED at the tip of a crack”
Chapter 3 - 549
“Stress Concentration” is NOT EXCLUSIVE
to MICRO-scopic DEFECTS . . .

• It may also occur with MACRO-scopic

– Internal discontinuities (e.g. voids or
inclusions)
– External flaws (e.g. sharp corners,
scratches or notches)

Chapter 3 - 550
How does all this play out for “Ductile-
& Brittle-modes of Fracture”?
• With Ductile Fracture
“Stress Raiser” or “MICRO-crack”
increases stress at “Crack-tip” ➔ By
virtue of the ductile nature at hand [σy] is
relatively LOW and easily reachable by
ENHANCED “Crack-tip” stresses as
oppose to “threshold stress required for
crack propagation” ➔ Hence, “Plastic
deformation” is triggered
PREFERENTIALLY Chapter 3 - 551
 How does all this play out for “Ductile-
& Brittle-modes of Fracture”?
• With Ductile Fracture
So material “Plastically deforms” INSTEAD of
propagating the crack at the “Crack-tip” ➔ i.e.
a “plastically deformed” zone forms ahead of
the “crack-tip” ➔ As such, this zone
experiences frequent incidences of disordering
processes* ➔ this distorts/BLUNTS the
inherently SHARP crack-tip ➔ thereby
stripping it from its “stress-raising” potential ➔
i.e. a more uniform distribution of stress is now
in effect around the BLUNTED crack-tip Chapter 3 - 552
 How does all this play out for “Ductile-
& Brittle-modes of Fracture”?
• With Ductile Fracture
This is effectively an “auto-catalytic” process ➔
in that the easily reachable σy ➔ has now
naturally formed a situation where (ρt) is
progressively larger ➔ from the definition of
(σm) this further lowers (σm) to effectively
lower values that would initially be anticipated
as we go along or lowers (Kt) ➔ this in turn
further damps “crack propagation” ➔ hence,
the renowned “Stability” of a ductile crack.
Chapter 3 - 553
 For Brittle mode of fracture . . .

• The following are absent,

– A plastic zone ahead of the crack tip
– Hence, No σy to overcome
– No yielding is experienced
– No blunting of crack tip
– Stress is concentrated (no stress
spreading/redistribution)
– σm easily exceed threshold for crack
propagation…. What is that?
Chapter 3 - 554
Using Principles of Fracture Mechanics ..

• It is possible to show that the “critical

stress (σc)” required for crack
propagation in a brittle material is
expressed as,

1Τ2
2𝐸𝛾𝑠
σ𝑐 =
𝜋𝑎

Chapter 3 - 555
Where,

• E is the modulus of elasticity

• γs is the specific surface energy
• a is one half of the length of an internal
crack

Chapter 3 - 556
 Fracture Toughness

• Using principles of fracture mechanics

➔ An expression has been formulated
that links in ➔ the “critical stress” after
which crack catastrophically propagates
in a brittle manner (σc) ➔ &
corresponding critical crack length (a)
➔ through “fracture toughness” denoted
by (Kc)
Chapter 3 - 557
The governing expression is then . . .
𝐾𝑐 = 𝑌𝜎𝑐 𝜋𝑎
Fracture Toughness “is a measure of a
material’s resistance to brittle fracture
when a crack is present”

Kc possesses the unusual units 𝑴𝑷𝒂 𝒎

Y is a dimensionless parameter/function
that depends on:
• Crack size & geometry
• Specimen size and geometry
• Manner of load application Chapter 3 - 558
 How might this understanding be
applied?

Lets start with a sample

As you progressively
with an pre-existing crack
apply the nominal tensile
(intentionally introduced)
stress the plastic zone
grows accordingly

Chapter 3 - 559
 You will eventually
reach a point where the
The more stress you
stress applied exceeds
apply the further the This σc
mean that now
for brittle crack rapid
plastic zone grows the crack is able to
propagation
ahead of the crack tip propagate into the
plastic zone
Chapter 3 - 560
As the crack propagates it
is preceded by a plastic
zone and it leaves behind
a wake of previously
deformed plastic material Chapter 3 - 561
The stress state ahead of the crack
tip

imposes the exploration of the role

of different specimen geometries

Chapter 3 - 562
 Plane Strain ➔ Lets start by working
with a PURELY BRITTLE MATERIAL

