"The Ability To Do Work.": Energy Is Defined As

Solar Enjera Cooker with Energy Department of mechanical
Storage system Engineering
1. INTRODUCTION
Energy is one of the most fundamental parts of our universe. We use energy to
do work. Energy lights our cities. Energy powers our vehicles, trains, planes and
rockets. Everything we do is connected to energy in one form or another.
Energy is defined as: "The ability to do work."
There are many sources of energy. In The Energy Story, we will look at the
energy that makes our world work. Energy is an important part of our daily lives.
The forms of energy we will look at include:
 Electricity
 Biomass Energy - energy from plants
 Geothermal Energy
 Fossil Fuels - Coal, Oil and Natural Gas
 Hydro Power and Ocean Energy
 Nuclear Energy
 Solar Energy
 Wind Energy
The majority of renewable energy technologies are directly or indirectly

powered by the Sun. It is the indirect source of nearly every type of energy used
today. The exceptions are geothermal energy, and nuclear fission and fusion. Even
fossil fuels owe their origins to the sun; they were once living plants and animals
whose life was dependent upon the sun.
Project by: Daniel Yehuala,

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Solar energy
Our monthly fuel and utility bills are constant reminders of the cost of America's
standard of living. And the "experts" warn that the crisis is here to stay and also
today’s climate of growing energy needs and increasing environmental concern,
alternatives to the use of non-renewable and polluting fossil fuels have to be
investigated. Of the alternatives to conventional forms of energy, the one receiving
most serious consideration--at least for home, farm and small business heating
needs--is solar energy.
Advantage of solar energy
 It is useful to generate electricity using photovoltaic solar cells.

 Generate electricity using concentrated solar power.
 Generate electricity by heating trapped air which rotates turbines in a
solar up draft tower.
 Heat buildings, directly, through passive solar design.
 Heat foodstuffs, through solar ovens.
 Heat water or air for domestic hot water and space heating needs using
solar thermal panels.
 Heat and cool air through use of solar chimneys.
 it needs no fuel and produces no waste or pollution.
 In sunny countries, solar power can be used where there is no easy way
to get electricity to a remote place.
 Handy for low-power uses such as solar powered garden lights and
battery charger.
We've used the Sun for drying clothes and food for thousands of years, but only
recently have we been able to use it for generating power.

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Just the tiny fraction of the Sun's energy that hits the Earth (around a hundredth of a
millionth of a percent) is enough to meet all our power needs many times over.
Much of the world's required energy can be supplied directly by solar power. More
still can be provided indirectly. The practicality of doing so will be examined, as
well as the benefits and drawbacks. In addition, the uses solar energy is currently
applied to will be noted.
Due to the nature of solar energy, two components are required to have a functional
solar energy generator. These two components are a collector and a storage unit.
The collector simply collects the radiation that falls on it and converts a fraction of
it to other forms of energy (either electricity and heat or heat alone). The storage
unit is used to save the energy because of the non-constant nature of solar energy; at
certain time.
Methods of collecting and storing solar energy vary depending on the uses planned
for the solar generator.
In general, there are basically three types of thermal solar collectors: flat-plate,
evacuated-tube and concentrating.
Flat-Plate
Collectors comprise of an insulated, weatherproof box containing a dark absorber

plate under one or more transparent or translucent covers. Water or heat conducting
fluid passes through pipes located below the absorber plate. As the fluid flows
through the pipes it is heated. This style of collector, although inferior in many
ways to evacuated tube collectors, is still the most common type of collector in
many countries.
Evacuated Tube

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Solar water heaters are made up of rows of parallel, glass tubes. The absorber strip
is located in an evacuated and pressure proof glass tube. The heat transfer fluid
flows through the absorber directly in a U-tube or in countercurrent in a tube-in-
tube system. Several single tubes, serially interconnected, or tubes connected to
each other via manifold, make up the solar collector. A heat pipe collector
incorporates a special fluid which begins to vaporize even at low temperatures. The
steam rises in the individual heat pipes and warms up the carrier fluid in the main
pipe by means of a heat exchanger. The condensed liquid then flows back into the
base of the heat pipe.
Benefits of Solar Energy
a. Utilization
The sun, a source of unlimited energy, can potentially provide the equivalent of
about 25,000 times the total amount of energy presently used from all other sources.
However, only a very small fraction of this freely available energy is exploited
through direct means for human use. At the world's current consumption of fossil
fuels (petroleum and natural gas), depletion of the reserves of these energy
resources is now a predictable matter of universal concern.
Alternative energy resources other than coal are inadequate to meet the total future
needs on a global scale. In order to diminish the dependence on the rapidly
depleting oil resources, special consideration is being given to the feasibility of
expanding the exploitation of coal reserves in a manner that would ensure the
reduction of the associated environmental impacts.
In view of these rapidly growing concerns, it would be reasonable to assume that

solar energy is bound to play an important role in the future supply of energy,
particularly in the developing world. Although the use of solar energy is still limited
at present, the development of appropriate technology is underway to harness solar
power, as well as other renewable energy sources, for various industrial and
household applications. The areas of solar usage include drying of food and crops,

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desalination, generation of electricity, heating and cooling of houses, water heating,
and cooking and refrigeration.
b. Fuel wood: An environmental issue

In many developing countries, particularly in rural and remote population centers,
the energy consumed for household use is largely from local resources such as fuel
wood, charcoal, cow dung, and agricultural wastes.
According to well informed UN sources well over two billion people, mostly in
rural areas, use fuel wood as the principal source of energy for cooking and other
domestic purposes. This has been a traditional practice for centuries among rural
populations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, where nearly 95% of the
households depend upon fuel wood as their major source of energy at an annual
consumption rate of 1.3 m3 to 2.3 m3 per capita.
Through over-exploitation of forest trees, shrubberies, and other woody vegetation,

partly to make room for new farmlands and partly for use as fuel, situations of acute
fuel wood scarcity are currently prevailing in many parts of the developing world.
Some of the salient ecological consequences include deforestation, lack of woody
vegetation, and destructive soil erosion. In some of the semi-arid regions like the
sub-Saharan parts of Africa from Senegal to Ethiopia, there are indications that fuel
wood consumption has already contributed to the process of desertification.
c. The Merit able Aspects

Besides its availability in abundance in most parts of the developing world, solar
radiation possesses a number of advantages over other energy sources which are
now rapidly dwindling. The prominent ones include the following:
 The simple and low-cost technology involved in harnessing solar radiation.
 Solar energy is found at the places where it is needed for use, a convenience
that saves transportation costs, time, and effort.
 Unlike other kinds of energy, the utilization of solar energy would not lead
to negative environmental impacts.

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 Solar energy would help substantially in relieving the critical problem of
fuel wood in semi-arid and arid areas.
 The advantages embodied in the practical use of solar energy tend to
promote widespread implementation at the household level, as well as
personal interest and acceptance.

