Institute of Ethiopian Studies Journal of Ethiopian Studies

Institute of Ethiopian Studies
A Modernising State and the Emergence of Modernist Arts in Ethiopia (1930s to 1970s)
with special reference to Gebre Kristos Desta (1932-1981) and Skunder Boghossian (1937-
2003)
Author(s): Shiferaw Bekele
Source: Journal of Ethiopian Studies, Vol. 37, No. 2 (December 2004), pp. 11-41, 43-44
Published by: Institute of Ethiopian Studies
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41966158
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JES, V0I.XXXVII, N0.2 (December 2004)
A Modernising State and the Em

1970s) with special reference to
Boghossian (1937-2003)
Shiferaw Bekele
This is the time of tension

Between dying and birth
The place of solitude where
three dreams cross
T.S.Eliot, "Ash-Wednesday"
Gebre Kristos Desta and Skunder Boghossian were born into a fast changing society
even if the perception of their generation was rather the contrary. The general
intellectual belief, as of the turn of the 1960s, was that Ethiopia was a stagnant and
archaic society. They shared this view. This could be true for much of rural Ethiopia
and for many of the small towns, but not for Addis Ababa and the major provincial
towns like Harar and Dire Dawa, which were undergoing fast changes in many areas
- economic and cultural. Old social norms and values were beginning to crumble.
Attitudinal changes were making headway among the people. The state pursued a
vigorous policy of building cultural institutions and encouraging the growth of the
arts and literature. The 1960s witnessed, what is called, "the golden age" of Ethiopian
music, the finest years for Ethiopian arts and the most dynamic period for Ethiopian
literature. Urbanisation expanded at an increasing tempo as education, infrastructure,
the manufacturing sector and trade made significant strides. The big towns had started
to experience rapid population growth not long after the departure of the Italians. The
growth became explosion by the turn of the 1960s bringing with it all the attendant
consequences - mass poverty, urban congestion, and growing unemployment. It was
indeed a time of tension between the dying of the old world and the birth of a new
one, as the above-cited poet so well put it.
1. Construction of a modern and developmental state
The year in which Gebre Kristos was born (1932), was the time when Mussolini
finally decided to invade Ethiopia. Ethiopia was just beginning the difficult task of
westernization. The country had some schools, which gave elementary education. A
high school was not yet opened though the idea of building up the educational
pyramid to the tertiary level was being discussed by the leaders. Ethiopia had not yet
developed a manufacturing sector worthy of the name. Infrastructural development
was undertaken by the state but the achievements were still limited. Gebre Kristos
1 This is a much expanded and revised version of an article published in the Catalogue of the Paintings of
Gebre Kristos Desta under the title, "State and Society in Ethiopia (1930s to 1970s): Contextualising
Gebre Kristos Desta".
12 Shi fe raw Bekele A Modernising State and Modernist Arts (1930s to 1970s:
was bora in Harar, which was linked by railway, via Dire Dawa, with Addis Ababa
and Djibouti as well as by telephone and telegraph lines. The link with Djibouti and
the geographical proximity to the outside world made it possible for Harar to be
exposed to external influences earlier than other places. The residents of Harar prided
themselves on being more "civilised" than even the people of the capital city. It was
in this city that Gebre Kristos grew up.
In 1935, the Italians invaded the country and ruled it for five years. They built some
roads, opened some factories (two of which were in Dire Dawa) and established a
handful of schools for the natives. A big section of the Ethiopian population was
pleased with Italian religious and ethnic policies; but for a sizeable proportion, the
advent of Italian rule was a traumatic experience from the very beginning. Gebre
Kristos's family belonged to the latter group.2 In their eyes, the invasion was like
Armageddon. The massive armoured army of the Italians, the indiscriminate bombing
of villages and towns, and after their occupation, their racial administrative policies -
all of these were unheard of and unprecedented both in extent and depth. It can easily
be surmised that little Gebre Kristos grew up in this situation.
Skunder comes from a very patriotic family, the Boghossians having behind them
long years of devoted service to the Ethiopian state. When Skunder saw the light of
day on July 22, 1937, his father, an officer in the Imperial Body Guard who had seen
action in the northern front in 1936, was fighting with the patriots for Ethiopian
independence and one of his uncles was an underground agent of the Patriotic
Movement. And when he became a year old, his father "was incarcerated by the
Italians... Skunder was eight years old when his father was eventually released after
seven years of imprisonment."3 It is therefore not surprising that Skunder showed in
his life such a deep attachment to Ethiopia and things Ethiopian. Gebre Kristos' sense
of deep nationalism can also be explained by the same circumstance.
There is no doubt that the liberation was a God-sent event for the families of the two
artists. It was greeted with much enthusiasm by the population at large and there was
an exhilarating euphoria of victory in the air. The leaders themselves came back from
exile with a lot of renewed energy and they set about introducing changes at a tempo
faster than the pre-war period. State modernization was among the reforms that were
given priority. In a very short period of time, Haile Selassie constructed huge civilian
administrative machinery; and he set out on the process of building up the civil
service. He put in place a police force. For the first time, Ethiopia organised a single
national army complete with ground, air and naval forces. All government employees
including top level officials were made salaried. The government declared its
2 Berhane Meskel Dejene, "Yäsäli Gäbrä-Kirstos Yäheywät Tarikna Andand Getmoö," (Senior Essay
Submitted to the Department of Ethiopian Languages and Literatures, Addis Ababa University, 1983
E.C.), pp. 24ff.
Selamawit Legesse, "Skundrizm: Art that Transcends Boundaries," Bien (First issue, 2005), p.28. She
cites Skunder' s good and old friend, Solomon Deressa, for this statement.
intention that it would abolis

money.
This task of hammering out a w

The first was, ironically, the I
consequences of the war was the
levies that were the power base
regional dynasties were eithe
Fascists) or were killed or went
to reconstruct their former posi
absorbed into the fast changing
leaders, who had built up an aut
the whole, incorporated into the
or without their followers. On t
state institutions in sharp contr
majority of African colonies. B
African leaders with all the
independence. The transition o
the Italian institutions were al
leaders into Addis. As a result,
the ground up.
Government was dominated by

their presence. The exiles were n
five years earlier. They had le
though, at the current level of
were changed. Definitely, the
westernization of their country.
They were particularly critica

impose a quasi-protectorate
contribution to the building up
the Ethiopians to take "British
These "advisors" took it upon t
along modern lines. Given Eth
enthusiastically. Nevertheless, th
the state with all its parapher
state. It took upon itself the t
transformation of the country.
In spite of all the efforts of th
evident. This exposed it to the b
of their juniors. The critics wer
provided by the same state they
14 Shiferaw Bekele A Modernising State and Modernist Arts (1930s to 1970s:
Whatever the perceptions of the subsequent generations, the fact remains that Haile
Selassie worked hard to build a developmental state. He put in place institutions that
would generate economic growth and societal change. For all its imperfections (the
least modernized arm of the state was provincial administration), this state addressed
itself to the various developmental issues facing the country and brought about a
remarkable transformation of economy, society and culture. What kind of strategy to
adopt for economic development was a subject of discussion among the top
government leaders in the 1940s and early 1950s. Consensus was reached on
introducing planning into the economy. A group of Yugoslav experts was brought to
survey the socio-economic conditions of the country in 1954. They carried out a
comprehensive survey which they published in 14 volumes.4 The data they collected
served as the basis to draft the first plan, which they were asked to do.5 The First Five
Year Plan was launched in 1957.6 On the basis of the experience gained during the
implementation of the First Plan, a better Second Five Year Plan was launched in
1963. The third came in 1969. The fourth was still born as a result of the outbreak of
the revolution in 1974.
These three plans had their achievements. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grew
on average between 4.2 and 4.5% for over a decade. This was a respectable
performance for an economy that was just beginning to be modern. Haile Selassie
proudly reported in 1955 that the economy was being rapidly transformed from an
essentially barter economy into a money economy. "Whereas before the war the
national budget of Ethiopia did not exceed $[Birr] 5,000,000, today [1955] it exceeds
$[Birr] 100,000,000," stated the sovereign. "The money in circulation has increased
from $[Birr] 80,000,000 in 1946 to over $[Birr] 220,000,000 in 1954."7 The rate of
monetization was very rapid in the subsequent decades. In the 1960s barter and the
use of crude media of exchange (like amole) gave way to paper currency throughout
the country. Banking spread at an impressive rate. The National Bank put in place a
market for shares, a good beginning for a future stock market if it were not for the
revolution. It can therefore be seen that, by 1974, the economy was more or less
monetized.
Infřastructural development proceeded steadily. The government quickly put up