By definition this material

would ONLY deform
ELASTICALLY ➔ even right
up to the “crack-tip” Chapter 3 - 563
Lets consider a
point near the
center of the
specimen

A very small
distance ahead of
the crack tip BUT
a LONG WAY
comparatively
form the edge
(external/free
surface) of the
specimen Provided that the
sample is
reasonably
THICK Chapter 3 - 564
 The POINT defined is said to be in
“Plane Strain”
Meaning that the
distance along the
crack front between
the specimen edges
(or free surfaces) [i.e.
sample THICKNESS]
is MUCH GREATER
than the distance of
the POINT defined
from the crack tip

Chapter 3 - 565
In plane strain this
is now strain
parallel to the
crack front

Chapter 3 - 566
 i.e. the contractions are
effectively constrained by
the large amount of
surrounding material ➔
rememberratio
Poisson’s sample is
isassumed
then valid thick here
Although
here andlocally
an
adjacent
accompanyingto the
crack front there
COTRACTIVE
exist
strainTENSILE
extends
strains [ONLY in
along/parallel to
direction
the crack of front In which case a state of strain
The
nominal absence
This of a strain
is automatically
externally HENCE,results
imbalance no netinstrain
a shear
parallel to crack front
appliednullified/counteracted
stress ONLY bycomponent
theparallel tobetween
crack front
nominal
applies
[MAX] in INTERIOR
opposing
and along tensile[LONG
strains of
And given stress
that the direction
material is and crack-front
way from
crack EDGE] but NOT
the ACCUMULATIVE
propagation BRITTLE ONLYparallel
allowingstrains that points 45°
for elastic
near FREE
direction THICKNESS
[MIN]Surfaceof the
deformation [Noupwards
plasticity there] Chapter 3 - 567
materials
The counteracting tensile
effect assumed by the
surrounding material
thickness that nullifies
the crack-front Poisson's
principle induced elastic
contraction ➔ renders a
state of “Triaxial tension”
at the crack tip ➔ a
balanced state
characteristic of “Plane
Strain”

➔ So when crack opens up it doesn’t get

deviated in intermediate 45° components ➔
instead it proceeds abiding by the MAJOR
strain in nominal stress direction ➔ i.e. a
Chapter 3 - 568
FLANT fracture surface results
 Lets now move
along the crack front
closer to the free
surface
Soorder
In in principle
to packwe on
can always
enough find a
material
position
i.e. for the where
free the
free surface
surface to be
appears as if itfar
comparatively is
sufficiently
away comparedfar forto
the distance
the crack tip form
to
maintain
the crack atipstate
➔ i.e.of
“plane
with strain” to
reference
where we started Hence, WeBRITTLE materials
have to move will always
in closer to the
at the specimen exhibit a “Plane
crack tip asStrain”
well ➔fracture ➔ i.e.
i.e. to maintain
center flat surface
the same ratio of distances Chapter 3 - 569
The situation changes if we introduce the
effect of “Plasticity” ahead of the crack-tip

Near the
center of the
specimen we
can still identify
points that are
relatively far
from the “free
surface”
compared to
the distance
from
i.e. the crack
where a state of
tip Strain” exists
“Plane
Chapter 3 - 570
 Whilst STILL
close to the
specimen center
(i.e. away from
the free
surfaces) EVEN
if the plastic
zone lies within
the region of The fracture STILL
Any fracture will still feel the constrains of “Plain Strain” ➔ i.e.
“Plane Strain” generates an overall
you are STILL avoiding the presence of strain parallel to the
FLAT surface
crack-front ➔ hence, NO 45° components formed with the
Chapter 3 - 571
MAJOR strain in direction of nominal applied stress
 What would happen
The latter strain component
then is that points
HOWEVER,
would form with the strain
towards the center
consider
directed what
along the nominal
would still fracture in
happens
applied stressasawe
45°
accordance with
move NEARER
component to
that is now
“Plane Strain” ➔
the “Free Surface”
OPERABLE
giving Flat
Since
As we we
before are must
at this stage “Cleavage” Surfaces
within the
MOVE PLASTIC
CLOSER Zone
to the
crack-front to STAY in a Meanwhile, material near
state of “Plane Strain” the free-surface would
RECALL that less
experience MINIMUM
restriction σ
[i.e. to maintain the There is ONLY
required to a certain
cause extent
yield favors in
highly packed material from minimal packed
φ*column
which weλ can
= = 45°
of
minimize
which
material isthe
at
and σdist.
y = 2.
Up to a particular
backing with distance point we
By this stagebewe wouldcloser
be well τCRSS
Towithin ➔ eventually
crack-front
the
would ourtopresence
plasticadhere
zone towithin
allow
the
for a
would
form free-surface getting to
whilst“Free-surface”
unable to satisfy the
to ratioratio
(this “Plastic
that STILL
close Zone” would
puts tip)
to crack us within only
relative to dist. To crack without NET strain component that
that facilitates “Plane Strain” “Plane Strain”
promote whilst
shear alarmingly
along the 45°
tip] being able to reduced dist. acts parallel to the crack
getting closer to➔the
component “Shear Lip”
free-surface
front to come intoChapter
action
With crack-tip 3 - 572
 To Summarize ➔ Fracture Near Center
No NET stress
MAX of THICK specimenallowed along
stresses crack front ➔
[nominal Due to column
applied of constraining
tensile material
stressed]

