TFD 301 - Notes For The Whole Unit

University of Nairobi
College of Education and External Studies

School of Education
In collaboration with
Centre for Open and Distance Learning
Department of Educational Foundations

__________________________________________________________________
Subject Name: Sociology of Education
Level of Course: Bachelor of Education
TFD 301: Sociology of Education
__________________________________________________________________
Authors
Prof. Kibera L.W; Prof. Ngesu L.M; Dr.Kahigi C.K; Masese A; Mr. I.
Muasya
Disclaimer
1
Published by University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
Printed by College of Education and External Studies, University of

Nairobi,
P.O. Box 30197, 00100, Nairobi, Kenya, 2012
© University of Nairobi, 2012, All Rights Reserved. No part of this Module

may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in
writing from the Publisher
2
COURSE DESCRIPTION......................................................................................................................................... 9
TFD 301: SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION.................................................................................................................. 9
LECTURE ONE.................................................................................................................................................... 10
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY: SCOPE, NATURE, MEANING, DEVELOPMENT AND BRANCHES OF SOCIOLOGY. .10
LECTURE OUTLINE............................................................................................................................................. 10
1.1 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................................10
1.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES......................................................................................................................................10
1.3 DEFINITIONS OF SOCIOLOGY............................................................................................................................11
1.4 NATURE AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY..................................................................................................................11
1.5 ORIGIN OF SOCIOLOGY...................................................................................................................................12
1.6 BRANCHES OF SOCIOLOGY...............................................................................................................................13
1.7 SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................... 14
1.8 ACTIVITY......................................................................................................................................................15
1.9 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................................15
LECTURE TWO................................................................................................................................................... 16
SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION: MEANING, ROLES, SCOPE, DEVELOPMENT AND RELEVANCE OF SOCIOLOGY OF

EDUCATION...................................................................................................................................................... 16
LECTURE OUTLINE............................................................................................................................................. 16
2.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................................... 16
2.3 DEFINITION SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION.............................................................................................................17
2.4 ROLE OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION …..TO WHAT?????......................................................................................17
2.5 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION..................................................................................18
2.6 SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION...............................................................................................................20
2.7 RELEVANCE OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION TO TEACHER TRAINEES.........................................................................22
2.8 SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................... 22
2.9 ACTIVITY -------SELF -EVALUATION................................................................................................................22
2.10 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................................23
LECTURE THREE................................................................................................................................................. 24
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES AND THEIR RELEVANCE TO EDUCATION.....................................................................24
LECTURE OUTLINE............................................................................................................................................. 24
3.1 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................................24
3.3 DEFINITION OF THEORY..................................................................................................................................25
3.4 DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY..............................................................................................................25
3.4 SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM THEORY.....................................................................................25

3
3.4.1 EXPONENTS/ SUPPORTERS SYMBOLIC INTERACTION THEORY.....................................................................26
3.4.2 DEFINITION OF THE SYMBOLIC INTERACTION THEORY.............................................................................26
3.4.3 ASSUMPTIONS OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM THEORY...........................................................................27
3.4.4 IMPLICATIONS OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM TO EDUCATION................................................................28
3.5 TWO INTERACTION THEORIES: LABELING AND EXCHANGE THEORY........................................................29
(a) Labeling Theory.....................................................................................................................................30
(b) Implications of Labeling Theory to Education.......................................................................................30
(c) Exchange Theory....................................................................................................................................32
(d) Implications of Exchange Theory to Educational Practice....................................................................32
3.6 THE CONSENSUS THEORY (STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM THEORY)..............................33
3.6.1 DEFINITION OF CONSENSUS/ STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM THEORY......................................................33

3.6.2 EXPONENTS/SUPPORTERS OF CONSENSUS/STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM THEORY..................................34
3.6.3 DESCRIPTION OF CONSENSUS THEORY......................................................................................................34
3.6.4 ASSUMPTIONS OF CONSENSUS THEORY....................................................................................................35
3.6.5 IMPLICATIONS OF CONSENSUS THEORY TO EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE.......................................................35
3.7 THE CONFLICT THEORY............................................................................................................... 38
3.7.1 DEFINITION OF CONFLICT THEORY...........................................................................................................38

3.7.2 EXPONENTS/SUPPORTERS OF CONFLICT THEORY......................................................................................38
3.7.3 NATURE OF CONFLICT THEORY................................................................................................................39
3.7.4 ASSUMPTIONS OF CONFLICT THEORY.......................................................................................................39
3.7.5 APPLICATIONS OF CONFLICT THEORY TO EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE.........................................................40
3.8 CONSENSUS AND CONFLICT THEORIES COMPARED..............................................................43
3.9 SUMMARY......................................................................................................................................... 44
3.10 ACTIVITY/ SELF- ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS..............................................................................46
3.11 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................... 46
What do you understand by the term 'teaching profession?.............................................................................51
LECTURE FIVE............................................................................................................................................. 56
PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION AND EDUCATION.................................................................................................. 56
LECTURE OUTLINE..................................................................................................................................... 56
5.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................... 57
5.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................................. 57
5.3 DEFINITION OF SOCIALIZATION................................................................................................. 57
5.4 STAGES OF SOCIALIZATION......................................................................................................... 58
5.4.1 ORAL STAGE.............................................................................................................................................59

5.4.2 ANAL STAGE (1 -3 YEARS)........................................................................................................................59
5.4.3 OEDIPUS LATENCY (COMPLEX).................................................................................................................59
5.4.4 ADOLESCENCE STAGE...............................................................................................................................60
5.5 TYPES OF SOCIALIZATION........................................................................................................... 60

4
5.5.1 STATUS SOCIALIZATION..............................................................................................................................60
5.5.2 ROLE SOCIALIZATION...............................................................................................................................61
5.6 AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION........................................................................................................ 62
5.6.1 THE FAMILY..............................................................................................................................................63

5.6.2 PEER GROUP.............................................................................................................................................64
5.6.3 THE SCHOOL.............................................................................................................................................65
5.6.4 THE MASS MEDIA.....................................................................................................................................67
5.6.5 RELIGION.................................................................................................................................................. 68
5.8. SOCIAL ISOLATION......................................................................................................................... 69
5.8.1 WHAT CAUSES A PERSON TO ISOLATE THEMSELVES?................................................................................71

5.8.2 SIGNS OF ISOLATION.................................................................................................................................71
5.8.3 WHY IS ISOLATION SO DIFFICULT FOR HUMANS TO WITHSTAND?..............................................................71
5.8.4 CAUSES FOR SOCIAL ISOLATION...............................................................................................................72
3 5.9 EFFECTS OF SOCIAL ISOLATION..............................................................................................................72
5.9.1 EFFECTS OF SOCIAL ISOLATION ON CHILDREN..........................................................................................73
4 THE DIAGRAM BELOW ILLUSTRATES THE ISSUE OF SOCIAL ISOLATION IN TERMS OF CAUSES, EFFECTS AND
SOULUTIONS TO SOCIAL ISOLATION. SOLUTIONS FOR SOCIAL ISOLATION..............................................................77
5.11 SUMMARY......................................................................................................................................... 78
5.12 ACTIVITY/ SELF- ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS..............................................................................79
ACTIVITY...................................................................................................................................................... 79
5.13 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................... 80
ACTIVITY...................................................................................................................................................... 84
A) STEEP PYRAMID STRUCTURE.........................................................................................................................87

B) DIAMOND SHAPED STRUCTURE.....................................................................................................................87
C) TWO CLASS STRUCTURE................................................................................................................................88
5 HIGH CLASS.................................................................................................................................................. 92
6 MIDDLE CLASS..............................................................................................................................................92
7 WORKING CLASS...........................................................................................................................................92
A) EARLY ATTENDANCE OF SCHOOL..................................................................................................................93
B) PROVISION OF BOOKS AND OTHER MATERIALS..............................................................................................93
C) ATTENDANCE AT THE BEST SCHOOL AVAILABLE...........................................................................................93
D) ENCOURAGEMENT IN SCHOOL EDUCATION....................................................................................................93
E) PROVISION OF A GOOD MODEL ENGLISH.......................................................................................................94
F) DEVELOPMENT OF INTEREST IN SCHOOL ACTIVITIES.....................................................................................94
G) ACADEMIC AND JOB ASPIRATIONS.................................................................................................................95
H) HOME ENVIRONMENT....................................................................................................................................95
A) POVERTY.......................................................................................................................................................95
8 B)CULTURAL INFLUENCES.............................................................................................................................96
9 C)SOCIALIZATION..........................................................................................................................................96
10 SOCIALIZATION IN SOME COMMUNITIES HAS PUT EMPHASIS ON VARIOUS ASPECTS OTHER THAN
SCHOOLWORK. FOR EXAMPLE, BOYS AFTER CIRCUMCISION AMONG THE KIKUYU, FEEL THAT THEY ARE ‘MEN’ AND
5
HAVE NO RESPECT FOR LADIES/ TEACHERS. IN SOME COMMUNITIES MARRIAGE AND PROCREATION WITH THE
ASPECT OF EXTENDING THE COMMUNITIES LINEAGE IS EMPHASIZED AND REGARDED OF MORE VALUE THAN
EDUCATION. THIS CONTRIBUTES TO MANY YOUTHS DROPPING OUT OF SCHOOL.....................................................96
11 D)EXCESSIVE DEMANDS FROM SCHOOLS.......................................................................................................96
12 E)INSECURITY................................................................................................................................................97
13 E)NOMADIC WAY OF LIFE.............................................................................................................................97
F) LACK OF PARENTAL REINFORCEMENT...........................................................................................................97
14 I)TEACHER MOTIVATION................................................................................................................................99
15 IV) SCHOOL CULTURE...................................................................................................................................99
A) FACILITIES...................................................................................................................................................100
B) TEACHER MOTIVATION...............................................................................................................................100
C) LANGUAGE OF COMMUNICATION.................................................................................................................100
D) LITERATE PARENTS......................................................................................................................................100
16 E) LACK OF ROLE MODELS..........................................................................................................................101
7.12 ACTIVITY............................................................................................................................................. 103
CULTURE..................................................................................................................................................... 106
 DERIVED FROM A GERMAN WORD “KULTURE” WHICH MEANS ‘CIVILIZATION’. TO
WESTERN SCHOLARS, CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION WERE USED (TO MEAN THE SAME THING
I.E.) INTERCHANGEABLY........................................................................................................................ 106
 CULTURE IS DEFINED AS THE COMPLEX WHOLE WHICH INCLUDES KNOWLEDGE,
BELIEFS, ART, MORALS, LAWS, CUSTOMS AND THE CAPABILITIES AND HABITS ACQUIRED BY
MAN AS A MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY. (EDWARD REUTER 1950).....................................................106
 CULTURE IS THE REALM OF IDEAS AND IDEALS, VALUES AND SYMBOLS; IT IS THE
DESIGN FOR LIVING WHICH PRODUCES A DISTINCTIVE WAY OF LIFE. (KULKHON 1951)
BRONSLOW MALINOWSKI, BRITISH ANTHROPOLOGIST [1933]......................................................106
 CULTURE COMPRISES OF INHERITED ARTIFACTS, GOODS, TECHNICAL PROCESSES,
IDEAS, HABITS AND VALUES. IT IS OBVIOUSLY THE INTEGRAL WHOLE CONSISTING OF
IMPLEMENTS, OF CONSUMER GOODS, OF HUMAN IDEAS AND CRAFTS, BELIEFS AND
CUSTOMS..................................................................................................................................................... 106
EDUCATION................................................................................................................................................ 106
 ACCORDING TO R.S PETERS, EDUCATION HAS TO MEET THREE BASIC CRITERIA...........106
What do you understand by the concepts culture and education?....................................................................107

Using relevant examples examine the relationship between culture and education.........................................107
ACTIVITY......................................................................................................................................................... 115
SELF-ACTIVITY.......................................................................................................................................... 120
9.13. SELF-ACTIVITY AND SELF-ASSESSMENT.....................................................................................127
A) ALCOHOL (ETHANOL);.................................................................................................................................136
B) CANNABIS SATIVA (BHANGI).......................................................................................................................136
C) AMPHETAMINES:.........................................................................................................................................136
D) ANALGESICS................................................................................................................................................136
6
17 THESE ARE DRUGS THAT RELIEVE PAIN WITHOUT THE LOSS OF CONSCIOUSNESS. SUCH DRUGS INCLUDE ASPIRIN AND
PARACETAMOLS........................................................................................................................................................136
E) ANESTHETICS..............................................................................................................................................136
F) ANTI-DEPRESSANT:......................................................................................................................................137
G) ANTI-PSYCHOTIC:........................................................................................................................................137
H) BARBITURATES:...........................................................................................................................................137
I) CAFFEINE....................................................................................................................................................137
J) COCAINE.....................................................................................................................................................137
K) CODEINE:.....................................................................................................................................................137
L) ECSTASY:....................................................................................................................................................137
M) HALLUCINOGENS OR PSYCHEDELICS...........................................................................................................137
N) HASHISH......................................................................................................................................................137
O) HEROIN........................................................................................................................................................137
P) KHAT (MIRAA)............................................................................................................................................138
Q) LSD-LYSERGIC DIETHYL AMIDE.................................................................................................................138
R) MORPHINE...................................................................................................................................................138
S) NARCOTIC;..................................................................................................................................................138
T) OPIATE:.......................................................................................................................................................138
U) OPIUM:........................................................................................................................................................138
V) ROBYPNOL:................................................................................................................................................. 138
ACTIVITY......................................................................................................................................................... 138
A) MODERN DAY RITE OF PASSAGE..................................................................................................................139