(1943) the Ethiopian Air Lines with the assistance of the American giant, Trans
World Airlines and in a short time the company started to give domestic and
international services. Telecommunications were vigorously pushed. Supply of
electric power was a serious challenge. Three dams were built over the Awash River
in a row to match the growing demand for electric power. Education made rapid
progress, as I will try to show below. There was modest progress in the provision of
4 Imperial Ethiopian Government, Situation et possibilités de développement de l 'économie éthiopienne,

Vols. 1 - XIV (Addis Ababa, 1955).
Imperial Ethiopian Government, Five Year Development Plan, 1957 - 1961, (Addis Ababa, n.d.)
6 Ibid
Ethiopian Herald, (5/1 1/55)
JES, VolXXXVII, No.2 (December 2004)
health services. The governme

pox, and the other killer dise
mechanized agriculture, import
These changes took place in a fai

to the urban areas and to their h
drop in an ocean. Much of rural
Yet, the transformation was suff
(see tables 2 and 3 below) by r
the late fifties onwards while fe
population growth," concludes a
sympathy for the imperial order
Table 1 ¡Population Growth in
Year Estimate (in millions) Growth rate (%)

1935 15.3 1.3
1941 17.0 1.5
1945 18.2 1.8
1955 21.7 2.1
1965 26.3 2.3
1975 33.1 2.6
1984 42.2 2.8
(Source: Asmarom K
Population Situation
What is remarkable
time. By about the m
By the 1960s, the pop
up momentum. It st
1960s posing addition
1950s increased on t
growth remained mor
2. 1% for the second
In the first half of
averaging about 1.4%
8 Asmerom Kidane, "Est

Proceedings of the Ninth
( Moscow, 1988), p.60.
grew at 2.3%.9 The ugly head of famine reared its head in 1

in 1973.
The population rate of growth for urban areas was much highe
as a whole. If we take Addis Ababa, the situation was drama
Table 2 below.
Table 2: Population Growth of Addis Ababa
Year Population Average annual

population growth
rate (%)
1938 (1) 90,000
1961 (2) 443,728
1967 683,530 7.0
1978 1,167,315 5.0
1984 1,423,111 3.4
(Source: (1) Guida dell'Africa orientale

for 1961 and the subsequent years are fro
Census Commission, Population and Ho
Report on Results for Addis Ababa Vol.1
These figures tell for themselves the d

veritable population explosion as early a
inhabitants. The city, and by extension th
of social life - homelessness, unemployme
urban population, a revolution of rising
wealth in the hands of the few. Every pas
administration and on the government to
up to the challenge.
The leaders increasingly fell behind the so

time passed, they showed themselves in
new situation threw forward. The educa
their vociferous critics. One way of int
Gebre Kristos in his paintings is to see the
order.
9 Shiferaw Jamo, "An Overview of the Economy, 1941-74," Shiferaw Bekele (cd.) An Economic History
of Ethiopia (Dakar, 1995), p.21.
2. Expansion of education
From the very beginning of the

one of the critical factors for d
the personnel that would fill th
for technical manpower. So ed
they had to start from scratch
had all been closed down durin
measure the government took in
schools for the pupils of the for
refugee life abroad. The num
hundred pupils in all.
There was a shortage of everyth

buildings and no facilities
curriculum, of textbooks and, a
there was in the few Italian s
liberation. The Italian teachers h
who survived were not capa
instruction. The country did n
served before the invasion were
into other services.
So the restored government t

speeded up the education of the
Numbers of boys and girls, so

requirements of primary educat
many promising pupils as quick
the bright ones rapidly... . By 1
Secondary School, otherwise kn
boys who had received sufficien
begin preparing for the London
Some of the historical figures c

Sebhat Gebre Egziabher) and m
promotion. The first systemat
1947, for grades VI and VII and
In 1946 the government opened

the General Wingate School and
10 Maaza Bekele, "A Study of Modern

Future, with Emphasis on Primary Edu
u Ibid, pp. 287-288.
18 Shiferaw Hétele A Modernising State and Modernist Arts (1930s to 1970s:
School to offer secondary education. To address the demand for t

training school was established in 1944.12 In nine years, the state
tertiary institution of learning, the University College of Ad
started classes in December 1950. In the following few year
colleges were opened - engineering (1952), agriculture (19
October 1954), and building technology (13 October 1954). In
were merged with the University College to form the Haile S
renamed Addis Ababa University after the outbreak of the revolu
table shows the record for the first two decades after liberation.
Table 3: Enrolment in the State Education System, by Level

1944-1973
Year Primary Secondary Tertiary Total

1944 20,200 na - 20,200
1947 42,000 na - 42,200
1949 59,700 1,204 - 60,904
1951 50,000 1,714 85 51,799
1955 91,641 2,522 257 94,420
1959 147,876 5,273 609 153,756
1962 193,942 10,457 1,252 205,651
1967 338,737 62,15 1 2,707 403,595
1968 382,360 72,152 3,275 457,786
1973 665,421 148,565 6,450 820,436
(Source: Compiled from different sources: A

Formation of the Modern Ethiopian State, 1896
the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champ
available.)
Reliable figures are not available for the base year

only for those enrolled in government schools. If
schools were included, the total would become
1944 as the base year, one can see from the tab
rapid progress. As far as secondary education is
secondary school at Kotebe was opened in 1943
steadily grew and more secondary schools were
have data, we see that the number of students grew
to the revolution (in thirty years time), the stude
times.
12 Ibid, p.78.
Gebre Kristos was sent to an ele

Selassie I Secondary School (w
Lemma and, for the first time,
Secondary School, a British-r
Wingate School students wer
literature (many alumni of th
soliloquies of Shakespeare's tr
Kristos' first introduction to En
to this school. Haile Selassie c
visited quite often the Winga
opened within the first few year
visits (a school day for which
first direct encounter with Hail
paintings.14 They would meet la
Students indeed got first class

end of their education, they sat
passed - a sure testimony to th
passed, most of them were sent
for higher studies on Ethio
Mengistu Lemma were among
1947. But most of those who fin
the University College of Addis
sent to the new institution. It w
College that they were sent abr
state saw to it that they went
Parallel to the opening of the
introduced the Ethiopian School
both or for either of the examin
Gebre Kristos spent two years

not happy with his choice of fi
In 1957, he got a scholarship t
Some of his school mates from
schools (Solomon Deressa, Seb
(1938-1984), Asfaw Damte, S
University College at about
subsequently went abroad. These
the life of Gebre Kristos when th
13 Berhane Meskel Dejene, p. 35.

uIbid.
With the expansion of higher institutions of learning in th

return of those who had been sent abroad, the number of deg
remarkable rate. They were highly qualified people. In the judg
...out of a total of 186 arts and science graduates from UCA