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2- STORAGE SYSTEM
The storage unit is required because of the non-constant nature of solar energy; at
certain times only a very small amount of radiation will be received. At night or
during heavy cloud cover, for example, the amount of energy produced by the
collector will be quite small. The storage unit can hold the excess energy produced
during the periods of maximum productivity, and release it when the productivity
drops. In practice, a backup power supply is usually added, too, for the situations
when the amount of energy required is greater than both what is being produced and
what is stored in the container.
Unfortunately, too many perspective users of solar energy have too little
information about some of the aspects of building or converting to a solar heating
system. One area of inadequate or misinformation in particular (and a costly one it
mistakes are made) is the storage of collected energy. The purpose of this
publication, therefore, is to answer some basic questions about the proper selection
and use of thermal storage devices. Included in the publication are discussions of
various heat storage materials and transfer media, and how to select the `right' one;
size, location and shape of the storage device; and suggestions on shopping for such
a device. Included are two worksheets (with examples)-one for determining how
much heat storage you will likely need, and the other for finding out how much you
might be able to cut costs by proper insulation.
2.1. What materials are used for storing solar heat, and is there a `best' one?
A number of materials will work as storage media in home, farm or small business
solar heating systems; but only three are generally recommended at this time--rock,
water (or water-antifreeze mixtures) and a phase-change chemical substance called
Glauber's salt. These are the materials that most consistently meet the criteria for
selecting a storage medium--namely, the ability (1) to deliver heat to its application

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points at a desirable temperature, and (2) to do it cheaply, based not so much on
cost of the material as on cost of the total system and its maintenance.
Thus, there is no one `best' heat storage material; but rather each of the three has
characteristics that might make it the most desirable under certain conditions. Since
we make the system for rural area (no need higher skill), at low cost (easily
available) we select water storage material.
Advantageous of Water as working medium
Water as a storage material has the advantages of being inexpensive and readily
available, of having excellent heat transfer characteristics, and of being compatible
with existing hot water systems. Because of the good heat-storage-to-volume ratio
(five times greater than rock) and greater efficiency of liquid solar collectors, liquid
collection and storage systems can be very practical: (1) where close maintenance is
available (such as in multiple-residence or industrial buildings), (2) where the
ultimate use is hot water (such as in a dairy barn or food processing facility), or (3)
where the water storage system can be directly coupled with an existing heating
system as in residential hot water baseboard heat. A water storage system might
also be considered instead of rock storage in situations where space is limited. The
water tank can easily be buried below ground to save space.

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2.2. Design analysis
In the analysis part we determine then feasible amount of energy and cost that
makes this baker more important to use in the country sides of Ethiopia. As we have
mentioned in the introduction of the project in Ethiopia everyday a great amount of
wood is being utilized and the deforestation so increasing from the 19 th century. So
the purpose of this project is to design the necessary solar Enjera baker that can
provide the same amount of energy that we can get from utilizing this dried wood.
The first thing is to determine the amount of energy necessary for baking of one
Mosob Enjera. That is by assuming the average time that it takes to bake one
Mosob Enjera in one Ethiopian family.
The designed wattage for an electric Enjera baker is approximately 1.9-2.1KW.

This is the commonly used baker in some Ethiopian families. This is most basic
resource that we can use for the design analysis of this project.
So by taking the average of this wattage range we take 2KW.
As we have said earlier one average Ethiopian family utilizes about 2hrs to bake
one Mosob Enjera.
From the above values the step that we leap int5o is the determination of the
amount of heat energy that is required to bake
Q=2KW*2hr*3600sec/hr
=14400KJ
=14.4MJ
 Duration of the energy storage is to save for 3days.
Assumption
Losses from the storage tank is through out the three days is approximately 1MJ.
The loss through pipe during the transport of steam is approximately 65KJ.
The temperature attained at the first day≈190oC.

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And the temperature attained at the final day≈135oC.
Total energy stored
I.e. including the losses that we assumed previously
QT= Q + Qloss
= 14.4MJ + 1MJ + 0.065MJ
=15.465MJ ≈ 16MJ
2.2.1. Design of storage tank
The storage tang is the main equipment that stores the energy for the specified time
and amount.
The specific heat value analysis
For the above selected working fluid, i.e. water, we will have two values. These
values are obtained by classifying in to above and below phase change temperature
of the working medium.
Above phase change temperature, at 1 atmosphere.
Temperature(oC) Enthalpy(KJ/Kg)
190 2855.4
100 2210.11
Cp (steam) = (2855.4-2210.11)/ 90oK = 1.8KJ/KgK

Below phase change temperature,
Take average specific heat values between the temperature ranges of 25 oC and
100oC
=4.1925KJ/KgK
After this it will be easier to determine the required latent heat which, as we have
said earlier will be useful to determine the energy for phase change material. And
the latent heat is determined by including the “above” and “below” phase change
temperature of the working medium.
Latent heat (htotal),
htotal= hlatent + (CpT1) above + (CpT2) below

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Where: - T1 is the temperature difference above phase change temperature
T2 is the temperature difference below phase change temperature
By substituting the calculated values in the above equation will give,
=3224.84KJ/Kg
This latent heat is used to determine the mass of the working medium required,
Q= mhtotal
m= QT/htotal
Substituting the values for the respective variables will give,
m= 4.96Kg
This value of the temperature with the corresponding pressure (atmospheric
pressure) is in the range of the ideal gas state.
This makes the design to use the ideal gas properties.

So the volume can be determined from the ideal gas equation,
PV=mRT

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V=P/mRT
Where: - Rsteam=0.4615KJ/KgK
Substituting the corresponding values for the variables will give us,
V=0.104066m3≈ 105 liters
This is the volume of the steam after the fresh water accomplishes the phase
change. So now we are in a state to determine the amount or the volume of the fresh
water we need to supply to the tank.
I.e. Qtotal/V= rhentahlpy =rCpl (Tsat -Tambient)
Where: - r is the average between the temperature ranges of 25oC and 100oC
r=979.5Kg/m3
C pl is the specific heat capacity for the working medium and the
temperature range mentioned above Cpl=4.1925KJ/KgK
By substituting for the respective values, the volume will be
=0.05186m3 r≈ 52 liters
Design of storage shell
The storage tank is designed in such a way to have no pressure difference with
the atmosphere pressure.
Material selection
The material selection is taken with the consideration of rust resistance and
compatibility with working medium.
♦Steel 37 is convenient for storage tank.
Material properties:
Rch=Rp0.2 (yield) =200mpa
Rm/20(ultimate strength) =400Mpa
Elongation (%) =20
The volume of the storage tank is=105 lit
=0.105m3

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The storage tank dimensions;

Height (H) =53.1cm,
Diameter (D)=50cm
Design analysis of thickness of the shell
Assumption
For efficiency of weld Z=0.8-0.9, (Take, Z=0.85)
Calculation for design stress (fd);
fd=min (Rp/1.5,Rm/2.4) where:- Rp=200Mpa

Rm=400Mpa
fd =min(133.3Mpa,166.66Mpa),
fd =133.3Mpa
The thickness of the cylinder can be determined as follows,
ecylinder= PDi/(2fdZ-P), where:-P= 1 atmosphere.
By substituting the respected values with respected values, the thickness of the
cylinder will become,
ecylinder=1.83mm , ( take =2mm)

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2.2.2. Design of insulation for the storage
The tanker (hot water reservoir) should be insulated appropriately for two reasons
 While the tanker is heating during the sunshine hour, heat loss
should not be significant to reduce the temperature of the water.
 During the night, the hot water will be stored in the tanker for the use
in the next day in the morning. So, the heat loss should be minimized
to make temperature of the water in the desired magnitude.
The tanker is made of cylindrical cross section to be suitable for the assembly of the
heat pipe. So as a result the insulation is analyzed for the flat for the top and
circumferential for the side face of the tanker.
The insulation material available is urethane foam with previously cited
properties.
The total heat transfer area AT,
AT  A1 +A 2 , A1 = r 2  0.196m2 and A 2 =2 rh  0.83m 2
Therefore AT=1.02m2
material for tanker is steel which is available in the workshop with
antirust paint its thermal conductivity , k=54w/m-k
The minimum ambient temperature, Ta is taken to be 25oC.
The average heating period of the medium per day is 7hrs.
Assumed thickness of insulation, L=40 mm.
convective heat transfer to the environment, hw
h w =5.7+3.8Vw =24.7 w
m2 K
Surface temperature of the tanker, Tf is taken to be the maximum temperature the
water reaches i.e. 190oC.
Now let us calculate the heat loss for about seventeen hours.

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For flat insulation the heat loss, Eloss is given by
AT
E loss

l 1 
*t
  
 k h w 
Where T  T f  T a
t= time the surface exposed to convective loss,
Eloss= 249.8MJ
The useful energy from the collector is
Eu=Qu*t*3600
=979200MJ
The net energy, Enet
Enet= Eu- Eloss

=0.978MJ
The useful temperature change of the water will be
T  Enet
Where m   * volume
mc p
w
=44.676Kg
= 4.919oK
This indicates with the right insulation the decrement of the water temperature is
insignificant showing the thickness of insulation is sufficient.

