EXTERNAL FORCES

Denudation- the laying bare of underlying rocks by the processes of weathering, transport and
erosion.

Mass Wasting- the movement down slope of rock fragments and soil under the influence of
gravity.

Erosion- the removal of part of the land surface by wind, water, gravity or ice.

WEATHERING

Weathering is the breaking down of rocks and soils that are in contact with the Earth's
atmosphere and waters. Weathering occurs in situ, or "without any movement".

Three main types of weathering are: Physical/ Mechanical Weathering, Chemical Weathering
and Biological/ Biotic Weathering.

WEATHERING

PHYSICAL CHEMICAL BIOLOGICAL

Thermal The action of

expansion & Freeze-thaw Carbonation Oxidation The action of
Hydrolysis man
contraction/ weathering/ animals
Exfoliation Frost Action

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Physical weathering is more effective in areas which have:

• Very little vegetation

• A large daily range of temperature or
• Temperatures fluctuating around 0 degrees Celsius

THERMAL EXPANSION & CONTRACTION

• Occurs in hot, dry places such as deserts.

• Heating during the day causes rocks to expand (cracks appear parallel to the boulder
surface) while rapid cooling at night causes them to contract (cracks appear
perpendicular to the boulder surface).
• The repeated heating and cooling exerts stress on the outer layers of rocks, which can
cause their outer layers to peel off in thin sheets.
• The process of peeling off is also called exfoliation.

FREEZE-THAW WEATHERING

• It occurs in cold temperate regions and mountain tops where temperatures fluctuate
above and below freezing point.
• Water fills the cracks or joints in the rock and freezes at night or during winter.
• Repeated freeze- thaw will eventually shatter the rock along the cracks or joints into
angular pieces.

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Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks. This usually takes place when water
interacts with minerals to create various chemical reactions. New minerals are then developed
from the original minerals in the rock.

OXIDATION

• Is when oxygen combines with water and minerals in the rock. The main mineral
involved is iron.
• When iron reacts with oxygen, iron oxide is formed.
• The iron-oxide crust crumbles easily and weakens the rock.

e.g.: Iron + Oxygen --> Iron Oxide (crumbles)

HYDROLYSIS

Generally takes place in Tropical and Sub Tropical regions such as the Caribbean. Occurs when
minerals react chemically with water. The reaction often takes place between the hydrogen in
the soil water or rain and in certain minerals such as feldspar in rocks such as granite. This
process is known as CATION EXCHANGE. Hydrogen ions in the water swap with ions from the
mineral in a chemical reaction

CARBONATION

• Carbonation takes place in rocks which contain calcium carbonate, e.g. limestone.
• This happens when rain combines with carbon dioxide to form a weak carbonic acid
which reacts with calcium carbonate (the limestone) and forms calcium bicarbonate.
• This process weakens the rock and breaks it down in the process.

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Carbon dioxide + water → carbonic acid (mild)

Carbonic acid + calcium carbonate → calcium bicarbonate

• Calcium bicarbonate is soluble in water so it is easily washed away.

Biotic/ Biological Weathering

This form of weathering involves both physical and chemical weathering processes.

Plant roots can grow into cracks in rocks and widen them. This is physical biotic weathering.

Tree root action.

Tiny plants like lichen, extract iron from rocks , a form of chemical weathering.

Humic Acid is the product of decaying dead plants and animals. It is found in soil water. It is
strong and weathers rocks rapidly.