1954-1960, 150 students went abroad. Of these 150, 138 obtain
degree, reflecting an impressive academic success rate of 92
138 successful graduate students, 12 obtained a doctoral degre
continuing work with a doctoral degree in mind. This reco
quality of programs offered by UCAA. 15
Upon their return, most of them were given important position

even though they were fresh graduates. They gave professiona
to the state. Those who finished their studies at the Univer
other colleges, but those who did not go abroad, were also a
government. In the opinion of one of the leading educators of
generation of students of 1950-1960 who, with a few who
1940 and 1950, are at present the backbone of the civil service
They formed distinct social groups for socialising and even

discussions and debate either formally under the auspices of in
in each other's houses. The most famous circle was the one for
of Germanie Neway (a returnee from the US) which is
historical literature, the "Qechene Club".17 The group directly
this paper is the literary circle established on the initiative of
the mid-60s. They read poetry, discussed novels, literary trend
painting). Apart from Gebre Kristos and Asfaw, the circl
Tsegaye, Ashenafi (a highly trained music instructor), and Tes
did not last long but it was most probably the first consci
circle in the country's history.
3. Building cultural institutions
From the very beginning, after the restoration, the state

cultural institutions. The first organization to provide theatre
of Addis Ababa was the Hager Fikr Mahber that was revi
Habte Wold was in the forefront of its revival. He appointed a
old hand at music and theatre, Beshah Tekle Mariani (191 1-199
students of Kevork Nalbandian, himself the father of mo
Beshah served in this post up to 1964. Mekonnen mobilized
15 Teshome G. Wagaw, The Development of Higher Education and S

Experience (East Lansing, 1990), p. 106.
Trudeau, "Higher Education in Ethiopia," pp, 75-76 quoted m Ibid. p. 107.
17 Tekeste Melake, "The 1960 Coup d'Etat in Ethiopia," (MA Thesis
Department, Addis Ababa University, 1990), pp.49-54.
theatre at that time, Yoftahe

Gebre, the father of the Amhar
With the help of these promine
performances and plays at the t
monopoly on all musical records
The Municipality of Addis Ab

Theatre Expansion, an importan
Kevork Nalbandian was appoin
young men of arts and music.
of organizing and training a m
men for this purpose. Other E
Em'a'elaf Heruy, a noted traditio
The Department was given the M
first musical show to the publ
and also performed plays. Thoug
Nersis Nalbandian wrote plays in
The elder Nalbandian run the
managed it until 1955 when h
Municipality built a monumenta
multi-purpose auditorium. It h
modern theatre in the history o
Theatre.
When the ministries were reopened in 1941, one of them was the Ministry of
Education and Fine Arts. The portfolio for many years was in the hands of the
Emperor himself which showed the significance the man gave to both education and
the fine arts. He set up the Department of Fine Arts in the Ministry. Abebe Wolde
Giyorgis, a sculptor educated in France before the war, was appointed the head. He
was assisted by another pre-war French-educated artist, Agegnehu Engida. In the
words of an art lover and manager of an established gallery:
18 Ayalneh Mulat, "Teyater Bä-Etyopia," Lesanä Hezb Vol. 1 No. 3 (Amharic monthly, Tekemt 1996);
Vol. 1 No. 4 (Amharic monthly, Hedar 1996).
Francis Falceto, Abyssinie Swing: A Pictorial History of Modern Ethiopian Music (Addis Ababa:
Shama Books, 2001), p.53.
Francis Falceto, "Ethiopian Music through its Record Covers" (A flyer distributed on the occasion of
the music festival called Ethiopian Music Festival II held from January 16 to 25, 2003).
Falceto, Abyssinie Swing, p. 52.
21 Ibid
™Ibid, pp. 52-53.
24 Berhanu Debotch Haile Mariam, "Major Developments in Addis Ababa, 1941-1965" (MA Thesis
submitted to the History Department, Addis Ababa University, 2005), p.86; Ayaleneh Mulat, "Teyater
Bä-Etyopia"...
Falceto, Abyssinie Swing, p. 52
The Office of Fine Arts initially hired a number of traditional painters

main duty was to paint portraits of the Royal Family from photographs an
to decorate church walls and government buildings. The works of these
were usually offered as gifts to foreign state visitors or were display
schools and government offices.26
The traditional painters recruited into this Department made up the who-i
of artists in the 1940s like Mezmur Ze-Dawit, Belachew Yimer in addition t
director and his deputy. There were 12 other leading traditional painters in
Department.27 They were given a studio in the Parliament building. It was
an impressive collection of traditional painters who were paid by the state.
also worked on their own and sold their creative productions on the marke
resident foreigners of the town were their major clients. Thus, the 1940s w
decade of traditional painting in Ethiopia.
The three French educated artists active at the time (Abebe, Agegneh
Zerihun Dominik) were involved in the organization although they we
very productive. Abebe restricted himself to realistic sculpture while the m
promising painter of the trio, Agegnehu, continued to work as a rea
painters The leading art historian, Professor Chojnacki evaluate
contributions (or lack of it) of the three artists as follows:
The Regent's efforts to have a few promising artists trained abroad did
immediately bring about a great deal of change in artistic output... Not on
the first foreign-trained artists, not even Agáññáhu, was an outstan
exponent [of modern art], nor was there any truly representative of mo
trends in art. Their attitudes still reflected the traditional ways of thought.28
Agegnehu died at the early age of 45 in 1947.29 Thus, none of them m

forceful demonstration of the power of modern art in Ethiopia. Twen
century art had to await the appearance on the scene of four young artists
were going to school precisely at that time - Afewerk Tekle, who mad
debut as a truly modern painter with his solo exhibition in 1954, Ale
Selam who completed his studies in the same year and returned to the coun
to found the School of Fine Arts in 1958, Gebre Kristos Desta who g
immediate recognition as an expressionist painter among Ethiopian art
following his first exhibition in 1963 and Skunder Boghossian whose return
Ethiopia in 1966 aroused considerable interest in intellectual and artistic cir
26 Kongit [5/c] Seyoum, "The History of the Addis Ababa School of Fine Arts," Time
weekly paper) (29 June - 5 July 2001), p. 1 1.
27 Berhane Meskel Deiene, p.41.
28 S. Chojnacki, "A Survey of Modern Art," Aethiopien, Zeitschrift für Kulturaus
(Stuttgart: 1973)), p.25.
Taye Tadesse, Short Biographies of Some Ethiopian Artists (Addis Ababa, 199 1), p.22.
JES, VoLXXXVII, No.2 (December 2004)
The event worth mentioning in

Jubilee celebration of the coronation of Haile Selassie in November 1953. To mark
the anniversary, it was decided, among other things, that the nation should have an
appropriate, well-equipped, designed-to-purpose theatre and opera. Therefore, the
Hager Fekir Mahhber rebuilt an unfinished Italian building for this purpose. The
decision was made in 1954 and the work of construction was sped up to prepare it for
the celebration. A plaza.with a statue of a huge lion and a pool adorned one side of its
frontage. Haile Selassie inaugurated it on Tekemt 30, 1948 (10 November 1995)30
and he attended the first musical performance a week later on Hedar 6, 1948 (16
November 195 5). 31 Following this, the Haile Selassie I Theatre, as it came to be
known until the revolution, staged Mekonnen Endalkachew's plays, Dawit and
Orion?2 Hence, Ethiopia came to have its own modern building made exclusively for
the purpose of showing dramas and putting up modern music.33 This was a landmark
event for the performing arts.
Ethiopian music flourished in the 1960s and the central venue was this theatre. Its
annual New Year Festival, which started in 1959 and was transmitted over the radio,
was an event that urban Ethiopians looked forward to, to usher them into the New
Year. As the time approached, excitement increased and in the night of the New
Year, most of the people (only a few could get a seat in the theatre) followed the
Festival on the radio. The Festival was the forum to launch new albums and an event
for the famous Imperial Body Guard band to perform in all its glory. The bands of the
army, the police and of the National Theatre also competed fiercely on this Festival.
It was a very exciting event.
The return from abroad of playwright Tsegaye Gebre Medhin (1960), of playwright,
director and actor Tesfaye Gessese took drama and the performing arts a major step
forward. Tsegaye was able to introduce his modern, experimental plays in this Hall.
Shakespeare's tragedies in Amharic adaptations were performed on this magnificent
stage. If it were not for its wonderful stage, acoustic, lighting and other facilities,
some of Shakespeare's tragedies would not have had the success they had. The
construction of this Theatre was the responsibility of the Hager Fiker Mahber. The
dynamic Mekonnen Habte Wold had the vision to use the occasion of the Jubilee
celebration to put up this impressive building.
The Hager Fekir Mahber, which was deeply loyal to the Emperor, conceived other
events to mark the 25th anniversary of the sovereign's coronation. One of them was
the issuance of new musical records. "They recorded and published a dozen 78s... as
30 Addis Zäntän (2/3/48)