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3. HEAT PIPE
A heat pipe is a heat transfer mechanism that can transport large quantities of heat
with a very small difference in temperature between the hot and cold interfaces.
They are often referred to as the "superconductors" of heat as they possess an extra
ordinary heat transfer capacity & rate with almost no heat loss. It consists of a
sealed aluminum or copper container whose inner surfaces have a capillary wicking
material. A heat pipe is similar to a thermosyphon. It differs from a thermosyphon
by virtue of its ability to transport heat against gravity by an evaporation-
condensation cycle with the help of porous capillaries that form the wick. The wick
provides the capillary driving force to return the condensate to the evaporator. The
quality and type of wick usually determines the performance of the heat pipe, for
this is the heart of the product.
The advantage of heat pipes is their great efficiency in transferring heat. They are
actually a vastly better heat conductor than an equivalent cross-section of solid
copper. Heat flows of more than 230MW/m^2 have been recorded (nearly 4 times
the heat flux at the surface of the sun.
3.1. Basic components of a heat pipe

The three basic components of a heat pipe are:
1. the container
2. the working fluid
3. the wick or capillary structure
Container
A typical heat pipe consists of a sealed hollow tube. A thermo conductive metal
such as copper or aluminum is used to make the tube. . The function of the

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container is to isolate the working fluid from the outside It has to therefore be leak-
proof, maintain the pressure differential across its walls, and enable transfer of heat
to take place from and into the working fluid.
Selection of the container material depends on many factors. These are as follows:
 Compatibility (both with working fluid and external environment)
 Strength to weight ratio
 Thermal conductivity
 Ease of fabrication, including welding, machine ability and ductility
 Porosity
 Wet ability
Most of the above are self-explanatory. A high strength to weight ratio is more
important in spacecraft applications. The material should be non-porous to prevent
the diffusion of vapor. A high thermal conductivity ensures minimum temperature
drop between the heat source and the wick.
Heat pipe contains three parts:
1. Evaporator: heat enters the heat pipe at its evaporator where its causes
working fluid to vaporize .the vaporized fluid creates pressure gradient
which forces the vapor towards the condenser.
2. condenser: heat exist the heat pipe at the condenser where the working
fluid condenses and releases its latent heat of vaporization .the condensed
working fluid is drawn back into the pores of the wick for return to the
evaporator.

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3. Adiabatic section: vapor travel from the evaporator to the condenser
through the adiabatic section .As the pressure drops is low, there is little
temperature changes in this area.
Working fluid
A first consideration in the identification of a suitable working fluid is the operating

vapor temperature range. Within the approximate temperature band, several
possible working fluids may exist, and a variety of characteristics must be examined
in order to determine the most acceptable of these fluids for the application
considered. The prime requirements are:
 compatibility with wick and wall materials
 good thermal stability
 wet ability of wick and wall materials
 vapor pressure not too high or low over the operating temperature range
 high latent heat
 high thermal conductivity
 low liquid and vapor viscosities
 high surface tension
 acceptable freezing or pour point
The selection of the working fluid must also be based on thermodynamic

considerations which are concerned with the various limitations to heat flow
occurring within the heat pipe like, viscous, sonic, capillary, entrainment and
nucleate boiling levels and mostly The materials and coolant chosen depends on

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the temperature conditions in which the heat pipe must operate, with coolants
ranging from liquid helium for extremely low temperature applications to mercury
for high temperature conditions. However, the vast majority of heat pipes use either
ammonia or water as working fluid.
Wick or Capillary Structure
It is a porous structure made of materials like steel, aluminum, nickel or copper in

various ranges of pore sizes. They are fabricated using metal foams, and more
particularly felts, the latter being more frequently used. By varying the pressure on
the felt during assembly, various pore sizes can be produced. By incorporating
removable metal mandrels, an arterial structure can also be molded in the felt. The
wick serves as pump using capillary pressure to return the fluid from the condenser
to the evaporator. The wick also acts as an extended surface to allow higher heat
fluxes.
The two most important properties of a wick are the pore radius and the
permeability. The pore radius determines the pumping pressure the wick can
develop. The permeability determines the frictional losses of the fluid as it flows
through the wick. There are several types of wick structures available including:
grooves, screen, cables/fibers, and sintered powder metal. Grooved wicks have a
large pore radius and a high permeability, as a result the pressure losses are low but
the pumping head is also low. Grooved wicks can transfer high heat loads in a
horizontal or gravity aided position, but cannot transfer large loads against gravity.
The powder metal wicks on the opposite end of the list have small pore radii and
relatively low permeability. Powder metal wicks are limited by pressure drops in
the horizontal position .the screen wick has low small pore radii and relatively low
permeability. Therefore in our project we select these structures.
The most common types of wicks that are used are as follows

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1. sintered powder
2. grooved tube
3. screen mesh
3.2. Heat pipe operation
Heat pipe are comprised of a tube having separated evaporator and condenser
portions.
Inside the container is a liquid under its own pressure, that enters the pores of the
capillary material, wetting all internal surfaces? When external heat source supplies
heat to the evaporator portion at any point along the surface of the heat pipe causes
the liquid at that point to boil and enter a vapor state. When that happens, the liquid
picks up the latent heat of vaporization. The vapor, which then has a higher
pressure, moves inside the sealed container to a colder location the vaporous heat
transport medium condenses in the condenser portion, thereby giving up its latent
heat. Substantially all the internal surfaces of the heat pipe are lined with a wick
comprised of a fine porous material. The wick operates to transport the liquid heat
transport medium to the evaporator portion by capillary action.
Application

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Grover and his colleagues were working on cooling systems for nuclear power cells
for space craft, where extreme thermal conditions are found. Heat pipes have since
been used extensively in space craft as a means for managing internal temperature
conditions.
Heat pipes are also being widely used in solar thermal water heating applications in
combination with evacuated tube solar collector arrays. In these applications,
distilled water is commonly used as the heat transfer fluid inside a sealed length of
copper tubing that is located within an evacuated glass tube and oriented towards
the Sun.
Sample applications include:
 Deployable two-phase radiator systems for aerospace applications

 Electronic cooling system
 De-icing applications
 Isothermal furnace liners
 Heat pipe heat exchangers
Heat Pipe Merits
 Large quantities of heat can be moved with a small change in temperature.

 Heat pipes are can transport heat over very long distances.
 It requires no power source to accomplish its function.
 It has light in weight.
Selection of heat pipe component
Fluid Selection
A heat pipe operates at liquid state of working fluid so that the selected fluid for
the heat pipe must have a melting point temperature below and a critical point
temperature above the pipe operating temperature. Therefore fluid can be selected
by analyzing the heat transport factor.

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The heat transport factor (QL) c, max, can then be calculated by the following
equation;
  l   K 
(QL) c, max = 2   2rc t w 
  l  rc 
Where:
l 
 the liquid property
1
k
 the wick property
rc
2 rctw  the wick cross-sectional area
The above equation indicates that for a pipe of fixed wick structure and dimensions
its heat transport factor (QL) c, max is directly proportional to the liquid transport
  l  
factor, which is defined as   .therefore mostly the liquid which has high heat
 l 
transport factor (QL) c, max is selected In addition, toxicity and flammability of the
fluid may also have to be considered in certain applications.
Wick Selection
The wick material used as:
1. It used as transporting passage for the return of liquid from the condenser to
the evaporator.
2. It used to increase the heat transporting capability of the pipe.
As you see in the above the heat transporting capability of the pipe depends on the
permeability (K) of wick structure. Therefore selection of wick structure is based on
this value. The wick permeability is calculated by the following equation:

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 2r 2 h,l 
K   

 f l Re l 
Where;  is the wick porosity?
; r 2 h ,l is the hydraulic radius
Therefore the selected wick structure must contain large values for  and r h ,l but
small rc values.
Material Selections
Most of the time the material of heat pipe, wick and container selected based on the
compatibility with working fluids. Because if there is compatibility (chemical
reaction),
As a result there will be decomposition of the working fluid and corrosion or
erosion of container or wick. Corrosion and erosion of the container and wick may
result in a change of the fluid wetting angle and the permeability or capillary pore
size of the wick. As a result the performance of the heat pipe will decrease.
3.3. Design analysis of heat pipe