For simplicity
we’re going to
omit overlookSo 45° strain MINof
If any extent stress [Opens up
plastic
drawing the
components might only should
deformation crack during
occur (it
plastic strain
be a result
wouldofshear
the along propagation]
these favored
fields BASAL tensile stresses
45° components) Chapter 3 - 573
When Failure Occurs it’ll be in the Same
Plane as the Original Crack

i.e. it’ll be a FLAT

“Cleavage” fracture

Chapter 3 - 574
 To Summarize ➔ For an Ultra-thin
specimen ➔ We’re very close to Free-
surface ➔ Well within a relatively large
“Plastic Zone*”

Virtually, most positions within

the material don’t abide by
“Plane Strain” and fall well
within the “Plastic Zone”

Chapter 3 - 575
 However, this time
these are NO
CONSTRAINS
from column of
material above ➔
so there exists a
stress acting along
the crack-front
[MIN though]
The result are
45°components
but
MAXpointing
Stress [as in case
upwards
of thick specimens] is
favored by of nominal
in direction
plastic applied
shear stress
Chapter 3 - 576
As soon as the crack starts to propagate it would do
so through a material that has suffered extensive
“plastic shear” at 45° to surface.
The crack being free of “Plane Strain” restrictions
turns through 45° into one or other of planes of
shear

Chapter 3 - 577
In a very THIN specimen this is
referred to as

“Plane Stress”
&
The fracture face will be at 45° to
the surface
Chapter 3 - 578
 In THICKER specimens . . .

• This effect ONLY operates near “Free-

surfaces”
• Consequently, near the surface we see
the fracture face turn through 45° ➔ to
form “Shear Lips”
• This phenomenon is IMPORTANT ➔
because the “Shear Lips” absorb MORE
ENERGY than the CENTRAL “FLAT”
part of the fracture.
Chapter 3 - 579
 General Notes . . .
• In a very THICK specimen a LARGE
proportion of the fracture will be “FLAT”
• BUT, in a THINNER specimen [although the
SIZE of the “Shear Lips” will NOT CHANGE]
➔ the PROPORTION of the fracture occurring
under conditions of “Plane Strain” will be LESS
• Consequently, a GREATER proportion of the
fracture will be “Plane Stress”
• In this case a measurement of “Plane Strain
Fracture Toughness (Kc)” CANNOT be MADE
➔ as the value obtained will be TOO LARGE*
Chapter 3 - 580
Fracture toughness experiments
sometime therefore need to be
carried out on . . .
Extremely Thick Specimens

Chapter 3 - 581
Chapter 3 - 582
Chapter 3 - 583
 Sometimes “Plane Strain Fracture
Toughness” is expressed as (KIc)

• (I) or the Roman numeral “one” denotes

that the “Plane Strain Fracture
Toughness” in concern is for [mode I]
crack displacement
• The latter mode is commonly utilized to
mimic stresses imposed during service

Chapter 3 - 584
Three Modes of Crack Displacement

Chapter 3 - 585
Another Perspective . . .

Chapter 3 - 586
Or . . .

Chapter 3 - 587
Contrast between Brittle & Ductile . . .

• Brittle Materials, for which appreciable

plastic deformation is not possible in
front of an advancing crack:
– Have LOW [KIc] values
– Are vulnerable to catastrophic failure
• Ductile Materials ➔ [KIc] values are
relatively LARGE

Chapter 3 - 588