31 Mürän, (Vol.1, No.2 Tahsas 1, 1948), p. 12
32 Minto (Vol. 1, No.3 Ter 1, 1948)
33 The Hager Fikr Mahber converted in 1942 a former club of Italian officers found in Piazza to a
Theatre. This Theatre, known after the Association, continues to give its services. It is the oldest, active
Theatre in the country.
well as several 45s... with the principal artists of the time."34 This was a bonanza to
music lovers of Addis. It also decided that the launching of their new magazine
should coincide with the coronation anniversary. This was Mänän which had as a
subtitle, "the magazine for ladies and young women". Romane-Work Kassahun, a
woman writer who had more than one book to her name, ran this magazine. It gave
prominence to women on its pages and had columns for beauty, fashion, women's
health and cuisine. In its maiden issue, it informed its readers that on the eve of the
coronation day, the emperor gave medals and titles to no less than 36 women who
were princesses, aristocrats and other women of standing in the society. The writer,
educator and feminist Senidu Gebru was one of them.35 It also proudly reported that
an all-Ethiopian beauty contest was held as part of the celebrations on Hedar 17,
1948 (27 November 1955). 36 The two fresh artist returnees, Afewerk and Ale Felege
Selam, sat on the jury of this contest. Indeed, it was the first women's magazine in
the history of the country. In the subsequent two decades, this magazine would go on
to play a significant role as a forum for literary exchange in whose pages ideas were
articulated and reviews of books, plays and exhibitions were written.37
"The Jubilee Year 1948 (1955-56 A.D.)", writes Thomas Kane, one of the authorities
on the history of Amharic literature in the Imperial period, "saw an outpouring of
literary works as many writers wanted to render homage to their sovereign."38 The
Emperor was so grateful that he invited the writers to the palace to express his
appreciation and also to decorate them.39
The grand Silver Jubilee Fair put up for the celebrations, included a pavilion on art in
which several noted traditional artists displayed their works. The art pavilion turned
out to be an unprecedented major collective art exhibition of the post-war era. Upon
the closure of the fair, prizes were given out to the best participants in all fields. The
first prize for the arts (a gold medal) went to two artists - Afewerk Tekle and
Em'a'elaf Heruy - while the silver medal was given to 18-year old Skunder.40
34 Falceto. "Ethiooian Music throueh its Record Covers."

35 Mänän (Vol. 1 No.2 Tahsas 1, 1948), pp. 10- 1 1 .
36 Mänän (Vol 1 No.2 Tahsas 1, 1948).
37 This cultural institution also published two papers with the same title - Voice of Ethiopia -in
Amharic and in English. In January 1969, it also launched a very influential magazine, Addis
Reporter , which did not last long. This paper served as a venue for some of the avant garde
intellectuals. This Association, which played such a crucial role in the modernization of Ethiopian
arts, music, and literature from 1942 to 1974, remains to be studied at a greater length than
heretofore. For a brief history and bibliography, see Bahru Zewde, "Hagär Fekr Theatre,"
Encyclpaedia Aethiopicat Vol. II (Wiesbaden, 2005). The English rendering of its name, Ethiopian
Patriotic Association, often leads to confusion with the Ethiopian Patriots Association, whose
Amharic name is YäEtyopya Arbänoc Mahbär The two have always been separate organisations.
38 Thomas Kane, Ethiopian Literature in Amharic, (Wiesbaden, 1975), p. 14.
39 Addis Zämän ( 9/3/48)
"Silver Jubilee Exhibitors are awarded Fair Prizes," Ethiopian Herald (December 3, 1955). It is
interesting to note that in all the published accounts I have seen of this prize, Ema'elaf is invariably
omitted.
Born in 1932, the same year as

1947 where he eventually entere
the reputable school of art, "
Ethiopian Herald probably be
Afewerk would grow to become
The other young man, Ale Fe

completing his university educa
gone in 1949. Born in 1924/5, A
taking the initiative to establi
reaching consequence for paintin
running it as its director unt
returned in 1962, Ale recru
opportunity to train a good n
become senior and highly resp
return in 1966 after eleven year
up to 1969, but he made a lastin
In the same decade, an interest

place in Haile Selassie I Univer
Arts Centre. Its foundation in Ju
Solomon Deressa, one of the le
active visitors of the Centre :
Ato Tesfaye Gessesse, who was

and Philip Caplan, a Fulbright
College of Addis Ababa, met in
starting the drama section at
College of Addis Ababa was up
section was to include later dan
theatre. Philip Caplan became th
director and Halim El-Dabh came
Very quickly, the Centre suc

modernist literary and artistic
Mengistu, Asfaw, Ashenafi and
for some time. Student voluntee
European experimental plays of
Zoo Story , and also Who is a
modernist plays by Ethiopian
41 Ethiopian Herald (9 January 1954).

Richard Pankhurst, Afewerk Tekle: Sh
43 Kongit Seyoum, p. 1 1
Solomon Deressa, "Life Cycles of a Cen
Gabčá). The Centre also provided space for art exhibition

exhibitions by Afewerk, Ale Felege, Gebre Kristos, Skunder
Its contributions to the modernization of Ethiopia music were
very short time, the Creative Arts Centre started to play
modernist arts. Unfortunately, it did not last long. It ceas
practical purposes, by the end of the 1960s. It suffered f
constraints. Moreover, university authorities did not give it com
The Haile Selassie I Prize Trust, established in 1963, was the

promoted the growth of the arts and literature. In its life spa
recognition to the achievements of some of the leading artists
"The Prize Trust," writes a scholar of literature, "was estab
recognition, or to honor, and offer prizes to, persons an
contributed to the development of literature and the arts (inc
painting, music, architecture, theatre) and other endeavo
teaching, welfare or philanthropy, and business and industry. .
fine arts (1964) went to Afewerk Tekle and for literature
award was made up of a diploma, a medal and seven thou
[Birr]. This was a truly major recognition for this young ar
Prize Trust stated that:
The Haile Selassie I Award for Fine Arts... will be awarded t

versatile and disciplined artist, for his outstanding paintings,
oils, and portraits which eloquently express his particular worl
his contribution in being among the first to introduce contem
Ethiopian subject matter and content.47
This prize brought immense prestige to winners because t

distinguished scholars. The Prize quickly acquired prestig
Ethiopian public. It was also given tremendous publicity by th
media. I remember the award giving ceremony very clearly. T
winners, their profiles, interviews etc splashed the fron
newspapers. The newly introduced television (1964) showed
and reported the reception that was offered later in the palace
radio equally gave it much air time and the winners becam
lionized by the society.
45 For a report of its financial woes and other problems, see Tesfaye Ges
Merten (an illustrated monthly magazine) (March 1967), pp. 14-17. And for
interesting institution see Aboneh Ashagre, "KâKolég Eskä University M
presented on the First Annual Conference of Ethiopian Cultural Studies
See also the interesting piece of Solomon Deressa cited in the footnote abov
Birhanu Teferra, "Leisure Reading and Readership of Books: With Referen
in Bahr Dar," Ethiopian Journal of Languages and Literature, No. 9 (1999
Haile Selassie I Prize Trust, Haile Selassie I Prize Trust: 10 Year (Addis
JES, Vol.XXXVII, No.2 (December 2004)
The second winner of the prize

be recognized that Gebre Kristo
this did not have an impact on
endorsed it. In its citation, the T
A gifted artist with outstandin

responsible for introducing no
represents the modern trend a
brilliant contribution to the rece
His paintings, which always ma

technique full of vitality, discip
The growth and evolution o

contributions and Ato Gebre K
this brilliant artist will fur
generations.48
The citation was an eloquent te