Design Procedures,
1. Pipe diameter is first determined

2. Design of the container
3. Wick details are designed considering the capillary limit.
Heat Pipe Diameter

From different type of shape mostly round shape will preferred from different
aspect such as: Round tubes and pipes of many materials are readily available, and
they are most efficient configuration from the stress point of view. For convenience,
the heat pipe can be designed so that its maximum Mach number in the vapor flow

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passage does not exceed 0.2. Under this condition, the vapor can be considered
incompressible and the axial temperature gradient negligibly small.
For a heat pipe whose heat transport mode requirements and consequently
maximum axial heat flux Q max are known, the required vapor core diameter d v , at
vapor Mach number Mv equal to 0.2 , can be from the following equation, that is
20Qmax
dv=
 v   v Rv Tv
Where
dv = vapor core diameter  = latent heat of vaporization
R v= gas constant for the
vapor T v=vapor
temperature
Q max= maximum axial heat flux
 v = vapor density  v = vapor specific heat ratio
Design of Heat Pipe Containers
The most widely used design technique for heat pipe containers that must withstand
vapor pressure is the ASME code for unfired pressure vessels. The ASME code
specifies that the maximum allowable stress at any temperature be one-quarter of
the material’s ultimate tensile strength ftu at that temperature. For round tubes in
which the wall thickness is less than 10% of the diameter, the maximum pressure
stress is closely approximated by the simple expression as follows:
pd o
fmax=
2t
Where fmax=maximum hoop stress in the wall

p=pressure differential across the wall
do=tube outside diameter

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t=tube wall thickness
For design calculations, the internal pressure of the pipe is equal to the saturation
vapor pressure of the pipe working fluid at its operating temperature or its
maximum cyclic pressure whichever is larger.
Wick Design
The purpose of this selection is to determine the proper dimensions of the
commonest types of heat pipe wicks, namely, the wrapped-screen wicks.
Wick Design Procedures

The general procedures for the design of the wrapped-screen wick for a heat pipe
operating in the heat pipe mode are as follows:
1. Knowing the inside pipe diameter di, total length Lt, and titling angle  ,
the hydrostatic pressure is calculated as follows:
pg =  l g (d i cos   Lt sin  )
Where  l = liquid density
g = gravitational acceleration
di = inside pipe diameter
Lt = total pipe length
2. The required mesh number for the wick is chosen recalling that p c should
not
be much smaller than twice the pg calculated above.
3.It can be assumed that the wick thickness t w for the pipe and a vapor core
diameter dv equal to ( di – 2 tw).Liquid and vapor frictional coefficients , Fl
and Fv , can then be calculated using the following formula:
Liquid frictional coefficient for the liquid flow,
Fl
l
Fl =
KAw  l
With wick permeability K being calculated by the following equation:

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d 2 2
K=
122(1   ) 2
Where d = wire diameter of the wire cloth

 = wick porosity, which can be calculated by the
following equation:
1.05JNd
  1
4
Where N = mesh number
Vapor frictional coefficient for the liquid flow, Fv
( f v Re v )  v
Fv =
2r 2 h ,v Av  v 
Where  f v Re v  =coefficient of drag
=16 (for circular vapor flow passages)
 v = vapor viscosity
rh,v=hydraulic radius
Av=vapor flow area
 v =vapor density
 =latent heat of vaporization

4. The heat transport limit for the pipe with the assumed wick thickness can
now be calculated as follows:
pc  p g
(QL) c,max=
Fl  Fv
5. Check if the (QL) c, max calculated above is greater than the required (QL) for
the problem under consideration .If so, the assumed wick thickness is
satisfactory. If not a large wick thickness is to be used and steps (3) and (5) are
repeated until a satisfactory wick thickness is chosen.

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3.4. Heat pipe design consideration
There are many factors to consider when designing a heat pipe: compatibility
of materials, operating temperature range, diameter, power limitations,
thermal resistances, and operating orientation. However, the design issues
are reduced to two major considerations by limiting the selection to
copper/water heat pipes for cooling electronics. These considerations are the
amount of power the heat pipe is capable of carrying and its effective
thermal resistance. These two major heat pipe design criteria are discussed
below
Limits to Heat Transport
The most important heat pipe design consideration is the amount of power the heat
pipe is capable of transferring. Heat pipes can be designed to carry a few watts or
several kilowatts, depending on the application. Heat pipes can transfer much
higher powers for a given temperature gradient than even the best metallic
conductors. If driven beyond its capacity, however, the effective thermal
conductivity of the heat pipe will be significantly reduced. Therefore, it is important
to assure that the heat pipe is designed to safely transport the required heat load.
The maximum heat transport capability of the heat pipe is governed by several
limiting factors which must be addressed when designing a heat pipe. There are five
primary heat pipe heat transport limitations. These heat transport limits, which are a
function of the heat pipe operating temperature, include: viscous, sonic, capillary
pumping, entrainment or flooding, and boiling. Each heat transport limitation is
summarized in the following table.
Heat Transport Limit Description Cause Potential Solution

Viscous Viscous forces Heat pipe operating Increase heat pipe
prevent vapor flow below recommended operating
in the heat pipe operating temperature temperature or

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find alternative
working fluid
Vapor flow reaches
This is typically
sonic velocity when
only a problem at
exiting heat pipe
Power/temperature start-up. The heat
evaporator
combination, too pipe will carry a
Sonic resulting in a
much power at low set power and the
constant heat pipe
operating temperature large ^T will self
transport power and
correct as the heat
large temperature
pipe warms up
gradients
High velocity vapor
Heat pipe operating Increase vapor
flow prevents
above designed power space diameter or
Entrainment/Flooding condensate from
input or at too low an operating
returning to
operating temperature temperature
evaporator
Sum of
gravitational, liquid
and vapor flow Heat pipe input power Modify heat pipe
pressure drops exceeds the design wick structure
Capillary
exceed the capillary heat transport capacity design or reduce
pumping head of of the heat pipe power input
the heat pipe wick
structure
Boiling Film boiling in heat High radial heat flux Use a wick with a
pipe evaporator causes film boiling higher heat flux
typically initiates at resulting in heat pipe capacity or spread
5-10 W/cm2 for dry out and large out the heat load
screen wicks and thermal resistances
20-30 W/cm2 for
powder metal

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wicks
 Sonic Limitation
The sonic limitation occurs in heat pipes during start- up at low temperature. The
low temperature produces a low vapor density there by reducing the speed of sound
in the vapor core. Thus a sufficiently high mass flow rate in the vapor core causes
sonic flow conditions. And generate a shock wave that chocks the flow and restricts
the pipe ability to transfer heat to the condenser. An expression that agrees very
well with experimental
to transfer heat to the condenser. An expression that agrees very well with
experimental data for the sonic limitation is given by:
Qs, max=0.474Av h, fg (  v p v ) 0. 5
The sonic limitation should be avoided because large temperature gradient occurs in
heat pipes under chocked-flow condition.
 Entrainment Limitation
The entrainment limitation in heat pipes develops when the vapor mass flow rate is
large enough to shear droplets of liquid off the wick surface causing dry out in the
evaporator. A conservative estimate of the maximum heat transfer rate due to
entrainment of liquid droplet is given by:
0 .5
   
Qe,max =  v l 

 2rc , ave 
Capillary Limitation

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The capillary limitation in heat pipes occurs when the net capillary forces generated
by the vapor-liquid interfaces in the evaporate and condenser are not enough to over
come the frictional pressure loses due to fluid motion. This causes the heat pipe
evaporator to dry out and shuts down the transfer of heat from the evaporator to the
condenser, for most heat pipes, the maximum heat transfer rate due to the capillary
limitation is expressed as:
  l  l h fg  Aw K  2   l  
Qc,max=       gLt cos 
  
 l  Leff  rc ,e   l  
For most practical operating conditions, this limitation can be used to determine
maximum heat transfer rate in heat pipes.
Boiling Limitation
The boiling limitation in the heat pipes occurs when the degree of liquid superheat
in the evaporator is large enough to cause the nucleation of vapor bubbles on the
surface of the wick or the container. Boiling is usually undesirable in heat pipes
because local hot spots can develop in the wick, obstructing the flow of liquid in the
evaporation are given as:
4Leff K eff Tv v  1 1 