A) MEDIA.........................................................................................................................................................139
B) PEER INFLUENCE.........................................................................................................................................139
C) IGNORANCE.................................................................................................................................................139
D) BREAKDOWN OF FAMILY UNIT.....................................................................................................................139
E) EASY ACCESSIBILITY TO DRUGS..................................................................................................................139
18.........................................................................................................................................................................140
19 F. UNEMPLOYMENT.....................................................................................................................................140
20 G. LAXITY IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT..........................................................................................................140
21.........................................................................................................................................................................140
22 H. LABELLING..............................................................................................................................................140
23 I.HOSTILE ENVIRONMENT............................................................................................................................140
A) COMPANY....................................................................................................................................................141
B) PHYSICAL APPEARANCE...............................................................................................................................141
C) CHARACTER................................................................................................................................................141
24 A. POOR PERFORMANCE...............................................................................................................................141
25 B. INDISCIPLINE...........................................................................................................................................141
26 C. DROPOUTS...............................................................................................................................................141
27 D. HIV/AIDS.............................................................................................................................................. 142
28 E. LOSS OF LIFE...........................................................................................................................................142
A) JOB CREATION.............................................................................................................................................142
B) CENSORSHIP OF MEDIA...............................................................................................................................142
C) POLICIES......................................................................................................................................................142
7
D) SENSITIZATION............................................................................................................................................143
E) ACCOUNTABILITY........................................................................................................................................143
F) DEVELOPMENT OF YOUTH TALENTS...........................................................................................................143
G) CONDUCIVE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT...........................................................................................................143
H) GOVERNMENT INVOLVEMENT.....................................................................................................................143
29 SOCIO-BIOLOGY THEORY............................................................................................................................148
30 BRAIN LITERATION THEORY AND GENDER DIFFERENCES.............................................................................149
31 SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY AND GENDER ROLES........................................................................................150
32 FEMINIST THEORIES AND GENDER DIFFERENCES..........................................................................................150
33 FEMINISM....................................................................................................................................................151
34 MARXIST SOCIALIST FEMINISM...................................................................................................................152
35 .................................................................................................................................................................... 154
36 .................................................................................................................................................................... 154
37.........................................................................................................................................................................154
38 RADICAL FEMINISM.....................................................................................................................................154
39.........................................................................................................................................................................156
40 POSTMODERN FEMINISM.............................................................................................................................156
What do you understand by the term 'development'?.....................................................................................164
ACTIVITY..................................................................................................................................................... 182
In your own words, define globalization and show its relevance to education today......................................182
8
Course Description
TFD 301: SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Introduction to Sociology; Scope, Nature, Meaning, Development and Branches of

Sociology; Sociology of Education; Meaning, roles, scope, development and relevance of
Sociology of Education; Sociological Theories and their Relevance to Education; The
teaching Profession; Socialization process and education; Socialization process and
education; School as a social organization; Education, social mobility and social
stratification; Education and cultural transmission; Education and Social Change; Social
Problems and Education; Gender and Education; Education and Development;
Globalization and Education
9
LECTURE ONE
Introduction to Sociology: Scope, Nature, Meaning, Development and

Branches of Sociology
Lecture Outline
1.1 Introduction to sociology
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Definition of sociology
1.4 Scope of sociology

1.5 Nature of sociology
1.6 Development of sociology
1.7 Branches of sociology
1.8 Summary
1.9 Activity/self-evaluation
1.10 References
1.1 Introduction
This unit is packaged to introduce you with the fundamentals of sociology. It exposes you to
sociology as a discipline. Specifically, you will study the definition of sociology, scope and
nature of sociology, origin and development of sociology and branches of sociology,
1.2 Lecture Objectives
Lecture Objectives
By the end of this lecture you should be able to;
1. Define the term sociology

2. Discuss the scope and nature of sociology
3. Trace the origin and development of sociology
4. Discuss the branches of sociology
10
1.3 Definitions of Sociology
Sociology is defined as the science of society. This definition generates an
understanding that sociology is the study of social relationships between individuals in
collections or groups in form of social interactions, activities, associations, conflicts,
roles and other social phenomena in a society. Sociology studies the society, and the
social groups within the society such as school groups, church groups, women’s groups,
professional groups etc.
1.4 Nature and Scope of Sociology

1. As stated, the business of sociology is to study the human society in terms of understanding
the human behavior in relation to a group setting. This means a person’s behavior must have
some influence or effect on each other based on human activities of each individual with
regard to the kind of social groups’ relationships.
2. Sociology studies social institutions such as family, education, religion, economy, media, and
politics in order to determine the value, roles or functions of such institutions in the society.
The society depends on social institutions to fulfil its needs such as rearing and socializing
children. The failure or success of any of social institutions often ends up weakening or
strengthening the society.
3. Sociology studies the culture of a society in terms of societal knowledge, technology, beliefs,
morals, art, laws, customs, ideas, patterns of education, and material goods. As such, cultures
distinguish societies from each other and that a society cannot exist as a society if it does not
have culture. Accordingly, cultures define societies and contributes to influence social
functions such as burials, marriages, child rearing, work performance, problem solutions,
responsibility sharing, and interactions on the basis of life of a society.
4. Also, sociology studies social stratification (social class formation) which is societal
divisions into specific layers – low, middle and upper. Social stratification categorizes
individuals and sets them to change from one stratum to another - social mobility. The forces
and factors behind social stratification include social power formation, the political process,
the education process, the socialization process, economic structure, human and industrial
production, professionalism etc.
11
5. Another facet of sociology is the aspect of sociological pathology which entails all the
observable activities that affect society’s wellbeing negatively such as various forms of
deviant behavior (inconsistency with group conventions). Deviant behaviors or deviancy is
what is contrary from the socially agreed and accepted norms in a group of society. In this
case, sociology examines deviant behaviors in a society with regard to why, how, and to what
extend such behaviors contribute to crimes, drug abuse, defiance, greed, fraud, sex offenses,
school truancy, dishonesty, robberies assaults, suicides, prostitution etc.
6. Sociology also studies diverse human structures and situations to understand how they affect
the individual and the society at large. This includes social welfare organizations, community
activity, health education etc. Sociology examines how the formal and informal nature of
such organizations affect the services, functions, the people, the extent of associations and
interactions. Thus, all human activities contribute to the scope concern of sociology.
1.5 Origin of Sociology
The word was coined by Auguste Comte. (1798-1857) who combined the Latin word “socius”
(sharing in a group) and Greek word “logos” (science/study). Etymology being: ‘the
science/study of society’.
Other definitions include aspects such as: social behaviour, group interactions, relationships, and
social structures. Note, sociology does not study an individual person in isolation, but rather
individuals in a group or groups based on arising social relationships. Sociology focuses on the
human society.
Since it is the science of society, why did it start in the 19 th century? Issues related to it were
addressed in history, philosophy, religion, and politics. However, human beings found
inadequacy in the above disciplines. In the 19th century Europe, the following intellectual and
social conditions gave rise to sociology as a distinct discipline.
• In the 19th century, philosophical historians such as Karl Marx, Auguste Comte, Hebert
Spencer, diverted focus on political writings and to industrial society. Subjects like the
family, the nature of society, population, social institutions, become important issues to write
about. Such change influenced interest in sociology.
12
• There was new awareness that issues such as poverty caused by industrial revolution were
social problem but not natural.
• There was concern about restoring social order and maintaining it especially during the after
French Revolution.
• It was clear that natural science approaches could be adapted to study the extent of the social
problems, provide some knowledge, but could not facilitate social reforms.
These views encouraged the growth of a sociological approach which has steadily grown in
scope and significance. As a result, Comte synthesized these ideas and referred to it as the study
of the problems of society.
Today, Sociology is popular in world universities and colleges where teacher training is offered
at both undergraduate and graduate degree programmes.
Sociology is also a part of our practical life applicable in governmental services, health and
hygiene, family planning programmes, social workers’ realm etc. Sociology defines the scope of
several organizations, communities, schools, industries etc. where people interact in form of
social life in society.
1.6 Branches of Sociology

Sociology is sub-divided into several distinct branches such as:
Sociological Theory: this branch of sociology provides generalizations about social phenomena:
such as how and why stratification in societies? Why people behave the way they do? Thus,
sociological theory organizes facts, ideas, concepts, and principles to explain the structures and
patterns of societal behaviour. Such sociological theories are:
1. the structural-functional theory

2. the conflict-consensus theory
3. the symbolic-interaction theory
4. labeling theory
Historical Sociology tries to understand a contemporary society through studying its past
(events and activities). The aim is to discover the genesis and the development of a particular
way of life being practiced in a contemporary society.
13
Sociology of the Family studies the family as the most basic social institution in any society. It
explores the evolution of the family in terms of its structure, functions, problems, strategies of
rearing children, education approaches, significance in the society, and relationship with the
wider society.
Sociology of Education explores education as a social institution in the society. The sociology
of education systematically observes, analyses and describes or explains education with regard to
its social use and significance in society; its relationship with the other social institutions of a
society; - its impact or influence on a society; - its inherent social issues- the social relationships
and organization in schools; - teachers and their relations to parents and the teaching profession
in general. We shall have a lot more to discuss about the sociology of education in subsequent
lectures.
Sociology of Religion examines the role of religion as a social institution in the society which
includes role of the church in the society. Sociology of religion studies the context of religion not
only as a source of belief, morality, and ritual practices, but also in terms of how it influences the
society and vice versa.
There are other smaller sub-sections of sociology such as industrial sociology, medical
sociology, military sociology, human ecology and demography, sociology of music, sociology of
language, sociology of art, and literature, political sociology, and even mathematical sociology.
1.7 Summary
Summary
In this lecture, the term sociology was defined as the science of
society which attempts to study and help us understand social
relationships between people. The term sociology was coined by
Auguste Comte and grew out of man’s desire to understand the
society. In 19th century Europe, there arose conditions both
intellectual and social which further necessitated and encouraged
and strengthened the growth of sociology as a distinct discipline.
The use of sociology in societies, to-day, goes far and wide in
institutions of higher learning, sociology has become a highly
specialized area for course work and research.
14
Governments and other social organizations continue to depend
on sociology in order to gauge the value of their services to
people. Sociology covers a wide range of subject matter from
social institutions, culture, social class formation and social
pathology. Because of the vastness and variety of its subject
matter, sociology has been subdivided into many branches each
with its own specializations.
1.8 Activity
Activity
1. Discuss what you understand by the term sociology.

2. Explain why sociology as a discipline became prominent in the
19th century.
3. Name the personality behind the development of sociology.
4. Name five branches of sociology.
1.9 References
References
Datta, A. (1979). Education and society, with special reference to
Africa. Lusaka: University of Zambia.
Kibera, L.W, & Kimokoti, A. (2007). Fundamentals of Sociology of
Education: African perspective. University of Nairobi Press, Nairobi.
MacBeath, J. (2012). Future of the teaching profession. Cambridge:
Institute of International Research Institute.
Mugambi, M. and Ochieng, J. (2014). Transforming the image of the
teaching profession in Kenya. International Journal of Education
and Research, 2 (2):65-78.
Shiundu, J.S and Omulando, J.S. (1992). Curriculum: Theory and
practice in Kenya. Nairobi: Oxford University Press
15
LECTURE TWO
Sociology of Education: Meaning, Roles, Scope, Development and

Relevance of Sociology of Education
Lecture Outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Meaning
2.4 Roles
2.5 Scope
2.6 Development
2.7 Relevance of Sociology of Education to teacher trainees.
2.8 Summary
2.10 Reference
2.1 Introduction
This unit is packaged to familiarize you with the fundamentals of the development of
sociology of Education. It exposes you to the meaning of sociology of education.
Specifically, you will study definition of sociology of education, roles of sociology of
education, the scope and development and the relevance of sociology of education.
2.2 Lecture Objectives.
Lecture Objectives
1. Define the term sociology of education
2. Discuss the roles of sociology of education
3. Trace the development of sociology of education
4. Discuss the scope of sociology of education
5. Explain the relevance of sociology of education to teacher
trainees
16
2.3 Definition Sociology of Education
Sociology of Education is defined in many ways according to the perspective of

different scholars. For example;
1. Olive Banks (1968) Sociology of Education. “Major and specialized branch of

sociology which systematically and scientifically studies the sociological issues,
problems and questions that occur within the education phenomenon”
2. Jarry (1999) Dictionary of Sociology. “The application of sociological theories,

perspectives and research methods to an analysis of educational processes and
practices.”
3. Awuondo (1993) Introduction to Sociology “… a discipline that provides a

sociological analysis of the content and functions of education in the allocation of
power status and other services in society.”
4. A branch of sociology that investigates and analyses social issues that affect and
have influence on education.
5. Sociology of education refers to a discipline which attempts to analyze

systematically the communal or collective factors, forces, aspects, progress, and
patterns that occur within the education phenomena.
These definitions suggest that sociology of education concentrates on studying and

explaining concepts, activities, and issues that are societal in nature within the context
of education theory and practice such as parents, administrators at various levels,
surrounding communities, environment of various kinds, and other groups with special
interest in education are part of the school, actively or otherwise. These components
involve social factors, forces, and influential relationships, interactions, behaviors, and
decisions.
2.4 Role of Sociology of Education …..to what?????
• Sociology of education enlightens all: teachers, administrators, students, parents,

policy makers and other stakeholders on education in society.
• Analyses, studies and examines all features of education that are affected by, and
affect society.
• Describes and gives possible solutions to issues in education.
• Provides a specialized (sociological) perspective that helps one understand
education as a social phenomenon.
17
In-text question
What do you understand by the term sociology of education?
2.5 Origin and Development of Sociology of Education