Gebre Kristos. The Prize Trus
prestige. In the ten years of its
proper (Kebede 1964, Tsegaye
and only three prizes for the
interesting to look at the citation
Ato Skunder being still at the

artistic personality and prove
endeavored by the intensity of
Ethiopian linear art.
Thus Ato Skunder has demonst

great accomplishments by a crea
The Haile Selassie I Prize Trus

regardless of the fact that his ar
that the Trust gave its award, in
(Afewerk) and to no realistic or
ones in these genres. By bestow
denying its recognition to the o
movement.
It was indeed a remarkable phenomenon that the modernist artists and literary me
used the cultural institutions established by the state, or with the help of the state
4*Ibid, p.71.
49 Ibid.
28 Shiferaw Bekele A Modemising State and Modernist Arts (1930s to 1970s:
their forums to display their works to the public. The only priva
significant exhibitions were shown was the Belvedere Art Gallery
4. The emergence of an avantgardě group
The post-liberation decades saw an impressive change in the so

country. We see the emergence of an indigenous mercantile cl
trade, and towards the end of the 1960s, the rise of a national en
proletarian class slowly grew. The nobility were also undergoi
their attitudes and life-styles. They were getting urbanised at a r
moved into the modern economy.51 Between the 1940s and the re
emergence of newly educated groups.
The first generation to be sent abroad in the late 1940s returned

diplomas in the first half of the 1950s. They had been very ac
pursuing their studies. They established student unions in the Un
United States and Canada. Those in the UK started a publicatio
which carried intensive discussions on conditions in Ethiopia.
were intensely loyal to the Emperor. Afewerk and Mengistu
generation.
Mengistu, however, was an exception, not only because he never succeeded in

finishing his studies in the London School of Economics, but mainly because he
displayed a fascination with socialist ideas.52 There was also Germanie Neway in the
United States who shared similarity of thought to Mengistu.53 However, most of
their colleagues were in the opposite camp. They had great admiration for their
emperor and his past deeds as well as his continued efforts to transform the country.
A good number of them like Zewde Gebre Selassie, Mikael Imru, Amha Abera and
Endalkachew Mekonnen came back to play leading roles in the state which he had
constructed.
The generation that went into the national or foreign universities in the 1960s was
composed differently. Some of its members chose to become Marxist-Leninist and
went on to galvanize their fellow students both in the country and abroad to rise up
against the regime. In about a decade, the movement they ignited called the Ethiopian
50 The Belvedere Art Gallery was the most successful art gallery in the 1960s and early 1970s. Several
other galleries had been opened, which went bankrupt and were closed down. But Belvedere was
evidently successful in the art trade. In addition to selling works of art, it had hosted several exhibitions
in the second half of the 1960s, some of them by Gebre Kristos and Skunder. The owner was an
Armenian, Hrant Baghdassarian.
51 In contrast to these positive developments, we see the growth of the urban poor and, a phenomenon
that was new to a traditional society, the growth of homeless population in a few biu urban centres.
Mengistu Lemma, Demamu Be 'erAňa - Gil'A-Tarik (Addis Ababa, 1988 E.C.), p.216.
Tekeste Melake, pp. 54ff.
Students Movement, culminated

order and its initiators.
The interest of this article is in

the 1950s. Most of them got hig
They completed their first and s
and upon finishing their studie
constituted the core of the techn
transformed Ethiopian literature
One of these individuals was G

with the latest technique and t
secondary education like Baalu
of the General Wingate Schoo
Mariam and Tesfaye Gessese, w
Damte who went to the Kokeb
upon their graduation in the
United States to pursue their stud
Unlike the other members of th

though he had followed some o
where he got his first introduct
long fascination that resulted in
genius into Amharic. Tsegaye
Theatre (London), the Comedie
was a voracious reader of plays
and through these visits, he c
wrighting.
These men were born in the sa

different parts of the countr
Gurageland, Adwa). They also bel
Gurage, and Tigre). They belonge
Church (Sebhat) and the Catho
also varied but nothing seems t
came from a middle class famil
urban background; others rural.
seems to me their education. T
secondary school education, wh
language and a good mastery of
were able to join the artistic co
with inclinations to literature
English. All of them loved to r
world classics and popular nam
30 Shiferaw Bekele A Modernising State and Modernist Arts (1930s to 1970s :
Beauvoir. They discussed at length world literature, theatre, cinema, music and
discourses in philosophy - or trends in the arts.
The time was also different. The decade after the end of the Second World War saw
the unprecedented crumbling of the once invincible colonial empires of Britain and
France. There was a powerful stirring in Black Africa. Many students from these
colonies who were in the diaspora went back to the continent to launch the
independence movements in their respective countries when our young intellectuals
were going abroad. In France, the Negritude Movement was a powerful discourse
with Leopold Sedar Senghor from Senegal and Aime Cesaire from the West Indies
pioneering the movement. Jean Paul Sartre's existentialist philosophy and Albert
Camus' literary writings had engulfed intellectual circles. In the United States, the
Civil Rights Movement was leaving an unprecedented impact on freedom and
independence thoughts.
In 1960, colonialism went to pieces in much of Africa. It was a period of euphoria

and Africa saw, as it was rightly said at the time, "a wind of change." The last years
of the 1950s and the first half of the 1960s saw the rise of a generation of very
brilliant writers, poets, novelists and playwrights in Black Africa. Many African
artists living in the diaspora were deeply impacted by the liberation and
independence movements and by its creative constituents. Ethiopia's Skunder
Boghossian who at the time was living in France was one of these artists who
narrated the outcome of his environment in many of his works. Tsegaye also became
a great apostle of some of the teachings of the Negritude writers. The young
Ethiopian intellectuals were equally fascinated by Sartre's existentialist philosophy.
Existentialist ideas often manifested in the works of Solomon and Sebhat.
In the late 1950s and in the 1960s, Marxism and particularly its Maoist variety, was
very popular in the campuses of western universities. This led to the rise of a
powerful student movement in many countries around the world. In some countries
like France it was more powerful than in countries like the U.K. Nevertheless, it
became a world-wide phenomenon where its force was destined to influence
Ethiopian students of the generation that came later than the subjects of our
discussion. When Gebre Kristos and his friends were busy producing works of art or
essays, the students of Haile Selassie I University were busy ostracizing the system.
The influence of Marxism was limited or non-existent around the group under
discussion even if some of the individuals like Mengistu flirted with it in their
university days. All of them were however critical of the political and social order of
their country. Before he went to Europe, Tsegaye had written two groundbreaking
plays in a row - Yašoh A kli I (performed in 1960) and Bälg54 Although these plays
54 Tsegaye G/Medhin, Bälg (Addis Ababa, 1958 EC.); Abraham Alemu, "Yá-Amariňa Teyatre Tebäb Kä
1950 -1952 "Addis Zena ß series) 1/2/94; 8/12/94; 15/12/94.
had more technical problems th

author depicted socially recog
constructing dramatic structu
social criticism. Shortly after hi
successful play in technical te
E.C.). It was perhaps the most
was under the influence of
playwright who won the 2005
who developed his own style of
transformation of Amharic p
offered their own innovations
not the only one to combine bot
Skunder returned to Ethiopia

decade long stay in Paris, he h
garde artists and movements of
surrealist movement. He also s
Latin American painters. He del
this helped him to fashion his o
some of his own experiences in
...most important [in Paris] I di