  
Qb,max=  ri   rv rc ,e 
h fg  l ln 
 rv 
Where Keff is the effective conductivity of the composite wick and working fluid
 w 
 
 mk 

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Tv is the vapor saturation temperature (K)

ri is the container radius (m)
rn is the nucleation radius (equal to 2*10-6 in the absence of non
condensable gas)
3.5. Design Analysis of heat pipe
Fig. schematic representation of heat pipe

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Working fluid selection
For operating temperature 463oc; water is suitable fluid.
Water is advantageous fluid for:
♦better liquid transport capability
♦higher thermal conductivity
♦low cost availability
Hence water is a working fluid and the property at 25oc;
Ρ=996.86Kg/m3, viscosity=9.392*10-4Kgm/s, specific heat of
vaporization=4.179J/KgK
Thermal conductivity=0.6074 W/m2oc
Heat pipe material selection

Having water as working fluid titanium, nickel and copper are compatible materials.
However copper has superior conductance at 463K and easily available and low
cost.
The configuration of a heat pipe is selected to be round. This is the most effective
and efficient configuration from stress point of view.
Wick selection
The material is selected to be copper fro the above reasons.
Properties of water at the temperature T=463K,
l  876 kg m 3 heatofvaporization(hg )  1.978*106 j kg
v  0.641 kg m3 psat @T  463K  1.25*103 Pa
K f  671.2*103 vaporspecificheatratio(k )  1.304
K g  35.11*103

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kc  388  f  140.9*106 kg m.s
CpL  4.452 kj kgK  g  15.295*106 kg m.s
CpG  2.713 kj kgK surfacetention( )  40.04*103 N m
Calculation analysis for determining the core diameter (dv)
Although heat pipes can be made of different cross-sectional shapes, the round shape is
the most common configuration .Round tubes and pipes of many materials are readily
available, and they are most efficient configuration from the stress point of view. The size
of the pipe diameter necessary for a given application should be determined so that vapor
velocity is not excessive. For convenience, the heat pipe can be designed so that its
maximum Mach number in the vapor flow passage does not exceed 0.2. Under this
condition, the vapor can be considered incompressible and the axial temperature gradient
negligibly small.
For a heat pipe whose heat transport mode requirements and consequently maximum
axial heat flux Q max are known, the required vapor core diameter dv , at vapor Mach
number Mv equal to 0.2 , can be from the following equation, that is
.5
 20 Q 
 
Dv    max

  l  v Rv T v 
Where: - dv = vapor core diameter
Q max= maximum axial heat flux
 v = vapor density
 v = vapor specific heat ratio
 = latent heat of vaporization

Rv= gas constant for the vapor
Tv=vapor temperature
Then by substitution the above corresponding value

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Dv  2.26mm  3mm
See from the appendix A.
As we see from the calculation the minimum core diameter required to transfer
Q=632W is Dv=3mm but from point of heat transfer rate we take from standard
table Dv=1/4inch.there fore for the above core diameter we read the
corresponding standard value from the table:
Di=3/8inch=10mm
Thickness=0.001inch=0.0254
Do=11mm
From also the standard table for the above diameter we can read the
corresponding length i.e.
L=4feet=915mm
Assumption
 Screen wick thickness tw =1.5 mm
 screen wire diameter, d=2.54*10-4m

 wire screen mesh number, N=1.96285*103 m
 -length of evaporator, , Le=200 mm
 length of condenser ,L c=250 mm
 length of adiabatic section, La=465 mm
 total length of heat pipe, Lt = 1500 mm
 the amount of energy transformed from the evaporator, Qmax= Qe=632w
Checking Against Heat Pipe Limitations

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Now using the above assumed values, the incompressibility the working fluid, capillary
limitation, sonic limitation, boiling limitation, and entrainment limitation are checked if
they are enough to cause failures.
Capillary Limitation
The capillary limitation in heat pipes occurs when the net capillary forces generated by
the vapor-liquid interfaces in the evaporator and condenser are not enough to over come
the frictional pressure loses due to fluid motion. This causes the heat pipe evaporator to
dry out and shuts down the transfer of heat from the evaporator to the condenser. For
most practical operating conditions, this limitation can be used to determine maximum
heat transfer rate in heat pipes.
Hence the analysis can be performed as follows.
 hydrostatic pressure, Pg
P g=  l
g (Dicos  -Ltsin  ) where: - the tilt angle (  ) of the
solar collector is taken to be 15o to attain maximum solar radiation intensity.
=-2586N/m2
 maximum capillary pressure, Pcm
2
p  , where:- r 
1
cm
r c
c
2N
= 3.1719N/m2
Since, the heat pipe is gravity assisted; the direction of hydrostatic pressure
and capillary action is the same .so the wick thickness and mesh number
acceptable.

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 Liquid frictional coefficient, Fl
Wick cross sectional area, Aw=.25  (Di2-Dv2)

=4*10-5m2
1.05Nd
Wick porosity,   1 
4
=0.59
d
2 3
Wick permeability, K 
1221   
2
=6.46*10-6m2

Fl  KA 
l
w l
6
= 314.6*10 N / m / w  m
 Vapor frictional coefficient, Fv
For wrapped screen for circular vapor flow passage the coefficient of
drag; f Rv ev =16
Vapor flow area, Av=.25  Dv2

=3.848*10-5m2
( f R ) ev where : rh ,v  (
DV
)  3.5mm
F 2 v v
, 2
v
r A h ,v v
=459.3*10-6N/m/w-m
 Capillary heat transfer factor,  QL  c ,max

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p p
 QL  c,max 
c g
F Fl v
6
= 3.345*10 w / m
 Capillary heat transfer limit,  Qc  c ,max
 QL
Q c , max
 c , max
.5 L  L  .5l 
e a c
=2.676MW
Sonic Limitation, Qs, Max

The sonic limitation occurs in heat pipes during start- up at low temperature. The low
temperature produces a low vapor density there by reducing the speed of sound in
the vapor core. Thus a sufficiently high mass flow rate in the vapor core causes sonic
flow conditions. And generate a shock wave that chocks the flow and restricts the
pipe ability to transfer heat to the condenser. An expression that agrees very well
with experimental data for the sonic limitation is given by:
0.5
 R T 
QS, MAX = AV  O   V V V 
 2 TV  1 
Vapor specific heat ratio, Yv=1.303

 J 
Vapor constant =876  
 Kg .K 
QS, MAX =882.8W

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Entrainment Limit Qe, Max

The entrainment limitation in heat pipes develops when the vapor mass flow rate is large
enough to shear droplets of liquid off the wick surface causing dry out in the evaporator.
A conservative estimate of the maximum heat transfer rate due to entrainment of liquid
droplet is given by:
0 .5
  
QE, MAX= AV   V 
 2rh , S 
rh,s=wick surface hydraulic radius

1 d
=  N=1.968*103
2N 2
=1.27*10-4
QE, MAX=764.5W
Boiling Limitation, Qb, Max
The boiling limitation in the heat pipes occurs when the degree of liquid superheat in
the evaporator is large enough to cause the nucleation of vapor bubbles on the surface of
the wick or the container. Boiling is usually undesirable in heat pipes because local hot
spots can develop in the wick, obstructing the flow of liquid in the evaporation are given
as:
2Le K eTV  2 
  C 
QB, MAX= r  r
 V ln i   n 
 rv 
 K l  K w  1    K l  K w  
Where Ke = K l  
  K l  K w   1    K l  K w  

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W
Kl =0.671   0.59
m 2 .K
W
Kw=388
m 2 .K
W
Ke=1.59
m 2 .K
rn=1.27*10-7 m
Substituting all these values;
QB, MAX =1.384 Kw

From the above calculation, all the limits are above the amount of the
energy needed at the evaporator stage. This means the energy at the evaporator
stage can be transferred without any failure in the heat pipe.
Design of Heat Pipe Container
The following are taken into consideration for the design of the heat pipe:
 Material of heat used for the heat pipe is copper.