The phrase ‘sociology of education’ was coined by John Dewey (1859-1952) and Emile
Durkheim (1852-1917) whose aim was to create a level ground for sociology and
education. In the 20th century, John Dewey argued that there is a relationship between
the school and the society. His idea about education began when he observed how fast
the simple community life structures in his time were changing. The church, which was
the main institution entrusted with children’s education could not cope with such
change and could not prepare children to meet the new social ways adapted by the
changing society.
According to Dewey, children risked utter confusion as they prepared to be adulthoods

in the new society. As a result, Dewey suggested an ‘ideal school’ where children could
integrate societal life and learning. For Dewey, the community and the established
school were the apt components to realize that amelioration (amendment).
Dewey intended to promote a practical way of educating children in relation to

community life as expressed in the interests, hope, needs and expectations of the larger
society outside. His concept of ideal school was to benefit the children’s social life both
in his home and neighborhood.
Similarly, Emile Durkheim attempted to integrate sociology and education. In a public

lecture, he took an idealistic or theoretical position which underscored that education is
social in character, origin, and function based on social fact, activity, and socializing
process. Thus, education theoretical framework should be founded on sociological
theory, but not social science.
Durkheim tried to delineate the work of education as means of transforming what he

called a ‘human/social being’ into a ‘social being’. A ‘social being’ refers to someone
who is being socialized and internalized to practice society’s ways of life. Young
children continue to grow and slowly learns the ways of the society, its attitudes, skills,
and behaviors. The children’s nature changes to become responsible adult. According to
Durkheim, that transformation is complex and must be nurtured within the frame-work
of the society and in context of education. This theoretical view gave Durkheim an
honor of being considered as the ‘father of Sociology of Education’. As a result, theories
of Dewey and Durkheim established a sociological approach to education.
18
Sociology of education developed further as more scholars became interested in the
discipline.
In the 1930’s Sir Fred Clerk’s upheld that sociological approach to education should be
applied in planning of education programs for the citizens with characters preferred in
the society. The aim is to train individuals for “citizen consciousness”.
In the 1940’s, Karl Manheim (German) came to view education as a ‘social technique’
which could be used to control the society and be used to improve the society.
In the 1950’s W.A.C Stewart proposed that sociology of education should be integrated
in the training of teachers based on basic knowledge of sociological issues such as social
structure, control, and change in the realm of education. In this regard, sociological
views of education were to enlighten curriculum, the classroom, discipline and order,
the teacher, and the institutions of learning according to educational values.
In addition, there were significant movements to strengthen further developments of

sociology of education such as the social philosophers who provide an organismic view
of the society (society perceived as a whole organism). Thus institutions in the society
resemble the organs with specific tasks to be completed. Among these institutions of the
society was education which trained and prepared all members of the society, the
children in particular, for the proper responsibilities aptitudes, attitudes, manners, etc.
In short, education had the task of transmitting societal culture.
In the 20th century movement can be called the institutionalization of sociology of

education of courses for the training of teachers in such institutions as Columbia and
Stanford universities. Further it came in the form of an organization. (National society
for the study of education in U.S.A) This began in 1928 to sponsor research work and to
publish the results in its professional journal – journal of educational sociology.
With the help of this movement, it was now possible for educators not only to begin
understanding many problems of education that presented sociological implications,
but also to apply the findings or the results of the research work to solve other problems
such as those of juvenile delinquency community relationships with the school, school
truancy, effects of social problems on school achievement, and others.
With the growth of other social science disciplines such as sociology, anthropology and
social psychology, it was inevitable that sociology of education would develop. Expert
researcher’s eager to get a greater insight into the new discipline, turned to study their
own discipline specializations and as part of their inter-disciplinary studies
Another I important but less evident movement reinforcing the development of the
sociology of Education emerged at the closure of the world war two hospitalities. The
countries involve in the wars had undergone large scale social economic devastation,
suddenly realized the importance of education in the efforts they were making towards
social amelioration. Their rejuvenated interest in education encouraged the use money,
personnel, and a lot of energy in the recovery of their lost social-wellbeing, national
19
integration and political stability. No doubt, this movement provided special impetus to
the growth of sociology of education.
Currently great emphasis is being put on the necessity for every educator to realize the
importance of the social side of education. This has given the sociology of education a
new impetus in its expansion. Word wide, universities and colleges dealing with the
training of teachers and educators have developed syllabuses which integrate both the
practical and theoretical aspects geared to a sociological understanding of educational
problems
Furthermore, the intensive research work carried out by these institutions is the key to
our continued understanding and appreciation of how socially important education is.
Following what these and many other proponents have said and done towards
founding and developing sociology of education it is no longer wise for both
sociologists and educationists to continue disregarding over what should be the nature
and the meaning of sociology of education, or form the new discipline should take.
Suggestions have also been made that sociology of education should be viewed as a
branch of sociology rather than a branch of education and that it should be concerned
with the problems of education which are social in nature and not with problems that
pertain to educational practice.
The task that now lies ahead for sociologists and educationists is to discern and
delineate exactly what content, considerations or issues the new discipline should begin
and continue to address within the realms of education.
2.6 Scope of Sociology of Education
Sociology of Education deals with a variety of issues in Education as summarized

below;
• Concerned with relationship between Education as a structure and the society within
which it is taking place.
• Exploring relationship between Education and other social institutions e.g. Education
and religion, Education and the family, Government and Education, etc.
Sociology of Education deals with issues concerning Education in society.
• Aims of Education in society e.g. development of human resources/manpower

development.
• Role of Education in citizenship training.
• Role of Education as socializing agent.
• social stratification
Effects of social economic status on Educational attainment
20
• How does social class affect educational attainment?
• The school as a formal social organization is a unit intended to carry out specific and
specialized duties, social or structural arrangements within the school.
• Interaction patterns /relationships within the school.
• The school environment and its effect on learning.
• Social mobility
• Social stratification
• Social mobility
• Culture
• Teaching profession
• Its status
• Remuneration
• Job satisfaction
• Attitudes
• Competencies
• Adequate motivation
• Preparedness for multiple roles as teachers –Counselor, surrogate parent, judge, etc.
Learning environment and how it affects learning-Is the environment supportive,

positive, can it produce well-adjusted learners or is it negative?
Take Note
The subject matter of sociology of education has pragmatic

contribution. The discipline may not necessarily be about
providing specific prescriptions or answers to teaching, classroom
or school problems. What sociology of education does provide is
both a unique picture and a questioning analysis of education. Its
role is educative in that it enables disciplined thinking about
education in a different way. Its major contribution is its insistence
on viewing schools and education as pre-eminently social.
2.7 Relevance of Sociology of Education to Teacher Trainees
1. Introduces the school teacher to a new perspective of understanding the total realm
of education that is schools teaching activities pupils and many other components.
2. Acquaints the teacher with the nature of the existing and upcoming socio
educational problems that one may come into the running of the school and the
classroom.
3. Enhances the teacher’s role in terms of knowing and being aware of how she or he
is doing especially in the classroom when interacting with learners more closely.
This is an opportunity for the socialization process to take place and not simply an
exercise of passing information.
21
4. Enables the teacher to conceptualize the school community as its entirety as an
outgrowth of the larger society in which there will be conflicts stresses competition
agreements disagreements moments of joy and sadness and failures and many
others.
5. Helps the teacher to acknowledge the social purpose of education from a wider
perspective and not from a narrow personalized self-interest approach.
6. Helps the teacher to view himself or herself as a change agent using agent using
democratic resolutions instead of applying authoritarian and high handed
commands.
7. Enables the teacher to learn more about hopefully apply the research procedures
that sociology of education uses to obtain and accumulate the dependable
knowledge about education.
2.8 Summary
We have seen that this lecture deals with origins, meaning and
development of sociology of education. Two scholars, Emile
Durkheim and John Dewey have played a very significant role in
the development of sociology of education.
2.9 Activity -------Self -Evaluation

Activity
1. Explain the term sociology of education.
2. Describe the development of sociology of education to the
present day.
3. Discuss the scope of sociology of education.
4. In what sense would you say sociology of education would
be beneficial to you as a teacher?
5. What concepts is sociology of education concerned with?
2.10 References

22
Mugambi, M. and Ochieng, J. (2014). Transforming the image of

the teaching profession in Kenya. International Journal of Education
and Research, 2 (2):65-78.

23
LECTURE THREE
Sociological Theories and their Relevance to Education
Lecture Outline
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Lecture objectives
3.3 Definitions Theory and Sociological Theory
3.4 Sociological Theories:
3.4.1 The Symbolic Interaction Theory:
3.4.2 Labeling Theory and
3.4.3 Exchange Theory
3.5 The Consensus Theory (Structural Functionalism Theory)
3.6 The Conflict Theory
3.7 Summary
3.8 Activity/ Self- Assessment Questions
3.9 References
3.1 Introduction
Welcome to the second lecture of this course. This lecture will provide a foundation of
the theories of sociology and their relevance to educational practice. Note that
subsequent lectures of this will be making reference to these theories in their
discussions. In this regard, it important to read the contents of this lecture carefully.
Sociologists apply theoretical approaches to acquire knowledge and explain social
interactions and its implications in schools and classrooms. Theoretical perspectives are
used to provide logical explanation for why things happen the way they do. There are
some who see order and stability as more important than conflict and change; while
others take the opposite view.
Objectives or Aim
At the end of this should be able to:
1. Define theory and sociological theory
2. Discuss the various Sociological theories and their relevance to

educational practice.
24
3.3 Definition of Theory
• Theory could be defined as a conceptual scheme designed to explain observed regularities or
relationships between two or more variables.
• A theory is a set of ideas which provides an explanation for something.
3.4 Definition of Sociological Theory

Sociological theory is a branch of sociology which attempts to provide generalizations
concerning social phenomena. For example:
• How and why do people in a society behave the way they do?
• How and why did social classes come to be formed?
The sections of the lecture discussed below will concentrate of the various sociological theories and
their relevance to educational practice.
Take Note
Each of these sociological theories has different views on education. We

shall illustrate this in the remaining part of the lecture.
3.4 Symbolic Interactionism Theory

The first sociological theory we are going to look at is symbolic interaction theory. This
perspective has a long intellectual history, beginning with the German sociologist and economist,
Max Weber (1864-1920) and the American philosopher, George H. Mead (1863-1931), both of
whom emphasized the subjective meaning of human behavior, the social process, and
pragmatism.
3.4.1 Exponents/ Supporters symbolic interaction theory
1. Max Weber (1864-1920): Symbolic interactionism traces its origins to Max Weber's
assertion that individuals act according to their interpretation of the meaning of their world.
2. George Hebert Mead- 1863-1931: He attempted to show that the human self, arises in the
process of social interaction. He stressed the importance of symbols in the interaction,
pointing to the meaning we attach to symbols, that these symbols and meanings govern the
pattern of interaction.
3. Herbert Blumer (1900- 1987): is responsible for coining the term, "symbolic
interactionism," The theory directs sociologists to consider the symbols and details of
everyday life, what these symbols mean, and how people interact with each other.
25
4. Charles Horton Cooley 1864-1929: He suggests that we come to know ourselves in
interaction, that people reflect to us who, what we are, they are a mirror for us, reflecting our
actions. It is through this reflection we come to know who we are, thus the idea of looking
glass self. “I see myself in you, through interaction and it is through this reflected image that
I come to know who I am”.
3.4.2 Definition of the Symbolic Interaction Theory
 Symbolic interaction is a theoretical framework that envisions society as the product of the
everyday interactions of people doing things together.
 Symbols are terms or action to which meaning is attached by members of the group.
Language is the means by which symbols are created and transmitted.
 Interaction refers to contact with others including our reactions to them
According to the symbolic interactionist perspective, people attach meanings to symbols, and
then they act according to their subjective interpretation of these symbols. Actions are not just
actions, they are given meaning.
26
3.4.3 Assumptions of Symbolic Interactionism Theory
The symbolic interaction theory makes the following assumptions:

1. This theory is based on the assumption that society is involved in interaction by which
individuals actively construct reality in everyday life.
2. All actions have meanings
3. Human beings act toward things/others on the basis of the meaning the things/others have
for them.
4. This idea, sometimes called the social construction of reality, refers to how people
perceive – or are taught to perceive – physical objects, rules of behaviour and ideas.
5. Meanings arise of social interaction – that is, through face –to – face involvement with
others, including parents, peers and teachers.
6. Meanings are modified in an interpretive process used by the person in dealing with thins
he/ she encounters. That is, the theory emphasizes that human behaviour is not static – it
is continually changing in response to social and environmental demands.
3.4.4 Implications of Symbolic Interactionism to Education
We now turn the implication symbolic interaction to educational practice. What does this theory
imply as regards education?
1. Symbolic interactionists limit their analysis of education to what they directly observe
happening in the classroom.
27
2. They focus on how teacher expectations influence student performance, perceptions,
and attitudes. For example: When the teachers expected a particular performance from
students or growth, it actually occurs. This phenomenon, where a false assumption
actually occurs because someone predicted it, is called a self-fulfilling prophesy.
3. The symbolic interaction view of education focuses on interactions during the

schooling process and the outcomes of those interactions. For instance, interactions
between students and teachers can create expectations on both parties.
4. “Teacher Expectancy Effect.” - The teacher expects certain behaviors from students,
which in turn can actually create that very behavior.
For example, if a teacher expects a some students to perform below average on a math
test when compared to other students, over time the teacher may act in ways that
encourage the former students to get below average math scores.
5. Classroom Dynamics and interaction processes: Symbolic interactionists focus on

classroom dynamics and the effect of self-concept on grades and aspirations. They study
interaction processes in classrooms.
6. This theory focuses on the common, ordinary interactions between members in a school
such as among peer groups, teachers and students, teachers and principals to explain the
following aspects, namely:
 students’ achievement
 students’ attitudes
 students’ values
 students’ self -concept and aspirations
 socio-economic status
 grouping of students
7. Interactionist theories help us to discover how labels such as sex, age, one’s ethnic
background, religion, name, physical appearance, etc affect students’ self – concept and their
performance in school.
Take Note
28
Activity
Now reflect your past experiences.
Can you recall of any interaction with any of the school members (peers,
teachers, principal) in relation to your values, attitudes, achievement, etc.
3.5 Two Interaction Theories: Labeling and Exchange Theory
Two interaction theories are of great importance in sociology of education. They are:
1. Labeling Theory
2. Exchange Theory
We discuss each one of them in the sections that follow here below.
(a) Labeling Theory
We all use labels to categorise people, situations and objects. These labels become seen as objective
descriptions of people and situations. Labeling theory describes and classifies persons according to
various characteristics, that is, assigning tags to people. The labels could either be positive or negative.
29
Intext Question
Give examples of positive and negative labels
Positive labels Negative labels
----------------- -----------------------------
The labeling theory is concerned with how the self-identity and behavior of individuals may be
determined or influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them. It is associated with the
concept of a self-fulfilling prophecy and stereotyping.
If a child is repeatedly told that s/he is stupid or lazy, s/he will make the ‘label’ a part of her/his
self-concept and behave accordingly. Students almost always fulfill teachers’ expectations.
Labeling theory is interested in why people are labeled and who it is that does the labeling.
If a label is used repeatedly to describe a person, that person may start behaving as the label
suggests. For example if a label “stupid” is used on an individual, that individual is likely to
incorporate this label as part of his/her self –concept and behave like the label suggests
(stupidly).
There is evidence that the individual students behave well or badly depending on the
expectations of teachers about them.
(b) Implications of Labeling Theory to Education
 The attachment of labels has important consequences for how others see a person and
how s/he comes to view themselves.
 With negative labels, a person will need to accommodate to his/her spoiled identity.
 This spoiled identity is what we term stigma. The person becomes the thing he is
described as being.”
 The labeling approach allows for an explanation of what, in fact, is happening within
schools
 Over time, the consequences of having a certain evaluative tag influence the options
available to a student within a school
 Stereotypes by the teachers: Labeling involves the application of crude stereotypes by

authorities such as the teachers.
 These stereotypes then influence their actions.
 It is teachers use labels such as who’s “bright” or “slow”
30
 Expectations teachers hold for students can be generated as early as the first few days of
school and then remain stable from then on
 Expectations of others: Others relate to the labeled person on the basis of the label and
the responses come to reinforce the reputation.
 For example a teacher dealing with the student labeled a 'failure' will not be surprised
when the student fails.
 Indeed, the teacher may well be surprised and suspicious if the student does well!
 Teacher expectations are not automatically self-fulfilling
 Teachers are encouraged to use positive labels on their students.
 Teachers should try to avoid negative labels on their students.
 Positive labels enhance students’ self – image and boost up their confidence.
 Positive labels help students to perform well in school.
 Negative labels are likely to have the opposite effects.
 Negative labels discourage students and lower their morale.
 Negative labels are likely to lower students’ academic performance
 For example, streaming of students according to their academic abilities may have
detrimental effects.
 Students of mixed abilities should be put (mixed) together; however, special attention
should be given to the gifted and less gifted students.
(c) Exchange Theory
Exchange theory emphasizes the idea that social action is the result of personal choices made by
considering relative benefits and costs. The theory of social exchange predicts that people will
make choices with the intention of maximizing benefits.
A key component of this theory is the postulation of the "comparison level of alternatives",
which is the actor's sense of the best possible alternative (i.e., the choice with the highest benefits
relative to costs)based on the assumption that there are costs and rewards involved in our
interactions.
31
Exchange theory is a theoretical orientation emphasizing the goals, rewards (“profits,”
“positive reinforcements”), and punishments (“costs”, “negative reinforcements”)
associated with interaction.
It is a theory that is very close to the way many people tend to see behaviour in everyday life. By
learning about the kinds of exchanges people make, we learn, indirectly, about the goals they
have.
The reasons that make people to engage in a social exchange are:
i. anticipated reciprocity;
ii. expected gain in reputation and influence on others
iii. Direct reward.
(d) Implications of Exchange Theory to Educational Practice
 The exchange theory is based on the assumption that there are costs and rewards involved in
our interactions. For example, a student learns, is examined and awarded a certificate if
he/she passes the examination.
 On the other, the teacher is rewarded for his/her work with a salary and promotion etc.
 Exchange theory is not only based on material profits, it is also based on psychic rewards for
example, praise, blame, etc.
 Rewards and punishments can be used in the modification of students’ behaviour.
 Use of Rewards: The use of material and psychic rewards can help to motivate students to
learn and teachers to work harder.
 Teachers should use rewards that are acceptable in the society.
 Use of Punishments: Punishments should be used to deter bad behaviour and should also be
within the acceptable limits. Teachers should not excessive punishments
Take Note
 Based on the idea that social reality is constructed in each human

interaction through the use of symbols - words, gestures, and
communicating through language
 Studying social interaction is key to understanding human behavior
 Ability of actors to modify their behaviors to meet the needs of the
32
present and immediate environment
3.6 The Consensus Theory (Structural Functionalism Theory)

The second sociological theory that we are going to discuss is known as the Consensus theory (or
Structural Functionalism Theory). One of the core perspectives of sociology is consensus theory
or structural functionalism theory. Consensus theory is also known as structural functionalism
theory because it emphasizes on structure and function of the various parts of the society.
Functionalists believe that society is held together by social consensus (agreement), or cohesion,
in which members of the society agree upon, and work together to achieve, what is best for
society as a whole. The consensus theory emphasizes on the stability of the society where the
whole system exists in a delicate balance.
Functionalists assume that in society everything in society serves a purpose. Each aspect of
society is interdependent and contributes to society's functioning as a whole. Functionalism
views society as a self-regulating system of interrelated elements with structured social
relationships and observed regularities
3.6.1 Definition of Consensus/ Structural Functionalism Theory
Consensus or Structural Functionalism is a sociological theory that attempts to explain why

society functions the way it does by focusing on the relationships between the various social
institutions that make up society (e.g., government, law, education, religion, etc.).
Consensus theorists see society as an integrated system maintaining equilibrium with interrelated
institutions (family, school, religion, government, etc.). These institutions provide the rules
governing behaviours that serve to maintain a kind of equilibrium and set of common values that
bind people together.
3.6.2 Exponents/Supporters of Consensus/Structural Functionalism Theory
The sociologists who support consensus theory include:
1) Auguste Comte
2) Herbert Spencer
3) Emile Durkheim
4) Robert Merton
5) Talcott Parsons
33
3.6.3 Description of Consensus Theory
The consensus perspective emphasizes that a society cannot survive:
1) unless its members share some common values, attitudes and perceptions,
2) that each part of the society contributes some necessary activity to the whole society,
3) that the various parts of the society are integrated with each other, and
4) that this interdependence keeps societies relatively stable.
Functionalists argue that society is in equilibrium and largely efficient. Functionalist theorists
place a lot emphasis on the interdependence of the various parts of the society and the necessity
for togetherness.
The degree of interdependence among parts in the system relates to the degree of integration
among these parts; all parts complement each other. For example The government, or state,
provides education for the children of the family, which in turn pays taxes on which the state
depends to keep itself running. That is, the family is dependent upon the school to help children
grow up to have good jobs so that they can raise and support their own families.
In the process, the children become law-abiding, taxpaying citizens, who in turn support the
state. If all goes well, the parts of society produce order, stability, and productivity. Structural
functionalists believe that society leans towards equilibrium and social order. They see society
like a human body, in which each part plays a role and all are dependent on each other for
survival.
If all does not go well, the parts of society then must adapt to recapture a new order, stability,
and productivity. For example, during a financial recession with its high rates of unemployment
and inflation, social programs are trimmed or cut. Schools offer fewer programs. Families
tighten their budgets. And a new social order, stability, and productivity occur.
3.6.4 Assumptions of Consensus Theory
Consensus theorists make the following assumptions:
1) A society is made up of interdependent parts such as education (schools), religion, family,

government, etc., all working together, each contributing some necessary activity to the
functioning of the whole society.
2) Each part of society shares common values, norms and there is consensus or agreement
between parts of the society.
34
3) Shared values among members are important components of the system as these keep the
system in balance; Social health means the same as social order, and is guaranteed when
nearly everyone accepts the general moral values of their society.
4) Every feature of society serves a purpose within it; For example, Institutions such as
education are like important organs that keep the body healthy and well.
5) This Consensus theory stresses order and stability in society.
6) Consensus theorists assume that a smooth running, stable system is well integrated.
Take Note
 Consensus theorists generally support the status quo.
 In political terms, consensus theorists have come to be viewed as

capitalists.
3.6.5 Implications of Consensus Theory to Educational Practice
The consensus theory focuses on the ways that universal education serves the needs of society.
The functionalist perspective argues that education serves many important functions in society.
Functionalist theory has the following implications to educational practice:
1) Durkheim (the founder of consensus theory) identified the latent role of education as one of
socializing people into society's mainstream. This “moral education,” as he called it, helped
form a more-cohesive social structure by bringing together people from diverse backgrounds.
2) Functionalists point to other latent roles of education such as transmission of core values and
social control.
3) Functionalists see education as a beneficial contribution to an ordered society
4) Functionalists suggest that education contributes to the maintenance of society and provides
opportunity for upward social mobility, and meritocracy
5) Functionalists see education in its manifest role; that is: Conveying basic knowledge and
skills to the next generation. “the role of the school is to teach the necessary skills and norms
for the individual to participate in society by sorting, selecting, and training people for jobs at
each level” This would maintain the stability of social order.
35
6) Socialization of children and teenagers: The school socializes children and prepares them for
life in society. This is not only done by teaching “book knowledge,” but also teaching the
society’s culture, including moral values, ethics, politics, religious beliefs, habits, and norms.
7) Social Control: This involves the regulation of deviant behavior. By requiring young people
to attend school, this keeps them off the streets and out of trouble.
8) Production of experts: Education will aim to produce experts in all professions for the benefit
of all members of the society. For example teachers, doctors, engineers, etc. The theory links
schools to systemic needs of the wider society.
9) Selection to higher levels of education: Consensus theorists suggest that selection to higher
levels of education should be based on merit; that is, it should be based on one’s performance
in competitive examinations.
10) Students’ Performance in school: Based on ideas of consensus theorists, it assumed that those
who do not do well in school this is the pupils are lazy or have less intellectual abilities.
11) Placement to careers/occupations: Education provides occupational training. Consensus