Klee. For a year I made daily vi
studying the masks, the totems,
I was discovering African Art
absorbed became part of me a
work I found everything - m
significant signs spoke to me, a
how much it could convey. In
with the roots of Africa.57
This was not the end of his st

painter, Wilfredo Lam and th
Chilean artist. His first chance
55 Fantahun Engda, "Dramatic Structu

the Department of Theatre Arts, Add
Among the intellectuals of the time,
arts. Although known for his prolifi
Mekonnen Endalkachew was a man of
issue of the Journal of Ethiopian St
established himself as a respected p
painters being scribes and chroniclers.
century who were also active as chroni
Anonymous, "Skunder Boghossian 'A
(May 1966), pp.25-26.
In passing I just happened to look in a small gallery. I saw dr

window that actually gave me a bodily shock. So impressed by th
of forces and the supernatural quality in that work, I really c
don't know how long I stood there. That was Lam. When I finally
was startled again by Matta. In his paintings there was cosmic
space and time and his metallic rhythms vibrated in such a way t
seemed to move. The effect of all this was confusion about
eventually that confusion became a suggestion.58
He showed exhibitions in Paris and was positively reviewed b

established critics from as far back as 1957:
Because the Paris critics were almost unanimous in their positive appraisal of
the exhibition which took place in January 1964, at the galerie Lambert in
Paris, I think, it had to be important to Skunder's development as an artist. It
was his first one man show in Paris and comments from established critics
were bound to make a difference.59
When Skunder returned home, his reputation had preceded him among art
circles in Addis Ababa. The art community received him with respect and
excitement. When he showed his first exhibition in November 1966, the two art
critics of the city - S. Chojnacki and Solomon Deressa - were full of praise.60
Solomon Deressa can, in my opinion, qualify as the first modernist art critic of
the country. He was at home in the latest trends in art history -surrealism and
abstract expressionism. He was familiar with art trends among African artists.
He eloquently wrote on the paintings of Gebre Kristos Desta and Skunder
Boghossian in his articles published in Ethiopia Observer.61 In his survey of the
history of modern art, Chojnacki singles out Solomon for his contributions to
art criticism.
"Ibid.
Solomon Deressa, "Skunder: In Retrospect Precociously," Ethiopia Observer Vol. X No.3 (1966), p.
175.
See the reviews of Solomon Deressa and S. Chojnacki cited in the two previous notes. A very
appreciative, yet critical review was done by an anonymous author: E.M., "Talented Ethiopian Artist's
Paintings on Display at Creative Arts Centre," Ethiopian Herald (November 6, 1966), p. 3.
See the article cited in note 59 above; and also see, "Gebre Kristos' Desta: Somber Colours and
Incantatory Words," Ethiopia Observer Vol. XI No. 3 (1967), pp. 162-175. In this article, Solomon
includes his own translation of three poems of Gebre Kristos. He has marvelously succeeded in taking to
the English language the nuances of the beautiful poems of the painter. He also wrote reviews for Addis
Reporter. See, for instance, the following piece: "A Tivoli of the Mind," Addis Reporter (May 30, 1969),
pp. 18-20 in which he reviewed the exhibitions of Wendy Kindred, a painter and art critic who taught in
the Art School at the time. See also his article entitled, "Letter from Addis Ababa," African Arts ('970).
These pieces display the author's deep knowledge of painting, his sensitivity to colour and to technique.
Some of his writings on painting and literature need to be collected and republished in book form for the
benefit of the younger generation.
... the essays of Salomon Dârésa

avant-garde writer in Ethiopi
developments in the great centr
is his special merit to have offe
change and new trends which th
Solomon was also a powerful lite

in which he attacked very stron
was an instant sensation.63 Toge
an academic poet and literary
demise of the Dime Novel. His a
there. He was in the forefront of
introduced free verse.
Mengistu is credited for intro

poems, which were very popu
Amharic poetry while modifyin
the forefront of modern liter
recognized. Tesfaye directed p
Baalu's KäAdmas Basagär offered
deep psychological complexes -
He wrote a novel in which er
perhaps because it would be too
granting some amount of sexual
appreciating the ideas contain
implement some of them.
Thus, this small group of inte

Amharic literature and for the a
into the medieval highland kin
fora for exchange of ideas and f
monthlies), Ethiopia Observer
and Addis Reporter. They wrote
same circles and socialized around the same bars - Jimma Bar near Abune Petros
Square, the Ras and the Genet hotels, and later Jolly bar and other bars at Arat Kilo.
They had a comfortable life even if their salary was not the highest in town, mainly
because the birr had high purchasing power in the 1960s and early 70s.
62 Chojnacki, "A Survey. . . p. 26-27.

Solomon Deressa, "The Amharic Dime Novel," Addis Reporter (January 3, 1969), pp. 17-22. For a
sample of his other writings on literature and theatre, see "To Save a Man," a very sensitive and
discerning critique of Tsegaye Gebre Medhin's Petros Yačin Sä 'at, Addis Reporter (May 16, 1969),
pp.2 1-2. See also "An African Classic Revisited, "Addis Reporter (May6 9, 1969), pp.22-23 for a review
of Camara Laye' s famous novel, The African Child
34 Shi fe raw Bekele A Modernising State and Modernist Arts (1930s to 1970s:
They read the latest books and kept abreast of current developm
literature by reading English and French magazines. The t
bookshops for many years: Giannopoulos, Menno and Cosm
well-stocked with the latest foreign works of fiction, literary
social science publications, magazines and newspapers. T
compared well to its Greek-run counterpart, though it did not
works that it considered ran against Protestant morality. The b
accessible since they were located in or near Piazza, which was t
city. When their neighbourhood was demolished as part of t
plan of the Municipality in the 1960s, the Giannopoulos moved
Theatre area. Here again, they were not far from the city ce
managed to stay in Piazza until the revolution. Cosmos too w
part of the city.64
There were few libraries in town run by foreign cultural organ

States Information Service (USIS), the British Council, the A
and later the Soviet Union Cultural Centre. The National L
institution but it was strong in its Ethiopian collection. The
Addis Ababa quickly built up a decent library. With all these
books and materials for the literary intellectual was rare.65 One
the BBC or any other radio station of the west, which offered
political programmes.
Addis' cosmopolitan character increased with the opening of

organizations like the Economic Commission for Africa
Organization for African Unity (OAU) (1963). The influ
particularly of fellow Black Africans, was unprecedented.
The avant garde group enjoyed the respect of the society. The y
writers, poets, painters and literary critics of the turn of the 21
whole, been appreciative of the achievements of that mod
contrary, the pioneers were very critical of themselves. Their s
that their attitudes towards themselves as a group and towar
educated Ethiopians of the 1960s and early 70s was very cri
64 For a critical comment on these bookshops, see Tereffe Asrat, "Bookstore

(January 17, 1969), pp. 17-19.
In the opinion of Rita Pankhurst, Chief Librarian of Haile Selassie I Un
readers would admit that the University Library, poverty-stricken as it is, c
number of books and periodicals worth reading in most fields of learnin
Service or Lip Servie e" Dialogue Vol.1 No. 2 (April, 1968), p.52. The proble
most degree holders were not members of the university library nor did th
readers. See ibid and also Tereffe Asrat, p. 18. For a pioneering and on
Ethiopia, see Birhanu Tefera, "Leisure Reading and Readership of Book
Literate Groups in Bahr Dar " Ethiopian Journal of Languages and Literatu
JES, Vol.XXXVII, Na2 (December 2004)
Gebre Kristos, we can cite his s

the self-portrait of Afewerk. I
(See Fig. 10) A rather unflatter
shabby shirt and jacket can b
inner tension, anxiety, tormen
who knows his destiny but of
overcome his anguish. On the
with the seif-assurance that it
The eyes are contemplative.
Quoting the lines from T.S.