 Working fluid temperature T is 333.15K
N
 Ultimate tensile strength of copper at 333.15K = UTS  32 psi  32*6.9kpa m
2
The ASME code specifies that the maximum allowable stress at any temperature (UTS)
at that temperature.
UTS
I.e. 4
f max

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For rounded tubes in which the wall thickness is loss than 10% of the diameter, the
maximum pressure stress is closely approximated by simple expression
pd o
fmax=
2t
Where:- fmax is the maximum hoop stress in the wall
P is pressure differential across the wall
do is tube outside thickness
Substituting the following values to the above equation,
do =20 mm, t=1mm Pamb=101.235 KPa & Psat at 60oC=19.94 KPa
P=101.325-19.94=81.385 KPa
t
 0.0254
11  0.23%  10%
d0
Hence the above formula can be used,
100*11
f max   22000 pa
2*0.0254
UTS
To check, 4
f max
220.8kpa
 10
22000
10  4
The above result indicates that the assumed heat pipe container dimensions are
acceptable.

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3.6 INSULATION
Considering the different conditions for the advantages of pipe insulation selection of
urethane foam is the most economical.
Thermal conductivity of insulator k= 0.024W/m2K
The convective heat transfer coefficient for the surrounding medium
h=4.6KJ/KgKusing this information we can calculate the critical thickness of the
insulation, rcritical
K
rcritical =
h
rcritical = 4.35*10-3m
Form this we can visualize that the critical thickness is greater than the outer diameter of
the pipe. So can take any thickness of insulation. Therefore we can take an insulation
thickness of 10mm.
Calculation cost analysis of insulation thickness for heat pipe
Q  mCp
 T , Q=6MJ
By substituting the corresponding values m will be

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m =9.5Kg/s
1
U
R3 R3
R3 ln( ) R3 ln( )
R3 R1 R2 1
  
R1h1 K pipe Kinsulator ho
0.023Cpm
h1 
Where: - Cp  fluid 2 3 2 R1m 0.2 and A=  r2= 0.254*10-3m2
A( ) ( )
K fluid A fluid
From standard table for outdoor value of ho=50W/m2K

By taking average temperature (Tm) we can read from table and it is
60  25
At Tm   315.5o K
2
 =8.68*10-5Kg/s
K=0.649W/moK
For insulated pipe
1
U
R3 R3
R3 ln( ) R3 ln( )
R3 R1 R2 1
  
R1h1 K pipe Kinsulator ho

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0.023Cpm
h1 
By substituting the corresponding values in Cp  fluid 2 3 2 R1m 0.2 it will become,
A( ) ( )
K fluid A fluid
h1=239.45W/m2k, ho=50W/m2K and R3=R2+insulation thickness

Insulation thickness has been taken to be 10mm. Therefore R3= 20mm.
By substituting the corresponding variables U will become,
Uinsulated= 0.633W/m2
For bare pipe

1
U bare 
R2
R2 ln( )
R2 R1 1
 
R1h1 K pipe ho
By substituting the corresponding values Ubare will be,

Ubare=0.6149W/m2K
Then the surface temperature for the bare and insulated pipe, by using the following
equation will be,
2 R3uL
Ts  (T1  Tamb ) exp( )  Tamb
mCp

But for insulated thickness of 10mm of urethane foam the heat loss per unit area is
29.95W/m2
Q=UA  T
q
=3.764W/m
L
But we have total heat loss of 6W in the heat pipe. Therefore the length of the insulation
is 1.5m.
Since we have 200mm+300mm=500mm portion for both evaporator and condenser
sections the total length of insulation will be 1.5m-0.5m=1m of insulation.
For insulated pipe
2 R3uinsulated L
Tsinsulated  (T1  Tamb ) exp( )  Tamb
mCp


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By substituting the corresponding value
Tsinsulated= 26oC
Qinsualted  mCp
 T
Qinsualted  9.5 Kg / s *1.8*103 *(26  25)
Qinsualted  17.1KW
 Q*3days per week

 Q*3days*24hours/day*3600seconds/hour
 0.001million KJ/week
Then the cost of energy saved will be,
0.001million KJ/week*$7.584/million KJ
Therefore the cost will be
 $0.00758 /week
For bare pipe
2 R3ubare L
Tsbare  (T1  Tamb ) exp( )  Tamb
mCp

By substituting the corresponding value Tsbare will be,

Tsbare =25.926oC
Qbare  9.5 Kg / s *1.8*103 *(25.99  25)
Qbare  17.098KW
 Q*3days per week

 Q*3days*24hours/day*3600seconds/hour
 0.000998million KJ/week
The cost of the energy saved will be,
 $0.00756/week
Therefore as week can see from the above cost values for the insulated and the bare pipe,
the insulation cannot cause any difference in the energy saving or we can say boldly that
we can use cotton cloth for the insulation.

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4. Transporting pipe design analysis
The energy that is stored has to be transported to the baker when needed to bake. So this
can only be done using a transporting pipe. This pipe has to have the property of not
losing the heat. So for this purpose it is so good that the pipe has to be designed to have
those properties.
Assumption
Selection of pipe dimensions from standard table take nominal pipe size of ½.
Outer diameter Wall thickness Inside diameter Inside area Outside area
0.840 in 0.109 in 0.622 in 0.304 in 0.75 in
21.34mm 2.7686mm 15.8mm 7.72176mm
This table is taken from the mechanical engineering handbook. So this is the selection
that we take which is steel pipe with minimum thermal conductivity, K=36W/m oC (it is
constant up to a temperature of 200oC).

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Now, let us calculate the heat transfer coefficients.
Assumption
The flow of the steam inside and outside the pipe to be turbulent. This makes us to use
the turbulent properties.
Firstly let us calculate the inside of the tube heat transfer coefficient.
The flow inside the tube is Turbulent and fully developed.
Let us take the properties of steam at 190 oC (because the maximum loss can exist at this
temperature)
r(Kg/m3) Cp µ*10-6 u*10-5 K(W/moC) a(m2/s) Pr

(KJ/KgoC) (Kgm/s) (m2/s) (Unit less)
0.4902 1.98 15.25 3.11 0.0299 0.307 1.01
The Nusselt number (Nu)

hd
Nu=  0.023Re0.8 *pr
K
For 0.5 <Pr<1.5 and 104<Re<5*106
From the Bernoulli’s equation

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P1 -P2
Z1 -Z2 

This equation shows that the difference in potential energy, flow energy and kinetic
energy has significance in equation.
Practically the velocity at the top surface of the reservoir (storage) is zero.
At point 1
V1=0
H1 = height of the cylinder
At point 2
V2 =?
H2 =0
For the same datum Z1=Z2=0 i.e. it lies at point 2
Calculation for the height of storage
Assumption
The diameter of the storage is 0.5m.
We know that the equation for the volume of a cylinder is given by,
 d2h
V=
4
4V
h=
 d2
By substituting for the corresponding variables,
h will be,
h=0.531m
P2 -P1 V1 - V2
So, + =0
 2g
Since we have said that P2 and V1 are zero.
Therefore V22 =2gh
V2 =3.23m/s
Now we can calculate the Reynolds number (Re)
 vd
Re 


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By substituting the corresponding values Re will be,
Re=1.6404*106
ho d
Nu 
K
Nu=0.023*Re0.8*Prn
Where n=0.3 for cooling
n=0.4 for heating
For the inside of the tube take n=0.3
Nu=0.023*(1.64045*106)0.8 *1.010.3
Nu=2162.7
Therefore
hd/k=2162.7
Substituting for the corresponding values
h= 4.9277KW/oKm2
For the outside of the pipe
The flow is turbulent, i.e. for air
The property at 25oC,
Density(  ) Cp  *105  *106 K  *104 Pr
1.412 1.005 1.599 11.31 0.022 0.15675 0.722
Assumption
The air velocity is assumed to be 2.5m/s
ho d
Nu 
K
The Reynolds number (Re)
 vd
Re 