theorists believe that the best-brained pupils are expected to join the higher occupational/
professional jobs for the benefit of the entire society.
12) To sort and rank individuals for placement in the labour market: Those with high
achievement will be trained for the most important jobs and in reward, be given the highest
incomes. Those who achieve the least, will be given the least demanding (intellectually at
any rate, if not physically) jobs, and hence the least income.
13) Sorting of students on the basis of merit: Another benefit that functionalists see in education
is sorting—separating students on the basis of merit. Society's needs demand that the most
capable people get channeled into the most important occupations.
14) Social Placement: Schools identify the most capable students early. Those who score highest
on classroom and standardized tests enter accelerated programs and college-preparation
courses. Sociologists refer to this as social placement. They saw this process as a beneficial
function in society.
15) Networking (making interpersonal connections): After sorting has taken place, the next
function of education, networking (making interpersonal connections), is inevitable. People
in high school and college network with those in similar classes and majors. This networking
may become professional or remain personal. The most significant role of education in this
regard is matchmaking. Sociologists primarily interest themselves in how sorting and
networking lead couples together of similar backgrounds, interests, education, and income
potential. People place so much importance on this function of education that some parents
36
limit their children's options for college to insure that they attend schools where they can
meet the “right” person to marry.
16) Differentiated type of education and educational opportunities: Consensus theory is likely to
support differentiated type of education and educational opportunities for the different
categories of people in the society. For example, having public and private schools, high cost
and low cost schools, pupils doing different examinations like KCSE and A- level, etc.
17) Preserving and changing culture: Functionalists point to preserving and changing culture.
This is the dual role of education. As students’ progress through college and beyond, they
usually become increasingly liberal as they encounter a variety of perspectives. Thus, more
educated individuals are generally more liberal, while less educated people tend toward
conservatism. The heavy emphasis on research at most institutions of higher education puts
them on the cutting edge of changes in knowledge, and, in many cases, changes in values as
well. Therefore, while the primary role of education is to preserve and pass on knowledge
and skills, education is also in the business of transforming them.
18) Education is likely to be conservative: Finally, Consensus theorists believe that education is likely
to be conservative in order to maintain the status quo and stability in the society.
Take Note
 This view indicates that in order to motivate individuals to strive be

the most educated we must offer greater opportunities and “crucial
positions” to those that have mastered the system and achieved higher
levels of education.
 The carefully constructed curriculum helps students develop their
identities and self-esteem.
 This theory is static.
3.7 The Conflict Theory
The final theory that we are going to discuss is referred as the conflict theory. The conflict
perspective, originated primarily out of Karl Marx's writings on class struggles. It presents
society in a different light than do the functionalist and symbolic interactionist perspectives. The
theory sees society as a full rival between social groups with different aspirations, different
access to life chances, and gain different social rewards.
The conflict perspective focuses on the negative, conflicted, and ever-changing nature of society.
Conflict theorists challenge the status quo, encourage social change (even when this means social
revolution), Conflict theorists believe rich and powerful people force social order on the poor
and the weak.
37
3.7.1 Definition of Conflict Theory
Conflict theorists see society as an arena of groups and classes in conflict with each other, each
one of them seeking dominance. Conflict theorists are more concerned with the inherent
inequalities in the social structures. The struggle for power helps determine the structure and
functioning of organizations and the hierarchy which evolves as a result of power relations.
3.7.2 Exponents/Supporters of Conflict Theory
Sociologists who support conflict theory include:
1) Karl Marx
2) Marx Weber
3) Georg Simmel
3.7.3 Nature of Conflict Theory
Whenever people live together and lay foundations of forms of social organizations, there are
positions whose occupants have powers of command in certain contexts and over certain
positions whose occupants are subjected to such commands. For example in a school setting
teachers are more powerful. The society has two competing groups of people: “The Haves” and
“The Have nots”
The competing groups of a society, i.e. “the haves” and “the have –nots” are seen as being in a
constant state of tension leading to the possibility of struggle. The “haves” control power,
wealth, material goods, privilege and influence; the “have-nots” constantly present a challenge as
they seek a larger share of the society’s wealth.
The “haves” often use coercive power and manipulation to hold society together; but change is
seen as inevitable and sometimes rapid, as the conflict of interest leads to overthrow of existing
power structures.
The dominant social process in conflict theory is endless struggle between those without
advantages (privileges) who wish to secure them and those with advantages (privileges) who
wish either to get more or prevent others from taking what is available.
Conflict theorists note that unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agendas, causing
them to compete against one another. This constant competition between groups forms the basis
for the ever-changing nature of society. Conflict theorists find social conflict between any groups
in which the potential for inequality exists: racial, gender, religious, political, economic, and so
on.
38
The perspective of conflict theory believes that society is full of social groups with different
aspirations, different access to life chances and gain different social rewards. Relations in
society, in this view, are mainly based on:
i. exploitation
ii. oppression
iii. domination
iv. subordination
3.7.4 Assumptions of Conflict Theory
a) The conflict theory assumes a tension in society and its parts created by the competing
interests of individuals and groups. (groups within existing societies have fundamentally
different interests.)
b) The theory suggests that some parts of society are more important and more powerful than
others.
c) Conflict theorists note that unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agendas,
causing them to compete against one another.
d) This constant competition between groups forms the basis for the ever-changing nature of society.
Take Note
 Research from conflict theorists perspective tends to focus on those

tensions created by the power and conflict which ultimately cause
change in the system/society.
 In political terms, conflict theorists are basically socialists and
socialists seek change.
 The approach can be very useful in attempting to explain situations
where conflict exists;
 It does not offer useful explanations concerning the balance or
equilibrium, which does exist between segments of a system or
interactions between members of the system.
3.7.5 Applications of Conflict Theory to Educational Practice
Conflict theory looks at the disintegrative and disruptive aspects of education. In this regard
therefore the following are some of the implications of conflict theory to educational practice.
39
1) Distribution of Education: Conflict theorists argue that education is unequally distributed
through society and is used to separate groups (based on class, gender, or race). Educational
level is therefore a mechanism for producing and reproducing inequality in our society.
2) Reforms in Education: Reforms in education should be preceded by changes in the economy

and other social structures so that the economy can able to support the new changes in the
education system. Other social structures need to be aligned to new reforms in the education
system.
3) Improvements in Education: Conflict theorists hold the view that significant improvements
in education can only be achieved if they are accompanied by wider/ broad social changes in
the society.
4) Review of Education: The conflict theory suggests that education system should be reviewed
constantly to accommodate the needs and concerns all interested groups including: teachers,
students, parents and administrators.
5) Differences in performance of schools: According conflict theorists, the performance in

different schools is due to or brought by unequal allocation of resources and not necessarily
due intellectual endowment and hard work.
6) Provision of Educational Opportunities: Conflict theorists stress that everybody in the society
should be given a chance/opportunity to continue with education.
7) Organization of Education and Benefits of Education: According to conflict theorists, the

way the education is organized in contemporary societies, some people will benefit from it
more than others.
8) Social Inequality: The conflict theorists see education as a tool used by the ruling classes to
perpetuate social inequality, both by controlling access to education and by training docile
disciplined workers. Conflict theory sees the purpose of education as maintaining social
inequality and preserving the power of those who dominate society. Some conflict theorists
like Max Weber believe education is controlled by the state which is controlled by the
powerful, and its purpose is to reproduce existing inequalities, as well as legitimize
‘acceptable’ ideas which actually work to reinforce the privileged positions of the dominant
group. This theory questions how the education process contributes to equality and
inequality.
9) Modification of Education: Conflict theorists modify education system but not necessarily
destroying it.
10) Maintenance of Power: Conflict theorists see education not as a social benefit or opportunity,
but as a powerful means of maintaining power structures and creating a docile work force for
40
capitalism. From this point of view, the school system is seen as an authority and means of
social control.
11) Maintenance of status quo: conflict theorists see the educational system as perpetuating the
status quo by dulling the lower classes into being obedient workers. According to conflict
theorists, schools train those in the working classes to accept their position as a lower-class
member of society. Conflict theorists call this role of education the “hidden curriculum.”
12) Sorting of Students: conflict theorists argue that schools sort along distinct social classes and
ethnic lines. Conflict theorists argue that schools often perpetuate class, racial-ethnic, and
gender inequalities as some groups seek to maintain their privileged position at the expense
of others.
13) Tool for Discrimination: Educational level, according to conflict theorists, can also be used
as a tool for discrimination, such as when potential employers require certain educational
credentials that may or may not be important for the job. It discriminates against minorities,
working-class people, and women – those who are often less educated and least likely to
have credentials because of discriminatory practices within the educational system.
14) School Testing (Examinations): Conflict theorists contend that school testing which schools
can use to sort students. They argue that the tests, which claim to test intelligence, actually
test cultural knowledge and therefore exhibit a cultural bias. For example: a question may
ask: “Which one of these items belongs in an orchestra? A. accordion B. guitar C. violin D.
banjo.” This question assumes considerable cultural knowledge, including: what an orchestra
is, how it differs from a band, and what instruments comprise an orchestra.
15) Others Implications:
 Testing experts claim they have rid modern exams of such culturally biased questioning, but
conflict theorists respond that cultural neutrality is impossible. All tests contain a knowledge
base, and that knowledge base is always culturally sensitive.
 Conflict theory sees the purpose of education as maintaining social inequality and preserving
the power of those who dominate society.
 Conflict theorists argue that access to quality education is closely related to social class; from
this approach education is a vehicle for reproducing existing class relationships
16) Education reproduces existing class relationships:
 Unequal funding is a source of inequality in education.
41
 Access to colleges and universities is determined not only by academic record but also by the
ability to pay.
 Unveils the interests of the dominant and powerful groups in shaping schooling.
Take Note
 It should be recognized however that it is a model, an aspect of reality

which is an important part of the picture.
 Conflict theorists argue that education perpetuates social stratification
 According to French sociologist, Pierre Bourdieu, the school

legitimatizes and reinforces the social elites by engaging in specific
practices that uphold the patterns of behaviour and attitudes of the
dominant class.
3.8 Consensus and Conflict Theories compared

Consensus and conflict theorists often look at the same society or social component and see different
things. They do so because their perceptions are influenced by different assumptions or concerns.
However, despite their differences, both consensus and conflict use a model of how society as whole
works.
Consensus Theory Conflict Theory
1. Most members of the society share the same norms and 1. Values and norms are not the same for all
values. These are the factors that make society stable; i.e. members of the society but vary according to
norms and values are basic elements of social life. Conflicts position and self -interest; i.e. interests are the
and violence may occur from time to time but they are mere basis of social life. Interests are never identical for
strains which are contained and overcome and society all individuals and groups and division of society
returns to equilibrium. Hence the social systems tend to into different classes with different access to a
persist. variety of privileges, itself generates a conflict of
interest. Consensus is only there for those who
share certain privileges.
Social life involves commitments, for example, cooperation is 2. Social life involves inducement and coercion.
phenomenon that accounts for social stability. Social control is not an expression of group
consensus but oppression of group the powerful.
Leaders seek status quo in order to serve their own
self – interests.
3. Societies are generally cohesive (i.e. united). 3.Social life is necessarily divisive because
organizational set ups encourage inequalities and hence
conflict is inevitable.
4. Social life depends on solidarity. 4.Social generates opposition, exclusion and hostility.
5. Social life is based on reciprocity and cooperation. 5.Social life generates structured conflict by providing
42
different categories of social amenities.
6. Social system rests on consensus. Emphasis is on mutual 6. Social life generates sectional interests.
interdependence of various parts of society.
7. Society recognizes legitimate authority. So long as the 7.Social differentiation involves political power.
leaders and the led share the same values, there should be Political leadership is maintained through power. There
little political conflict; there is agreement on the goals of is no freedom of the press because the powerful elite
society. Government is based on the consent of the
control the press. Radical leaders who are popular are
governed, and therefore people have power over the
government and vice versa. co-opted or eliminated by the rulers so that they don’t
create trouble for them.
8. Social systems are integrated; i.e. the society through its 8.Social systems are mal-integrated and beset by
members and constituent organizations adapts itself to the contradictions; i.e. there is a lot of disagreements in
environment, attains its goals, integrates new members into social systems.
the functioning of the society and manage tensions as they
arise.
9. Social systems tend to persist. 9.Social systems tend to change.
3.9 Summary
Summary
A theory is a set of ideas which provides an explanation for something.
Sociological theory is a branch of sociology which attempts to provide

generalizations concerning social phenomena.
Symbolic interaction is a theoretical framework that envisions society as the

product of the everyday interactions of people doing things together.
Implications of Symbolic Interactionism to Education
• Observation of what is happening in the classroom.