Aberaha and Solomon Deressa
Ethiopian," that the "the hyphe
is also living in an age of anx
depicted in the portrait of Ge
very critical of the educated
discussion upon its appearance i
Their article shows that Gebre

This is confirmed when we read
like Baalu, Mengistu, Tsega
Dagnachew Worku (1936-1994
plays.67 The scope of this es
works of these writers. Suffice
Perhaps the most critical wri

novel par excellence of the ed
Abera and Haile Mariam, as w
system that I have described
College of Addis Ababa, and the
be) and Haile Mariam (the unpu
have described so far and then
Abera is irresolute, restless, a
66 Gedamu Abraha and Solomon De

(Feb. 7, 1969) and Vol.No.7 (February
Reidulf Mol vaer, Tradition and Cha
Fictional Literature (c. 1930-1974) (Le
68 Baalu Germa, Kä-Admas BaSagär,
69 The works of Baalu Girma have a
seems to be consensus on the depict
mindedness. He is too restless even
literary scholar, Taye Assefa.( p. 223)
control..." needed to fulfil his deep
(Ph. D. Thesis submitted to the School
Fekade Azeze also writes of "the res
Abera feels "hollowness inside himself
36 Shiferaw Bekele A Modernising State and Modernist Arts (1 930s to 1970s:
not strike the reader as a great writer for all the books he surrounds himself with. The
other educated male characters are selfish, opportunistic, egotistic, petty, and
purposeless - a crowd of mediocrities. Some of them stink physically and morally.
This critical depiction is not confined to Baalu only. Tsegaye does the same in his
play, Bälg. The two major characters of the play, Abate (the writer) and Heruy (the
painter) are pathetic figures. They lack strength of character. It is very difficult for
the audience or for the reader to identify or even to sympathize with either of them.
Asfaw Damte takes up the same theme in his novel, And Lä-Amst and delivers a
devastating critique of the educated class. It is the same picture that Mengistu offers
us in his hilarious comedy, Tälfo Bâkisé ( Marriage by Abduction). He makes us laugh
at the pretensions of the highly educated characters in his play.
Paradoxically, members of the old ruling class come out in good light in some of
these works. In Admas Bašagar , Abate, the elder brother of the "hero" Abera, who is
meant to represent traditional society, shows purpose and determination. If we go
back again to the above-cited comedy of Mengistu, the father of one of the central
characters, Fitawrari Marné Taku'as, emerges as a truly impressive person, as a fine
specimen of the old warrior class - dashing, fearless, adventurous and contemptuous
of the literati. Though he started out as an intellectual with socialist predilections,
Mengistu ended up giving posterity a romantic image of the warrior class of Ethiopia.
Even if, deep down, they seemed to be critical of themselves and of their social class,
nevertheless, they harboured a profound conviction that they were on the threshold of
a new epoch. This conviction seems to have led them to a certain amount of
arrogance towards members of the older generation in the arts and literature. As
persons, they were polite and even humble; but when it came to their calling, they
showed that they were moved by a passionate missionary zeal. They believed that
they were making history.
5. The milieu
For any new art to grow and take root in a society, there is a need for an audience that
is ready to see and appreciate as well as to purchase the path-breaking works, for a
network of supporters and for critics. The Ethiopian avant garde group had all of
these, even if in small quantities.
In the years following the liberation of the country, Haile Selassie showed that he
was a true patron of the arts in Ethiopia. He assiduously encouraged literary writers,
in some cases giving money from his own pocket for the printing of their books. The
Emperor's numerous commitments did not prevent him from sparing time for cultural
activities and he presided over most of them. He went to the openings of drama and
is no sense of direction..." (p.241). Fekade Azeze, "The Intellectual in the Ethiopian Novel, 1930-1974,"
(Ph.D Thesis submitted to the University of Sheffield, UK, 1988).
music performances. He also pro

fitted out for plays and mu
emoluments to the authors of p
even seriously took "exhibitions
men and the few women of lette
The emperor believed, and he sa

of the arts constituted an integ
promoted it. He intervened dir
artists paving the way for the
Dominik and Abebe Wolde Giy
and on government money. Afe
So was Eskunder who got t
scholarship when he won the sil
only Gebre Kristos who was not
But, he met Gebre Kristos sever

Gebre Kristos' very first exh
abstract paintings, was opened b
artist and it was only two yea
Haile Selassie Prize.
When he did not like the style of a certain work of art, he preferred to turn away his
eyes rather than to discourage the artist openly. Ethiopian arts flourished in the
country in the 1960s and early 70s as never before largely due to the benevolence of
his regime and to his patronage.
A work of art, however good, runs a small chance of success if there are no critiques
in the society who would point out to the public its qualities. It is one of those happy
coincidences of history that a couple of very capable art critics and a few competent
free lance commentators were on hand when the two modernist painters appeared on
the scene. They were S. Chojnacki and Solomon Deressa.70
A Canadian of Polish origin, S. Chojnacki (b.1915) came into the country in

1950 to work as a librarian for the newly established University College of Addis
70 There were, it is true, a number of people who wrote articles on exhibitions or on painters. The
following should be noted: Peatrice Plyne, W. Kindred, R. Pankhurst, David Talbot, E. Murray, Sydney
Head as well as Kefle Beseat. But they did not do it consistently (Plyne, Head, Murray, Kindred) or their
writings do not show that they have a mastery of the discipline of art criticism. Kefle Beseat had all the
makings of an art critic (training in Paris, a small book on abstract art to his name), but he did not pursue
the matter consistently by publishing reviews on the exhibitions that took place from the second half of
the 1960s to 1974. That is why I focus on Solomon and Chojnacki. For a good bibliography of the
newspaper and magazine articles of these people see Eshetu Tiruneh, "BäEtyopya Yäzämänawi Se'el
Tebäb ena YäAddis Ababa Senä Tebäb Temhert Bét Enqseqasé (1879-1983): Ačer Qeňt" (1993 EC.
(This is a typescript available in the library of the Institute of Ethiopian Studies.)
Ababa. Though he never went to any art school (he did law in Paris in the 1930s),
he was deeply interested in the arts because he was a painter. He set out on a
long-drawn-out research into the history of the painting of the Ethiopian
Orthodox Tewahdo Church. His reputation in Ethiopian Studies rests on his
achievements in this research. More than any other scholar his contemporary, he
pushed forward the frontiers of knowledge of traditional Ethiopian painting. His
significant contributions to the growth of modernist arts in the country are, in the
process, overshadowed. He followed developments in this genre very closely. He
was an indefatigable attendee of exhibitions and befriended many modernist
painters.
It was as friend and as critic that he wrote an introduction to the catalogue of

paintings presented by Gebre Kristos in the 1963 exhibition and later he wrote a
very enthusiastic review in the pages of Ethiopia Observer. In the article, he
showed that Gebre Kristos was a very capable painter of the abstract
expressionist school. He argued that, in that exhibition, the painter introduced
abstract paintings into Ethiopia. When Skunder came on the scene, he wrote a
similarly appreciative and knowledgeable review in the same journal. His articles
are of a very high quality. They are still being used abundantly by scholars who
write on the development of modern art in the country.
Due to his competence, he acquired a high reputation within the art community
and among art lovers. He enjoyed the high esteem of avant garde artists. He was
asked more than once to write introductions to catalogues of exhibitions. His
influence was reflected in the selection of artists for the Haile Selassie I Prize
Award. His role in the selection process was evident. The citation of the Trust on
Skunder is so close to what Chojnacki wrote in Ethiopia Observer (1966) that it
would be fair to suspect that it was him who drafted it:
(From his article in Ethiopia Observer )

Skunder is at the beginning of his artistic career. . . but already at this stage he has
given proof of his tremendous possibilities... he has his own artistic
personality. . . he has great merit of not copying [traditional painting].
(Citation from the Haile Selassie I Prize Award)

Ato Skunder being still at the beginning of his career has already shown a strong
artistic personality and proved in his works his great possibilities. He has also
endeavored by the intensity of light and colors to give a new vision of the
traditional Ethiopian linear art.
Thus Ato Skunder has demonstrated that the traditional Ethiopian art can lead to
great accomplishments by a creative attitude to it and not by passive imitation.
His hand can also be detected in the citations of Afewerk and Gebre Kristos. In any
case, he used his influence to encourage the art that he considered truly great. He was
also generous to the other artist

very often concluded his essay b
Chojnacki was not the only in

Solomon Deressa, whose writin
(expatriate) commentators on
cannot talk of their impact.
Solomon and Chojnacki publish

journal that gave attention to th
the journal also published severa
paintings of the artists on wh
Skunder and some others). Th
therefore the glory of the pai
scholars have been grateful ev
most of the works of Gebre K
sold to various people, some of w
Chojnacki comments on the eme
a receptive audience, virtually n

1950s, and quite evident in th
composed of Ethiopians and fore
which the development of art w
There were reports of the enthu