Substituting the corresponding values Re will be
4.714*106
The Nusselt number

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ho d
Nu   0.023* Re0.8 * Pr n
K
For heating value n=0.4
Therefore substituting the corresponding values
Nu=4404.1
ho d
Nu  =4404.1
K
ho =4.6W/m2K
Insulation thickness and loss analysis
Insulation is available in nearly any material imaginable. The most important

characteristics of any insulation include low thermal conductivity, low tendency towards
absorbing water, economic and process condition. In the most chemical industry the most
common insulator are calcium silicate and fiber glass but calcium silicate is appropriate
for temperature above 225oC, where as fiber glass used for temperature below 225oC.
Types of fiber glass and silicate
Silicon Fiber glass
Tape Wool felt
Rubber Polystyrene
Asbestos Bubble wrap
Teflon Polyurethane foam
So from point of temperature range we select fiber glass.

Different types of tabulated data of fiber glass thickness and its heat loss per unit area are,
Heat loss per unit area ( W / m 2 )
Thickness (m) Wool felt Polystyrene Bubble wrap Polyurethane
0.001 594.96 491.57 497.16 298.7
0.005 119.8 98.86 89.89 59.95
0.01 59.95 49.47 44.97 29.95

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0.015 39.98 32.98 29.99 19.99
0.02 668.63 144.45 119.8 59.95
Felt, polystyrene, bubble wrap and polyurethane foam are the most effective material.
But of this choices polyurethane foam is the most economic choice.
So we select polyurethane foam fiberglass.
From table thermal conductivity of polyurethane is 0.024W/mK.
Insulation thickness =0.02m
Heat loss per unit area=59.95W/m2
R3  r2  thickness of insulation
R3  30.67mm
We need our loss in our pipe approximately 40W. But we have

q 2
2 =59.95W/ m
m
q
 2 R3 *59.95W / m 2
L
q
 11.55W/m
L
Therefore the length of insulation for 40W of the heat loss will be
L=3.46m≈4m

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5. DESIGN OF BAKER
The baker is the material that has the direct contact with the dough that is going to be
enjera. So the design of the baker needs more attention and reasonable assumptions.
The material for the baker is selected to be clay.
Assumptions
Diameter of the baker ≈550mm
Diameter of the pipe(cylindrical shape)=10mm
The phenomena of film and drop wise condensation is negligible
So the pipe is made with the baker, i.e. by boring the clay and making pipe inside the
baker.
The velocity of steam passing in the pipe,
Q  ( Av  ) = ( Av  )
Transporting pipe baker pipe
(15.8) 2 (20*103 ) 2
* *3.23*0.4902   * * v *0.4902
4 4
Therefore V=Vb=8.063m/s
The length of baker pipe is the sum of the lengths of each of the circular boring pipes.
I.e. L≈ 10.5855m

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By taking 20mm center to center distance and 15mm clearance at approximately

12pipe circle. These are:
l  2 ri where(i  1, 2....12)
Assuming value of R from R1-R12 respectively

are:250,230,210,190,170,150,130,110,90,70,50,30.thefore the total length will be the
sum of all L value
i.e. L=10.5855m
For a system which is multidimensional, where only two temperature limits are
involved, we may define a conduction shape factor S such that
q  kS Toverall
In a very comprehensive summary of shape factor for a large variety of geometries is

given by Hahne and Grigwe
The inverse hyperbolic cosine can be given by
cosh 1 x  ln  x  x 2  1 
 
So from Hahne and Grigwe

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Assume
D=30mmphysical system
Physical system Shape factor Restriction

Isothermal cylinder of 2 L L>>r
radius ‘r’ buried D
cosh 1  
r 
In Senni-infinite medium 2 L L>>r
having isothermal surface D D>>3r
ln  
r 
Where : -
L>>r, 10.5855m>>5mm and D>>3r, 30>3*5(15)
By substituting the corresponding values,
2 L
S  37.12m
ln( D )
r
The heat flow is given by
q  kS Toverall
Fire clay

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Where, kclay=1.04w/moC, ρ=2000Kg/m3, C=0.96KJ/KgoC and α*107m2/s=5.4
To determine the surface temperature;
q=1.04*37.12*T
T=T2  T1isothermal
The loss through the transporting pipe is,

0.6*106
 83.33watt
7200 this is for two hours.
For the first day =16MJ-0.6MJ
=15.4MJ
Therefore for two hours duration of baking process
15.4 MJ
  2138.9watt  q
7200
q  kS T
2138.9  1.04*37.12*(190  T )
Then, T  134.6 C
o
For the third day

 14.4MJ  0.6MJ
 13.8*106 J
Again,
13.8*106
 1916.7 watt
7200
q  kS T
1916.7  1.04*37.12(135  T )
Then, T will become  107.86oC
Both temperatures are above the water phase change temperature for baking of
Enjera.
Insulation for the baker

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As we have seen deign of insulation for the tanker we can conclude that we use urethane
foam of 40mm thickness which this is selected from standard table. This is selected on
the basis that, if the insulation for the storage is good then it will be the best for the baker
because the maximum temperature can be attained at the storage when it is storing about
190oC steam.
6. DESIGN AND SELECTION OF VALVE
Sizing a control valve for a steam application can be a complex matter. This
Module attempts to throw light on the subject by using first principles to explain the
relationship between flow and pressure drop. It uses a simple nozzle to explain the
phenomenon of critical pressure, and how this can be predicted for steam flow through a
control valve.
Whatever the size of the control valve, if the process demand is reduced, the valve
must modulate from the fully open position towards closed. However, the first part of the
travel has only a small regulating effect, with any percentage change in valve lift
producing a lesser percentage change in flow rate. Typically, a 10% change in lift might
produce only a 5% change in flow rate. With further travel, as the valve plug approaches

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the seat, this effect reverses such that perhaps a 5% change in lift might produce a 10%
change in flow rate, and better regulation is achieved.
The relative change in volume through the valve is represented by the dotted lines in
the schematic diagram shown in Figure below.
Fig. The convergent-divergent-convergent valve body
When the pressure drop across a valve is greater than critical, noise can be
generated by the large instantaneous exchange from kinetic energy to heat energy in the
low pressure region, sometimes exacerbated by the presence of supersonic steam.
The initial part of the control valve travel, during which this lowered control effect
is seen, is greater with the selection of the larger control valves and the accompanying
small pressure drop at full load. When the control valve chosen is small enough to require
a 'critical pressure drop' at full load the effect disappears. Critical pressure is explained in
the Section below.
Further, if a larger control valve is selected, the greater size of the valve orifice
means that a given change in flow rate is achieved with a smaller percentage change in

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lift than is needed with a smaller control valve.
This can often make the control unstable, increasing the possibility of 'hunting',
especially on reduced loads.
Sizing on an arbitrary pressure drop
If the apparatus working pressure is not known, it is sometimes possible to

compromise.
It should be stressed that this method should only be used as a last resort, and that every
effort should be made to determine the working pressures and flow rate.
The higher the pressure drop the better
It is usually better to size a steam valve with critical pressure drop occurring across
the control valve at maximum load. This helps to reduce the size and cost of the
control valve.
Sizing of control valves
Noise can be an important consideration when sizing control valves, not only because it
creates increased sound levels but because its associated vibration can damage valve
internals. Special noise-reducing valve trims are available but, sometimes, a less
expensive solution is to fit a larger valve body than required. Complicated equations are
required to calculate noise emitted from control valves and these are difficult to use
manually. It is usually considered that the control valve will produce unacceptable noise
if the velocity of dry saturated steam in the control valve outlet is greater than 0.3 Mach.
The speed of sound in steam will depend upon the steam temperature and the quality of
the steam. If the conditions are known (Mach 1 = speed of sound).
C  31.6  RT
Where:
C = Speed of sound in steam (m / s)