• Teacher expectations/ Teacher Expectancy Effect.”
• interactions during the schooling process and the outcomes of those
interactions
• Classroom Dynamics and interaction processes:
• Ordinary interactions between members in a school
• Use of labels students’ self – concept and their performance in school.
Two Interaction Theories: Labeling Theory and Exchange Theory
Consensus Theory (Structural Functionalism Theory
Consensus or Structural Functionalism is a sociological theory that attempts to

explain why society functions the way it does by focusing on the relationships
43
between the various social institutions.
Implications of Consensus Theory to Educational Practice
• latent role of education as one of socializing people into society's

mainstream
• Transmission of core values and social control.
• Social Control -maintenance of society - ordered society
• manifest role; that is: Conveying basic knowledge and skills to the next
generation
• Socialization of children and teenagers
• Production of experts
• Selection to higher levels of education
• Students’ Performance in school
• Placement to careers/occupations
• To sort and rank individuals for placement in the labour market:
• Sorting of students on the basis of merit:
• Social Placement:
• Networking (making interpersonal connections):
• Differentiated type of education and educational opportunities:
• Preserving and changing culture
• Education is likely to be conservative
Conflict Theory
Conflict theorists see society as an arena of groups and classes in conflict with
each other, each one of them seeking dominance.
Implications of Conflict Theory to Educational Practice
• education is unequally distributed

• Reforms in education should be preceded by changes in the economy and
other social structures
• Improvements in Education - can only be achieved if they are accompanied
by wider/ broad social changes in the society
• education system should be reviewed constantly
• Differences in performance of schools is unequal allocation of resources
• Provision of Educational Opportunities to every one
• Organization of Education and Benefits of Education to benefit a few
people
• Social Inequality - Social Inequality: see education as a tool used by the
ruling classes to perpetuate social inequality,
• Modification of Education
• Maintenance of Power using education
44
• Maintenance of status quo perpetuated by use of education
• Sorting of Students done along distinct lines race,
• Tool for Discrimination: Educational level, according to conflict theorists,
can also be used as a tool for discrimination
• School Testing (Examinations): - test cultural knowledge and therefore
exhibit a cultural bias.
• Education reproduces existing class relationships
Activity
1. How do Sociologists of Education explain the students’ achievement

using symbolic interaction theory?
2. Explain the main features of Symbolic Interactionism
3. Discuss the role of a labeling theory in educational practice
4. What is functionalism?
5. Explain the main features of structural Functionalism
6. Assess the contribution of consensus theory to an understanding of

how education selects and prepares pupils for future work roles.
7. Can you describe how consensus theory is applied in education in

your Kenya?
8. Discuss the main features of Conflict theory
9. Can you relate the idea of this theory to present education system in
Kenya?
10. Using relevant examples, explain the implications of conflict theory

to educational practice.
3.11 References
45
References
Jeanne H. Ballantine (1997) The sociology of Education: A Systematic

Analysis, 4th edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice – Hall
Peil, Margaret and Olatunji Oyeneye. Consensus conflict and Change:

A Sociological Introduction to African Societies, 1998.Est African
Educational Publishers Ltd .Nairobi.
Introduction To Sociology – 1st Canadian Edition chapter 1

https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology/chapter/chapter1 an-
_introduction_to _sociology
46
LECTURE FOUR
The Teaching Profession

Lecture Outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Definition of a profession
4.3.1 Characteristics of a profession
4.4 Development of teaching as a profession
4.5 Status of the teaching profession in Kenya
4.6 Improving the status of the teaching profession in Kenya
4.7 Role of teacher in the school and community
4.8 Summary
4.10 References
4.1 Introduction
This unit is packaged to intimate you with the fundamentals of the teaching profession. It
exposes you to the meaning of the teaching profession and its ingredients. Specifically, you will
study definition of profession, characteristics of a profession, the origin and development of
teaching as a profession, the status of the teaching profession in Kenya and the role of the teacher
in the school and community.
47
i) Define the term profession
ii) Discuss the characteristics of a profession
iii) Trace the origin and development of the teaching profession
iv) Discuss the status of the teaching profession in Kenya
v) Explain the role of the teacher in the school and community
4.3 Definition of a profession
What is considered a profession?
A profession is an occupation founded upon specialized educational training, the purpose of
which is to supply disinterested objective counsel and service to others, for a direct and definite
compensation, wholly apart from expectation of other business gain. A profession is a
disciplined group of individuals who adhere to ethical standards. This group positions itself as
possessing special knowledge and skills in a widely recognized body of learning derived from
research, education and training at a high level, and is recognized by the public as such. In a
nutshell, the term profession is an evaluative term describing occupations.
4.3.1 Characteristics of a profession
According to Shiundu and Omulando (1992) the following are characteristics of a
profession:
 Theoretical knowledge and concomitant skills: professionals are assumed to have

extensive theoretical knowledge and skills which are exercised and practiced. A
profession’s self-confidence is rooted in the knowledge that its personnel are well trained
and well supported.
 Legal recognition and professional closure: professions tend to exclude those who have
not met their requirements nor joined the appropriate professional body.
 Quality pre-service academic and professional preparation: professions usually require at
least three years’ academic accreditation plus professional induction, and a requirement
to demonstrate professional competence in the work place.
 Induction: a period of induction and a trainee role is a prerequisite to being recognized as
a full member of the professional body together with continuous up grading of skills
through professional development.
 Work autonomy: professional retain control over their work and also have control over
their own theoretical knowledge.
 Code of professional conduct or ethics: professional bodies usually have codes of conduct
or ethics for their own members and disciplinary procedures for those who infringe the
rules. A profession’s self-confidence is rooted in the knowledge that its personnel are
well trained and well supported.
 Self-regulation: professional bodies are self-regulating and independent from the
government.
48
 Public service and altruism: services provided are for the public good and altruistic in
nature. Services provided by a profession are central to the well-being of society, and the
practitioner is motivated by the well-being of his clients.
 Mobility: skills, knowledge and authority belong to the professionals as individuals, not
the organization for which they work, and as they move they take their talents with them.
Standardization of professional training and procedures enhance such mobility.
 Professional association: professionals usually have professional bodies organized by
their members intended to enhance their status together with carefully controlled entrance
requirements and membership.
 Professionals’ fees are commensurate with services rendered.
 Members never withhold their services on the basis of material gains. There is a high
sense of responsibility, honesty, dedication and commitment among members which rules
out any form of strike.
Take Note
Professionals deal in matters of vital importance to their clients and are
therefore entrusted with grave responsibilities and obligations. Given
these inherent obligations, professional work typically involves
circumstances where carelessness, inadequate skill, or breach of ethics
would be significantly damaging to the client and/or his fortunes.
4.4 Development of teaching as a profession
The history of teaching can be traced to Confucious (561 B.C.), who was the first famous private
teacher. Many ancient Greeks hired private teachers to educate their children. In the Middle
Ages, learning institutions such as Cambridge University were founded and teacher training
became required. In early American Colonial days, housewives and ministers taught. The
Pilgrims established the first public school in 1635, and this was followed by "dame" schools,
primarily for women. The 1800s brought dramatic changes in the teaching profession. By now,
Massachusetts required all towns with more than 500 families to have a high school for all
students.
There were initiatives aimed at producing teachers to meet demand in Kenya and East Africa
before Kenya's independence. One of the initiatives was the 1960 Teachers for East Africa
Project (TEA), a joint Anglo-America initiative to provide secondary schools teachers for the
rapidly expanding schools in East Africa. A conference was held in December 1960 in the U.S.
state of New Jersey by the American Council on Education to secure secondary teachers for East
Africa. After the conference, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID)
financed the project and the Teachers College of Colombia University recruited the candidates.
Makerere University College in Uganda also launched a postgraduate diploma course for British
teachers who did not have teaching qualifications. After the completion of the course the
teachers were posted to teach in East African schools that included Kenya.
49
To become a teacher before independence, one had to complete only eight years of schooling.
The change from the 4-4 to the 7-4-2-3 system after independence increased the need for more
teacher training institutions. In 1969 there were 24 primary teacher training colleges and two
main universities. The number of trained teachers increased from 2,400 in 1969 to 2,500 in 1970.
In order to meet the demand created by the 1970-1974 educational development plan that almost
doubled school enrollment, the number of trained teachers jumped from 2,900 to 3,475 between
1971 and 1974.
4.5 Status of the teaching profession in Kenya
Teaching today has advanced into the television and computer age, which has changed the
emphasis in teaching. Giving students assignments on TV or the Internet has opened new and
different educational possibilities.
In-Text question
What do you understand by the term 'teaching profession?
The Teaching profession falls short of the measures of a true profession due to the following
 Status of teachers is generally poor as compared to doctors and lawyers. This is

due to low salaries, poor working conditions and terms of service, and poor career
prospects.
 The low levels of qualification as a result of recruiting people with low academic
education and inadequate training due to high numbers of trainees in training
institutions and limited resources.
 Due to recent expansionary pressures and delays in teacher recruitment by the
Teachers Service Commission (TSC) many teachers teach subjects which they
were not trained in.
 Teaching has become a dumping ground for those who cannot make it elsewhere
and for those who use it as a stepping stone to better occupations, and also for
those who feel that, as teachers, they can afford time to do other things. Such
people are not committed to teaching as a career, and profession. These factors
contribute to the erosion of competence and discipline in teaching which causes
the lay public to have low regard for it.
50
 Teachers lack cohesion and are fragmented by qualification level and
specialization. Post-school teachers tend to keep a status distinction between
themselves and the lower level primary school teachers.
 Low remuneration and poor terms of service.
 Poor conditions of working, which lack basic necessities.
 Limited mobility in the profession.
 Bureaucratic controls through client selection. Entry qualifications are controlled
from outside. Teachers have high vulnerability to scrutiny from outside especially
after the release of National Examinations results.
 Aspect of pseudocredentialism i.e., the general assumption that those who know
some content can automatically teach e.g., the idea of untrained teachers which
strongly suggest that teaching does not require any special talents and training.
 Short period of training. Professions are founded on systematic knowledge that
require a lengthy period of study and practical training.
 Teaching profession generally attracts individuals with low academic grades.
 Lack of autonomy. For example teachers are not in control of what they teach
and how they teach it. Other bodies largely determine what teachers teach and
how they teach it. Kenya Institute of Education for example, develops the
curriculum for secondary and primary schools and also prescribes how it is to be
taught. The Directorate of Quality Assurance and Standards monitors curriculum
implementation in schools while, the Kenya National Examinations Council
conducts the summative evaluation of curriculum.
 Lack of homogeneity in the qualifications of teachers weakens organizational
capabilities and common purpose for members of the teaching profession.
 Teachers lack a professional body to address their issues. Existing organizations
are largely trade unions (Kenya National Union of Teacher, KNUT, the Kenya
Union of Post-Secondary Education, and KUPPET).The two unions further
weaken the profession by dividing teachers. Some people have categorically
argued that teaching is not a profession because it lacks the basic characteristics
of a profession, that is, it has not generated a sound body of theoretical knowledge
and a set of technical concepts which would help to
4.6 Improving the status of the teaching profession in Kenya
 In-service training of teachers should take priority. Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005; a
policy Framework for Education, Training and Research articulates the need for
continuous improvement in the quality of services through continuous skills upgrading
for teachers. The rationale for this is to address past weaknesses for practicing teachers
by giving them skills beyond those acquired during their pre-service training.
 Admission to teacher education should be based on high academic grades. It should not
be a career for those who fail to make the grade for other professions.
 The involvement of untrained teachers at any level of education should be discouraged.
 Terms and conditions of employment for teachers should be comparable to those of
other professions. This is likely to attract bright individuals who would otherwise seek
career opportunities in more lucrative fields.
51
 Teacher education must be rooted on commitment to change. This is aimed to prepare
the teacher to be innovative, a researcher and an experimenter.
 Teachers must uphold professional ethics at all times
 Teachers and their unions are striving to make teaching be considered as a profession
through: struggling for better pay, improved terms of service, good working environment
and improved promotion prospects.
 There is also effort to develop the professional status of teachers by improving their
academic and professional qualifications through further education and better training.
 Teachers should establish a professional organization to handle matters of professional
concerns such as formulation and improvement of educational curriculum, teacher
education curriculum, formulate the code of ethics for teachers among others.
4.7 Role of teacher in the school and community
Teachers are best known for the role of educating the students that are placed in their care.
Beyond that, teachers serve many other roles in the classroom. Teachers set the tone of their
classrooms, build a warm environment, mentor and nurture students, become role models, and
listen and look for signs of trouble.
What is the role of the teacher in the school and community?
We shall explain the role of the teacher in the school and community.
 The Controller: The teacher is in complete charge of the class, what students do, what
they say and how they say it. The teacher assumes this role when a new language is
being introduced and accurate reproduction and drilling techniques are needed. In this
classroom, the teacher is mostly the center of focus, the teacher may have the gift of
instruction, and can inspire through their own knowledge and expertise, but, does this
role really allow for enough student talk time? Is it really enjoyable for the learners?
There is also a perception that this role could have a lack of variety in its activities.
 The Prompter: The teacher encourages students to participate and makes suggestions
about how students may proceed in an activity. The teacher should be helping students
only when necessary. When learners are literally ‘lost for words’, the prompter can
encourage by discreetly nudging students. Students can sometimes lose the thread or
become unsure how to proceed; the prompter in this regard can prompt but always in a
supportive way.
 The Resource: The teacher is a kind of walking resource center ready to offer help if
needed, or provide learners with whatever language they lack when performing
communicative activities. The teacher must make her/himself available so that learners
can consult her/him when (and only when) it is absolutely necessary. As a resource the
teacher can guide learners to use available resources such as the internet, for themselves,
it certainly isn’t necessary to spoon-feed learners, as this might have the downside of
making learners reliant on the teacher.
52
 The Assessor: The teacher assumes this role to see how well students are performing or
how well they performed. Feedback and correction are organized and carried out.There
are a variety of ways we can grade learners, the role of an assessor gives teachers an
opportunity to correct learners. However, if it is not communicated with sensitivity and
support it could prove counter-productive to a student’s self-esteem and confidence in
learning the target language.
 The Organizer: Perhaps the most difficult and important role the teacher has to play.
The success of many activities depends on good organization and on the students
knowing exactly what they are to do next. Giving instructions is vital in this role as well
as setting up activities. The organizer can also serve as a demonstrator, this role also
allows a teacher to get involved and engaged with learners. The teacher also serves to
open and neatly close activities and also give content feedback.
 The Participant: This role improves the atmosphere in the class when the teacher takes
part in an activity. However, the teacher takes a risk of dominating the activity when
performing it. Here the teacher can enliven a class; if a teacher is able to stand back and
not become the center of attention, it can be a great way to interact with learners without
being too overpowering.
 The Tutor: The teacher acts as a coach when students are involved in project work or
self-study. The teacher provides advice and guidance and helps students clarify ideas and
limit tasks.
 The Disciplinarian: Helping students to govern their own behavior in ways that help
them learn is a longstanding goal of all teachers. There are a number of ways that a
teacher can promote good discipline in the classroom namely:
 Know school guidelines.
 Be fair, positive and consistent.
 Provide a list of standards and consequences to parents and students.
 Keep your classroom orderly.
 Get to know your students.
 Let the students know you care.
 Treat students with the same respect.
 Begin class on time.
 Make learning fun.
 Praise good work.
53
 Don’t threaten or use sarcasm.
 Avoid arguing with students.
 Be mobile.
 Keep your voice at a normal level.
 Grade assignments and give reasonable assignments.
 Keep rules simple.
 The Counsellor: Each teacher in the school has the obligation to contribute to a perfect
realization of the harmony among cognitive, affective, behaviorist, attitudinal and social
sides of students. In his double quality of teacher and counselor, the teacher holds
activities of assistance, support and prevention of different problems that a student has to
pass through, by ensuring a frame and a climate favorable to his development.
 The Role model: Teachers have long-lasting impacts on the lives of their students, and
the greatest teachers inspire students towards greatness. According to Wang et al. (1994)
teachers link together students, other teachers, school administrators, families, and
community members to foster the learning success and healthy development of their
students. The teacher's role in creating an environment and building relationships
conducive to learning goes beyond the traditional academic duties to include the
provision of additional support and care.
4.8 Summary
There has been much debate today as to whether teaching is a profession

or not. Regardless of the roles they assume, teacher’s shape the culture of
their classrooms, improve student learning, and influence practice and
production.
4.9. Self -Evaluation
1. Explain the concept of a profession.