Mänän journalist wrote that G
large audiences and that they w
Ethiopian Herald of 6 Novembe
oils, seven panel paintings an
opening." The opening of this ex
Even the atmosphere of the o

première in the art galleries of
were blended with cheerful com
count here on an enlightened
future development of art.73
A new social phenomenon cert

phenomenon of the art collector
many Ethiopians who could tr
71 Chojnacki, "A Survey of Modern Ar

Mänän (an Amharic monthly) {Sané 1
S. Chojnacki, "Skunder: His First A
p.185.
who were beginning to purchase art. Some intellectuals showed that they were
interested in cultural activities apart from their professional pursuits. They made
efforts to understand works of art, followed the latest trends in culture, read literary
publications, and became generally informed about things artistic. The only
explanation that we can give to the emergence of art lovers and collectors is the
spread of (good quality) education to which we have made a reference above.
The artists were also engaged in actively developing networks of friends, supporters
and admirers. I have already made a reference to a small "club" that had been
established on the initiative of Asfaw Damte. It did not last long. Other initiatives
were taken by the artists themselves to set up associations. The Association for the
Development of Ethiopian Music and Theatre was established sometime in 1965.
Tsegaye Debalke was elected its president. In 1967 it organised a seminar on the arts,
the first of its kind, at the Creative Arts Centre. This seminar passed a set of
resolutions calling on government and society to support music and the plastic arts.74
Skunder took the initiative to organise a group of painters who were his students and
who followed in his footsteps into the "Young Artists Group"75 Eshetu Tiruneh, who
has written a very interesting account of the history of the Fine Art School, has
brought to light more than one attempt at creating a society or a club (Ethiopian
Painters Club, Ethiopian Painters Association), that unfortunately did not last long.76
Thus, the avant garde artists had their admirers, their clients, and their followers. It
was true that a certain segment of elite society strongly criticised them for their
departure from tradition. The artists and their circles tended to blow this attack out of
proportion. But if one looked at the periodicals of the times, one discovers that most
of the articles on art were written in their favour, admiring their works in most cases.
Pieces that attacked them were few and far between.77 It seems that the people who
did not like their work confined themselves, in the majority of cases, to informal
expressions of disapproval. The general picture that one gets from the published
sources was one of approval and appreciation.
74 Solomon Deressa, "Developing the Arts in Ethiopia," Menen (an illustrated monthly magazine)
(August/September, 1967), pp.34-35.
Sebhat G.Egziabher, "A Cup of Tea with Skunder," Menen (an English monthly magazine), (June,
1968), p.26.
Eshetu Tiruneh, "BäEtyopya Yäzämänawi Se'el Tebäb ena YäAddis Ababa Senä Tebäb Temhert Bét
Enqseqasé (1879-1983): Acer Qeňt" (1993 EC), pp.54-55. This is a typescript available in the library of
the Institute of Ethiopian Studies.
77 The most quoted "notorious" article is the one written by Mulugeta Lule, which in actual fact,
expresses as much bewilderment as criticism towards the structure of Gebre Kristos' poetry as to his
abstract art. See the article under his name in Yâzaréytu Etyopya 17 Genbot 1960 EC, p.3. In fact,
Mulugeta makes a point regarding a particular poem of Gebre Kristos, which he cites. But the scope of
this article does not allow me to develop my arguments.
6. Conclusion
Following the suggestions of Chojnacki, one can identify some clearly demarcated
periods in the brief history of modernist art in Ethiopia.78 The starting point is 1954,
the year in which Afewerk held his first one-man exhibition. He and Ale Felege
Selam had returned from abroad that year and the latter would play a major role in
the development of the Fine Art School. Afewerk showed around one hundred
paintings in his exhibition. What was remarkable about the works was the variety of
media he used, including a few abstract paintings. Thus, he was the first Ethiopian to
introduce modern and modernist art in Ethiopia.
In the period before that, there were some attempts at doing modern (not modernist)
art. The pre-54 years (1920s to 1954) can therefore be called the proto-modern
period. In the period after 1954, the first exhibition of Gebre Kristos in 1963 marks
an important milestone. It saw a forceful introduction of abstract art into Ethiopia,
Skunder's first exhibition of 1966 was also a landmark. As of 1962, with the
graduation of an increasing number of students trained along modern lines in the art
school, modern art reached its height in the late 1960s and early 1970s. These
milestones were marked by three great exhibitions displayed in the years - 1954,
1963, 1966 - that presented and defined the new art. The modernising state provided
the framework that enabled the modernist movement to bloom in these years. With
the collapse of the imperial regime in 1974, the precipitous decline of the movement
set in.
Some lines from the "Second Coming," the famous piece of one of the great 20th
century poets, W.B. Yeats, admired by modernist artists, best capture the situation
that prevailed following the outbreak of the revolution:
Turning and turning in the widening gyre
The falcon cannot hear the falconer;
Things fall apart; the center cannot hold;
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world,
The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere
The ceremony of innocence is drowned;
The best lack all convictions, while the worst
Are full of passionate intensity.
The arts paid a heavy price for all the turbulence of the revolution. The stifling
school of socialist realism was imposed. The state relentlessly used this type of
art for crude propaganda purposes. Modernist art was roundly condemned and
subsequently went underground. Thus came to an end a glorious period in the
history of modernist art in Ethiopia.
78 Chojancki, "A Survey of Modern Art ..."
Gerekirstos Desta Self-Portrait, 1961 (oil on board) 70 x 50 cm
Gebre Kirstos Desta, Washing, 1970 (Oil on Hardboard) 100x80 cm
Gebre Kirstos Desta .Without title, 1979, (acrylic on paper)
Gebre Kristos Desta discussing his works with the Emperor at the opening of the
1963 exhibition in the Hall of the Fine Arts School. (IES Collection)

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Institute of Ethiopian Studies

A Modernising State and the Em

This is the time of tension

1. Construction of a modern and developmental state

intention that it would abolis

This task of hammering out a w

Government was dominated by

They were particularly critica

Infřastructural development proceeded steadily. The government quickly put up

4 Imperial Ethiopian Government, Situation et possibilités de développement de l 'économie éthiopienne,

health services. The governme

These changes took place in a fai

Table 1 ¡Population Growth in

Year Estimate (in millions) Growth rate (%)

8 Asmerom Kidane, "Est

grew at 2.3%.9 The ugly head of famine reared its head in 1

Table 2: Population Growth of Addis Ababa

Year Population Average annual

(Source: (1) Guida dell'Africa orientale

These figures tell for themselves the d

The leaders increasingly fell behind the so

From the very beginning of the

There was a shortage of everyth

So the restored government t

Numbers of boys and girls, so

Some of the historical figures c

In 1946 the government opened

10 Maaza Bekele, "A Study of Modern

School to offer secondary education. To address the demand for t

Table 3: Enrolment in the State Education System, by Level

Year Primary Secondary Tertiary Total

(Source: Compiled from different sources: A

Reliable figures are not available for the base year

Gebre Kristos was sent to an ele

Students indeed got first class

Gebre Kristos spent two years

13 Berhane Meskel Dejene, p. 35.

With the expansion of higher institutions of learning in th

...out of a total of 186 arts and science graduates from UCA

Upon their return, most of them were given important position

They formed distinct social groups for socialising and even

3. Building cultural institutions

From the very beginning, after the restoration, the state

15 Teshome G. Wagaw, The Development of Higher Education and S

theatre at that time, Yoftahe

The Municipality of Addis Ab

The Office of Fine Arts initially hired a number of traditional painters

Agegnehu died at the early age of 45 in 1947.29 Thus, none of them m

The event worth mentioning in

30 Addis Zäntän (2/3/48)

34 Falceto. "Ethiooian Music throueh its Record Covers."

Born in 1932, the same year as

The other young man, Ale Fe

In the same decade, an interest

Ato Tesfaye Gessesse, who was

Very quickly, the Centre suc

41 Ethiopian Herald (9 January 1954).

Gabčá). The Centre also provided space for art exhibition