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31.6 = Constant of proportionality
g = Steam isentropic exponent (1.135 : saturated, 1.3 : superheated)
R = 0.461 5 the gas constant for steam (kJ / kg)
T = Absolute steam temperature (K)
a. For superheated steam

 from super heated steam sizing chart for control valve
At T=190oC and Kvr=10
m  100 Kg  0.02 Kg
hr sec
From Spirax Sarco web page we found super heated steam table at T=463K and
P=1.25KPa the
Specific volume (ν) =2/079m3/Kg then the volume flow rate of the superheated steam.
Volume flow rate (Q) = 0.02 Kg sec *2.0709=0.04 Kg sec
From the equation Q=A ν, A= outlet area

Q 3
   A  0.04 m sec
Let’s take from table DW15-0.00018m2

0.04 m3
  222 m
0.18*10 3 sec sec
It is necessary to see if this velocity is less than the velocity that we can get from the
mach number of steam which is 0.5 mach. The limit placed on the valve outlet velocities
for super heated steam, the speed of sound (mach 1) can be:
C  31.6  RT
= 31.6 1.304*0.4615* 463
= 527.4 m s
As the steam is super heated in the valve outlet, the criterion of 0.5mach is used to
determine whether the valve will be noisy
0.5*527.4 m s =263.7 m s

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As the expected velocity is 222 m s , the DN 15 valve would be suitable for this
application if noise an issue.

See table in the appendix B.
b. For cold water
As we see from the above the outlet area required is A  0.18*103 m 2 , so from standard
table we can select the area that is depicted below or the same valve as we have used in
the previous time.
ex
   max

  (ln  )H , but  =50
 ln(50*1)
= 3.912
From the graph for the opened fully valve,
3
  10 m hr
The maximum flow rate will be

 3
 max   10 m
e3.912 hr
3
For  max = 10 m hr
And by reading table we can get

3
K vr  8.06 m
hrbar
Then for these K vh value we can read the corresponding size of DN 20=0.31*10-3m2

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CONCLUSION
Since this project is the basic for the peoples who are living in Ethiopia and especially for
those who are living in the rural areas for their income is low. So if there is good
application of the design on each and every detail as it is designed, the poverty line will
take of the mark from Ethiopia and fly to the deep. So for the implementation and
manufacturing of the project needs good sight through it.

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RECOMMENDATION
We have taken some assumptions that we think they are reasonable so great consideration
on these things has to be applied.
Since we all know how much amount of enjera is expended per day, the size of the
Mosob, the total baking hour and others are assumed on the basis of our experience of the
home that we are living and also giving some tolerance for those who have a lot family
members so great inspection on this things has to be applied.
During installation, production and insulating of the components great care should be
taken to maintain the results of the design.

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BIBLOGRAPHY
ARORA. DOMKUNDWA” A course In Heat and Mass Transfer”, Gag an

KAPOORFOR DHANPAT TAI Publication, INDIA, 2000.
Amir Faghiri, “Heat Pipe Technology”, Taylor and Francis, USA, 1998.
Francis De Winter,” Solar Collectors, Energy Storage And Materials”,
Massachusetts Institute Of Technology, 1990.
JOHN A.DUFFIE&WILLIM A.BECK MAN” Solar Engineering of

Thermal Processes”, 2nd edition, Wiley-Inter science publication, USA,
1991.
J.P. HOLMAN, “Heat transfer” 8th edition, Mc grew-Hill, INC., New
York, 1997.
P.D.DUNN & D.A.REAY “Heat pipes’, 4th edition, Bergamot, Great
Britain, 1994.
YENUS A. CENGEL, “Heat Transfer A Practical Approach”, Tata
McGraw-Hill Edition, NEW DELHI, 2002.
FRANK KREITZ,”The CRC Handbook of MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING”, CRC Press, USA, 1998.
 Different Internet web pages

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APPENDIX A
Dimensions of copper tubes according ASTM B88 STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR

COPPER WATER TUBE can be found in the table below:
Type K
Tolerance on
Wall Thickness
Nominal Actual Outside Outside Diameter
(inches)
Size Diameter (inches)
(inches) (inches) Annealed
1)
Drawn2) Nominal Tolerance
1/4 3/8 0.375 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.002

3/8 1/2 0.500 0.0025 0.001 0.049 0.005
1/2 5/8 0.625 0.0025 0.001 0.049 0.005
5/8 3/4 0.750 0.0025 0.001 0.049 0.005
3/4 7/8 0.875 0.003 0.001 0.065 0.006
1 1 1/8 1.125 0.0035 0.0015 0.065 0.006
1 1/4 1 3/8 1.375 0.004 0.0015 0.065 0.006
1 1/2 1 5/8 1.625 0.0045 0.002 0.072 0.007
2 2 1/8 2.125 0.005 0.002 0.083 0.008
2 1/2 2 5/8 2.625 0.005 0.002 0.095 0.010
3 3 1/8 3.125 0.005 0.002 0.109 0.011
3 1/2 3 5/8 3.625 0.005 0.002 0.120 0.012
4 4 1/8 4.125 0.005 0.002 0.134 0.013
5 5 1/8 5.125 0.005 0.002 0.160 0.016
6 6 1/8 6.125 0.005 0.002 0.192 0.019

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APPENDIX B
Typical valve outlet areas DN15-DN200 control valves.

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APPENDIX C
Super heated steam valve sizing chart

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"The Ability To Do Work.": Energy Is Defined As

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Solar Enjera Cooker with Energy Department of mechanical

Storage system Engineering

Energy is defined as: "The ability to do work."

The majority of renewable energy technologies are directly or indirectly

Project by: Daniel Yehuala,

Advantage of solar energy

 It is useful to generate electricity using photovoltaic solar cells.

 it needs no fuel and produces no waste or pollution.

Project by: Daniel Yehuala,

Collectors comprise of an insulated, weatherproof box containing a dark absorber

Project by: Daniel Yehuala,

Benefits of Solar Energy

In view of these rapidly growing concerns, it would be reasonable to assume that

Project by: Daniel Yehuala,

b. Fuel wood: An environmental issue

Through over-exploitation of forest trees, shrubberies, and other woody vegetation,

c. The Merit able Aspects

Project by: Daniel Yehuala,

Project by: Daniel Yehuala,

Project by: Daniel Yehuala,

Advantageous of Water as working medium

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2.2. Design analysis

The designed wattage for an electric Enjera baker is approximately 1.9-2.1KW.

Project by: Daniel Yehuala,

2.2.1. Design of storage tank

Cp (steam) = (2855.4-2210.11)/ 90oK = 1.8KJ/KgK

Project by: Daniel Yehuala,

This makes the design to use the ideal gas properties.

Project by: Daniel Yehuala,

Project by: Daniel Yehuala,

The storage tank dimensions;

Calculation for design stress (fd);

fd=min (Rp/1.5,Rm/2.4) where:- Rp=200Mpa

ecylinder= PDi/(2fdZ-P), where:-P= 1 atmosphere.

Project by: Daniel Yehuala,

2.2.2. Design of insulation for the storage

Project by: Daniel Yehuala,

For flat insulation the heat loss, Eloss is given by

Enet= Eu- Eloss

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3.1. Basic components of a heat pipe

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 Compatibility (both with working fluid and external environment)

 Strength to weight ratio

 Ease of fabrication, including welding, machine ability and ductility

Heat pipe contains three parts:

Project by: Daniel Yehuala,

A first consideration in the identification of a suitable working fluid is the operating

 compatibility with wick and wall materials

 good thermal stability

 wet ability of wick and wall materials

 high latent heat

 high thermal conductivity

 low liquid and vapor viscosities

 high surface tension

 acceptable freezing or pour point

The selection of the working fluid must also be based on thermodynamic

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Wick or Capillary Structure

It is a porous structure made of materials like steel, aluminum, nickel or copper in

Project by: Daniel Yehuala,