2. What are the characteristics of a profession?
3. Discuss the status of the teaching profession.
4. Discuss the role of the role of the teacher in the school and
community in today
4.10. References
54
Africa. Lusaka : University of Zambia.
Mugambi, M. and Ochieng, J. (2014). Transforming the image of the
teaching profession in Kenya. International Journal of Education and
Research, 2 (2):65-78.
LECTURE FIVE
Process of Socialization and Education
Lecture Outline
5.1 Introduction
5.3 Definition of Socialization
5.4 Stages of Socialization
5.4.1 Oral stage
5.4.2 Anal stage
5.4.3 Oedipus Latency
5.4.4 Adolescence stage
5.5 Types of Socialization
5.5.1 Status socialization
5.5.2 Role socialization
5.6 Agents of Socialization
55
5.6.1 The Family
5.6.2 Peer group
5.6.3 The School
5.6.4 The Mass Media and
5.6.5 Religion
5.7 Social Isolation
5.7.1 What causes a person to isolate themselves?
5.7.2 Signs of Isolation
5.7.3 Why is isolation so difficult for humans to withstand?
5.7.4 Causes for Social Isolation
6 Effects of Social Isolation
7 Solutions for Social Isolation
8 Effects of Social Isolation on children
9 Summary
10 Activity/Self- Assessment Questions
11 References
5.1Introduction
Welcome to lecture in our sociology of education course. This lecture will discuss our human
being become social and acquire the characteristics that enable to interact with each other. A
person’s physical maturity must be accompanied by a process of social learning if he/she has to
develop as acceptable members of society. Every society has its own ways of
socializing its members into its social ways. Socialization always takes place in social
relationships- relationships in which even young children are active participants.
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
1. Define the concept of socialization

2. Explain the various stages of socialization
3. Describe the various types of socialization
4. Discuss the various agents of socialization
5. Explain the impact of social isolation on socialization and
personality development
5.3 Definition of Socialization

The term socialization has been defined in different ways by different sociologists. In this lecture
we define socialization as follows:
56
• The lifelong process whereby individuals come to acquire a sense of their culture and
develop their human potential
• Socialization process is an all- encompassing educational process from which values,
goals, beliefs, attitudes and gender roles are acquired.
As we continue with the lecture, think about the following question:
Intext Question
What are the Aims/ goals of Socialization?
The answers to this question will emerge as we continue discussing the various sections of this lecture.
Take note of the important points that are relevant in answering the question.
Take Note
 Socialization is the process that prepares humans to function in

social life.
 Socialization is culturally relative - people in different cultures are
socialized differently.
5.4 Stages of Socialization
In this section we will discuss the stages of socialization. Remember that human beings go through
defined stages after they are born. The socialization process continues throughout all stages of human
life. For socialization to be a successful and building-up process, especially in the childhood years, it
must be time-oriented. Also socialization is often characterized by a sequence of events. These events
occur in stages during one’s lifetime.
Intext Question
What stages of socialization do we pass through during the life cycle?
The sections discussed below will provide answer to the question give above.
The four stages are:-
57
1. Oral stage: Infancy: the challenge of trust (versus mistrust).the challenge of autonomy
(versus doubt and shame)
2. Anal stage: the challenge of initiative (versus guilt).
3. Oedipus Latency: (complex): the challenge of industriousness (versus inferiority).
4. Adolescence stage: the challenge of gaining identity, The challenge of intimacy, crises,
conflicts and disagreements between parents and adolescents.
5.4.1 Oral Stage
• During the first year of life, the infant is completely dependent upon other members of
the family, especially the mother.
• The infant builds up fairly definite expectations about feeding time and he learns to signal
his pressing needs for care.
• Communication is only by mouth.
• An infant cries as a way of communicating and it is the parent/guardian to decide what
the cry signifies and provides what the child needs.
• If fixation occurs at this stage, Sigmund Freud believed the individual would have issues
with dependency or aggression.
• Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking or nail biting.
5.4.2 Anal stage (1 -3 years)
• Freud's second psychosexual stage

• The child learns to control and coordinate his muscles.
• They not only learn to walk, talk, appreciate and understand different gestures but by
this period they also learn to control their natural processes.
• The children feel ashamed, if they are condemned by their parents for doing
something wrong.
• At this stage, the parents must allow the child to act independently so that the child
can develop his self- consciousness.
• To develop self –confidence, it is important that parents encourage the children but
also intervene where ever required and must protect them from experiences which can
cause shame and doubt.
5.4.3 Oedipus Latency (complex)
• It is the period of systematic learning (schooling begins), identification of sex roles

and activities, association with peers, etc.
• The stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become more
concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
• It is period of exploration in which the sexual energy is still present, but it is directed
into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions.
• This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and
self-confidence.
58
• Children learn to relate to others in formal and in friendly association and express
themselves reasonably well.
• If at this stage, the children are ignored and humiliated, they develop doubts in regard
to their ability to do things.
• It therefore, results in development of guilt feelings in the child and they get
discouraged in taking initiatives.
• If a child may not perform well compared to other students and thus develop a feeling
of inferiority.
• At this stage, children compare their, dresses, race, material possessions of the family
with each other and these situations may create an inferiority complex in the child
which would adversely affect his real capabilities.
5.4.4 Adolescence Stage
• It is the dawn of adulthood; It begins with the onset for puberty.

• It is however characterized by crises, conflicts and disagreements between parents
and adolescents.
• In seeking to define themselves, adolescents often come into conflict with power and
expectations of their parents and other adults.
• Adolescents tend to test the boundaries of what will be tolerated – by experimenting
with alcohol or illegal drugs or smoking of cigarettes.
• Adolescents are likely to resist parental power in matters of taste, like fashion and
musical preferences.
• This stage marks the transition from childhood to adulthood.
• The person experience many biological changes in the body. Peer groups have an
enormous influence on the socialization at this stage.
• Peer group is the major source of motivation for children and they develop
conventional values of society through his peers because he has full access to them
than he has to his parents.
• At this stage, individuals must have a clear idea about their beliefs and values.
• They must be clear about what is expected from them and what directions they need
to follow; else, they are bound to develop a confused personality.
5.5 Types of Socialization

We turn our discussion to the types of socialization. Two types of socialization can be
distinguished. These are:
(a) Status socialization
(b) Role socialization
These two types of socialization are important to people’s future lives.
5.5.1 Status Socialization
• The concept of status socialization can be defined as the process that involves learning of the
ways of life of the family and the community including religious observances, traditions and
cultural practices.
• In status socialization, the individual is exposed to a broad pattern of socialization.
59
• Status socialization is designed to prepare the individual to occupy a generalized status in
life.
(a) How Status Socialization is Achieved

• Status socialization mainly occurs within the family setting.
• The family unit is the foundation of status socialization.
• The family teaches individuals their:
o History
o Language
o Knowledge
o Skills
o Social skills.
• These help individuals to belong and be integrated in a particular society/community.
(b) The Role of Education in the Achievement of Status Socialization
• The type of education that a child receives is to great extent determined by the nature of
the child’s family, particularly in the Developing countries like Kenya.
• The status one will occupy in society is greatly influenced by the family background.
• Children from the middle and upper class are provided with good opportunities for
education and they consequently occupy higher status in society just like their parents.
• On the other hand, majority of the children from lower class may miss out in education
because the parents may not afford and they end occupying the lower status in society.
5.5.2 Role Socialization
• Role socialization can be defined as the process through which the individual is
prepared for a specific role or vocation in a society.
• Role socialization is the process in which a person incorporates knowledge, skills,
attitude and affective behavior associated with carrying out a particular role– e.g.,
teacher, physician, nurse, technologist, etc.
• Role socialization involves the following steps:
o Step 1: Develop cognitive and psychomotor skills, and affective behaviors
o Step 2: Internalize behavior and values of profession
o Step 3: Individualize professional role
o Step 4: Incorporate professional role into other life roles
(a) How Role Socialization is achieved
• In modern societies role socialization is achieved mainly through well organized school
education.
• The education is geared towards specific vocations.
• Co-curricular activities like sports, scientific clubs, etc. also help individuals to acquire
knowledge and skills that may be useful in the performance of one’s occupation.
60
(b) The Role of Education in the Achievement of Role Socialization
• Education plays a key role in role socialization.

• Modern societies use the school system to train people in the occupations that are needed
in society.
• At post secondary educational institutions, students specialize in certain roles or careers
that they will perform on completion of schooling.
5.6 Agents of Socialization
This section of the lecture will discuss the various agents of socialization. Several
institutional and other sources of socialization exist and are called agents of socialization.
Before we begin the discussion, think of the following question:
Intext Question
What are the most important agents of socialization in Kenya that you
aware of?
Agents of Socialization:
1. Are the people and groups that influence our self-concept, emotions, attitudes, and
behavior.
2. Are the channels through which socialization is carried out.
3. Agencies of socialization are groups or social contexts within which significant processes
of socialization occur or take place.
Main Agents of Socialization:
1) The Family
2) Peers
3) The School
4) The Mass Media
5) Religion
61
5.6.1 The Family
The first major agent of socialization of young children is the family. The early contact in the
family is important in the formation of the self and in developing human identity. This means
that family is:
• The primary agency of socialization.
• The first social world a child encounters
• Family members are the mirror in which children begin to see themselves
• The family has the most impact.
• Provision of basic necessities, nurturing, and guidance.
• Determine one's attitudes toward religion and establishing career goals
• Determines a child’s race, language, religion, class, and all of which contribute heavily to
the child’s self-concept.
• The family is the first group whose norms and values children adopt as their own and
refer to in evaluating behaviour
• The family also introduces children to group life(learning to share family resources,
including space, objects, and parental time and attention).
• Fathers and mothers tend to have different ways of relating to children and so provide
different socialization experiences.
• Family is the primary basis for personal values, attitudes, sex –role socialization and
gender- role socialization.
• Interaction in the family affect the socialization that children experience at home.
62
Intext Question
1) What type families are you aware of that are found among the
people of Kenya?
2) What do you think is the influence of the type of family on

socialization of the children?
• Different types of families have different influences on socialization of the child.

• For example:
a) Single parent household
b) Divorced parents
c) Step parents
d) Married couples
e) Employed women/working women/ mothers
Intext Question
1. Describe one important value or attitude you have that is the

result of socialization by your parent(s)
2. What are children learning from the family members:

1. Mothers
2. Fathers
3. Siblings –brothers, sisters
4. Cousins
5. Aunties
6. Uncles
7. Extended family members; etc.
5.6.2 Peer Group
The second agent of sociaalization is the peer group. The word peer means “equal”.
• Peer groups are friendship groups of children of a similar age
• Peers refer to people who are roughly the same age and/or who share other social
characteristics (e.g., students in a college class).
Think of the following statement/question:
63
Intext Question
Think of the things that you did not know before you joined the
University of Nairobi as a student that you have leant from your friends
at the university?
• A peer group is a social group in which members are usually the same age and have interests
and social position in common.
• Peer groups have a large impact on a child’s socialization; for example: First experience of
equal status relationships (experience with equality).
• Ideal settings for learning norms of sharing and reciprocity (give and take).
• Children begin to break away from their parents’ authority
• Children learn to make friends and decisions on their own.
• Pressure from peers to engage in behavior forbidden by parents, such as skipping school or
drinking alcohol, can be difficult to resist.
• Peer groups can encourage children to honor or violate cultural norms and values.
• The peer groups affect the socialization process both in school and in the neighbourhood.
Intext Question
1) As a teacher you need to ask yourself:

2) “Who is a friend of who in your school? What do they have in
common?
3) As a parent you need to ask yourself: “Who are the friends of
your children?” What/how is /are their characters of these
children?
4) Who are their parents?
The answers to the questions given above provide important information you need to know in
order to assess the character and behaviour of the students you are teaching and your own
children as a parent.
5.6.3 The School
We now turn to the school as an agent of sociaalization. One social agency created to enhance
the processes of socialization and education is the school.
64
The school is an artificial institution set up for the purpose of socialization and cultural
transmission. The school has, in recent years, come to take over some of the former functions of
the family and community i.e. the school has become a primary agency of socialization.
Figure 2: some of the roles of the school in socialization
The school teaches the following:

• the work skills, expectations and rules of the society are passed from one generation
to the next.
• discipline and how to manage time.
• authority and expertise
• skills which to a large extent prepare children for the world of work.
The school reflects what goes on in the wider society.
• The school represents a formal and conscious effort by the society to socialize its young.
• This is done through the content of the curriculum and co-curricular activities.
• Schools also socialize the young through teachers’ attitudes and values that they
communicate to the child.
• Teachers also act as models for students.
A school tries to be a consistent moral influence; for example the school combines the formal
(e.g. classroom teaching, fines, caning, suspension, expulsions, official mention, prizes) and
informal (e.g. peer group influence/pressure) approaches in its socializing function. Conflicts
may arise between parents and school personnel over what should be taught in schools.
Intext Question
1. Teachers as role models – good or bad?
2. What are children learning in school from – pupils, teachers and
headmaster etc.
65
5.6.4 The Mass Media
This section will discuss the up coming and influential agent of socialization; namely the mass
media. We are all familiar with in recent times the mass media has become a major agent of
socialization. The mass media are methods of communication that direct messages and
entertainment at a wide audience.
Media has had a major impact on society (Information age). Many people think the mass media
has replaced the family as most important agent of socialization.
Children exposed to a variety of mass media; i.e. the forms of communication that reach large numbers
of people without coming into contact of the person sending and the one receiving it.
Take Note
• Think of billboard advertisements that you have seen, – what

massages do they carry and their impact of these messages to people
behaviour and character?
• We have all seen and heard advertisements in the TVs and radio
stations, on billboards, etc. what do you think is the influence of these
messages on people’s behaviour?
• More often than not they depict the following:
o Racial and sexual stereotypes,
o violent and sexually explicit images,
o Unrealistic and unhealthy beauty standards
Mass media consists mainly of print media and electronic media. These include: Television,
Radio, Movies, Videos, Records, Tapes, Books, Magazines, Newspapers, Mobile phones,
Internet
The media influences people’s attitudes and opinions. media teaches values and different kinds
of Behaviour; for example:
Newspapers, books, radio, television, films, recorded music and popular magazines bring us into
close contact with experiences of which we would otherwise have little awareness. Mass media
court both very desirable and undesirable influences on social development.
• The television can also have positive effects.
• Experiments show that watching programmes that emphasize sharing, kindness, and
cooperation encourage pro- social behaviour in children.
• Television can be a powerful education tool.
• For example, television brings far-off places into our homes, makes world events immediate,
and introduces us to subjects we might never experience on our own. On the other hand,
66
studies have shown that watching television violence encourages aggression in children;
particularly if the children believe that the violence is real.
• Parents and others are concerned about how television is socializing children.
• They are unhappy with content of many shows, especially the amount of violence they
contain.
• Mass media has profound influence of on children.
• The media provides a variety of opportunities including:
• Provides information
• Contact with others
• Access to consumer culture
• Entertainment
• Education
• Teach about our culture, values, and stereotypes.
• Shapes reality but gives unreality.
• People are spending more time with television and mobile phones than others
5.6.5 Religion
Religion is another important agent of socialization, particularly in the area of values. A large
part of the Kenyan population claims a membership in an organized church or religion.
• Religion may be defined as a system of roles and norms organized around the sacred
realm that binds people together in social groups.
Religion appears in many forms because different societies give sacred meaning to a wide
variety of objects, events, and experiences. The fact that religion is a universal phenomenon,
suggest that it serves essential functions for individuals and for society as whole. Among the
most important of these functions are:
(a) Social Cohesion
(b) Social Control
(c) Emotional Support
(a) Social Cohesion:
• The strengthening of bonds among people.

• Participation in religious rituals and the sharing of beliefs create a sense of belonging that
makes them feel less alone in the world.
• Durkheim found that suicide rates were lowest among those people who had the strongest
attachments to religious groups.
• These attachments served to anchor people to society, providing them with support and
purpose
(b) Social Control
• Encouraging conformity to the norms of the society.

67
• Norms and values surrounding important societal issues may be supported by religious
doctrine.
• Religion also works to maintain the traditional social order by presenting this order as one
commanded by God.
(c) Emotional Support
• To provide emotional support for people during difficult times.

• Religion helps people endure disappointments, suffering, and deprivations by providing
comfort and a belief that harsh circumstances have a special purpose.
• This belief motivates people to survive even when happiness appears out of reach and life
seems hopeless.
• For example people being told they will be prayed for to be cured of HIV/AIDs, or to
become rich, etc.
5.8. Social Isolation
The last section of this lecure delas with the important concept of social isolation as it relates to
socialization. Socialization: The Key to Our Humanity and personality. Remember: Socialization
is the lifelong social experience by which individuals develop their human potential and learn
culture. Social experience is also the foundation for the personality, a person’s fairly consistent
patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting.
Social isolation is defined as having little or no contact with other people. It usually lasts for
extended periods of time.
• Social isolation (sometimes also referred to as social exclusion) can be defined as a state
of a lack of contact between an individual and society.
• Social isolation is a state of complete or near-complete lack of contact between an
individual and society. ...
• Social isolation can be an issue for individuals of any age, though symptoms may differ
by age group.
• Social isolation is defined as having little or no contact with other people.
• Social isolation is different from loneliness, in that loneliness is a state of emotion that is
felt by individuals who are not satisfied with their social connections.
• Therefore, a person who is experiencing social isolation does not always experience
loneliness, especially in cases where social isolation is voluntary.
• In addition, loneliness can also be temporary whereas social isolation can lasts anywhere
from a few weeks to years.
• Isolation is the experience of being separated from others.
• It may result from being physically separated from others, such as when a person lives in
a remote area.
68
• Isolation can also result from being emotionally removed from a community.
Take Note
• Imagine being confined to a small, dark room, with no social

interaction whatsoever for 30 days.
• Not many people would jump at this opportunity.
• The effects of isolation can become even more pronounced if you
experience it in total darkness, causing both physical and
psychological consequences.
In the nineteenth century there was an intense debate regarding the relative importance of nature
(biology) and nurture (socialization) in the shaping of human behavior.
Modern sociologists view nurture as much more important than nature in shaping human
behavior.
Studies of twins (including identical twins) shows that socialization and heredity both contribute
to human development
Isolation has Profound Effects on the Human Body and Brain
“Too much self-centered attitude, you see, brings, you

see, isolation. Result: loneliness, fear, anger. The
extreme self-centered attitude is the source of
suffering.” Dalai Lama, Leader
Intext Question
1) What would happen if a child was reared in total isolation from other
people?
2) What effect does isolation in childhood have on development?
The sections below provide a discussion to answer the above questions.
5.8.1 What causes a person to isolate themselves?
• People who struggle with mental health issues are perhaps the most isolated social group.
• Depression can cause people to isolate themselves.
69
• A person can isolate themselves from others; or worse, the society inflicts isolation on the
person with mental illness.
5.8.2 Signs of Isolation
• Deep boredom, general lack of interest and withdrawal.

• Losing interest in personal hygiene.
• Poor eating and nutrition.
• Significant disrepair, clutter and hoarding in the house.
Example
• But, in November 2018, a professional US poker player Rich Alati bet US$100,000 that
he could survive 30 days alone and in total darkness.
• He was kept in a small, completely dark room with nothing but a bed, fridge and
bathroom.
• Even with all the resources he needed to survive, Alati couldn't last the month.
• After 20 days he negotiated his release, taking a payout of US$62,400.
5.8.3 Why is isolation so difficult for humans to withstand?

• One of the reasons that living in isolation is difficult is because humans are social creatures.
• Many people that have lived in isolated environments – such as researchers stationed in
Antarctica – report that loneliness can be the most difficult part of the job.
• Yossi Ghinsberg, an Israeli adventurer and author who survived weeks alone in the Amazon, said
that loneliness was what he suffered from most and that he had created imaginary friends to keep
himself company.
• Loneliness can be damaging to both our mental and physical health.
• Socially isolated people are less able to deal with stressful situations.
• They're also more likely to feel depressed and may have problems processing information.
• This in turn can lead to difficulties with decision-making and memory storage and recall.
5.8.4 Causes for Social Isolation
There are several causes of social isolation.

• Some people voluntarily choose to isolate themselves from others.
• For example, an eccentric person may choose to have very little contact with other
people.
• However, in most cases, social isolation is involuntary.
70
• Social isolation is especially common in individuals who suffer from conditions that are
stigmatized, such as COVID19
1. Mistrust 8. Burnout 14. Loss of family
2. Frustration 9. Bullying members or friends
3. Lack of self- 10. Homelessness 15. Unemployment
confidence 11. Poverty
4. Mental issues 12. Lack of respect for
5. Physical health society
issues 13. Stigmatized
6. Diseases alternative styles of living
7. Fatigue
3 5.9 Effects of Social Isolation
• Social isolation can have many adverse effects for individuals as well as for society as a
whole.
• True social isolation over years and decades can be a chronic condition affecting all
aspects of a person's existence
• Social isolation decreases immune function and increases the chronic inflammation
connected with many illnesses like arthritis, heart disease, and diabetes.
1. Loneliness 7. Lack of social 11. Self-harm
2. Mental issues skills 12. High blood
3. Lack of help 8. Narrow-minded pressure
4. Radical movements thinking
13. Drug use
5. Lower life 9. Higher risk for
expectancy unemployment
6. Hallucinations 10. Sleeping problems
5.9.1 Effects of Social Isolation on children
Research on the effects of social isolation has demonstrated the importance of socialization. All
the evidence points to the crucial role in social development in forming personality. Harry and
Margaret Harlow’s experimental work with rhesus monkeys. Studies of isolated children such as
Anna, Isabelle, and Genie.
Children who are raised in isolation, cut off from all but the most necessary human contact, do
not acquire basic social skills, such as language and the ability to interact with other humans.
Effects of isolation on non-humans (monkeys) have shown that their behavior was passive and
anxious. This is in spite of the fact that monkeys had been provided with adequate nutrition.
Isolation of children from their families has similar effects.
71
Feral children are children who have been raised in isolation. Studies of such children show that
the absence of parental love and nurturance damages the individual's ability to become a social
person.Classic Examples of Isolated Children:
(a) The case Isabelle
(b) The case of Genie
(c) The case of Anna
(d) Children Brought up in Orphanages
Isabelle’s Case
Isabelle was an illegitimate child brought up in seclusion by her mute-deaf mother. She could not
speak for she had been brought up by a person who used gestures.
Results of isolation
The child could not speak, made animal like sounds could not walk, crawled around with hands
and legs, ate with hands, she behaved like six month baby she appeared mentally retarded and
mute.
Results of intense social training
• At the age of 61/2 years when she was discovered, efforts were made to socialize her through
intensive, language programmers and interaction with other normal people.
• Within two years, she was able to learn all the language she ought to have learnt.
• The sociologist who studied Isabelle concluded that most of the mental and social traits that
we consider inborn actually don’t manifest themselves until put there through
communication with other human beings. They develop through the process of socialization.
The case of Genie

In 1970, a 13 –year -old Californian girl named Genie was discovered in a room where she had
been confined since the age of 20 months. She had been confined to small bed room by her
father, a man who hated children. Genie spent her days tied to an infant’s potty chair and her
nights wrapped in a sleeping bag enclosed in a mesh-covered crib. During her years of isolation,
no family member had spoken to her, nor could she hear anything.
Since there no television or radio in her home, she had never listened to the sounds of normal
human speech. Her world was almost totally silent, and she was beaten when she made noise.
Whenever, Genie’s father interacted with her, he acted like wild dog, barking, growling, and
baring his teeth. Consequently, Genie did not learn to talk.The room in which Genie spent all her
time was bare except the potty chair, the crib, two partially covered windows, a bare light bulb
and a closet.
72
Sometimes two plastic coats hung outside the closet and Genie was allowed to play with them.
Her only other toys consisted of things such as empty spools of thread and an empty cottage
cheese container. Genie’s ordeal included being locked alone in a garage. When Genie was
found, she could not stand straight and had the social and psychological skills of a one-year –old
child.
Genie was emaciated (weighing only fifty nine pounds) and had the mental development of one
– year –old. When Genie was found, she could not stand straight and had the social and
psychological skills of a one-year old child.
Training Therapy
One year after beginning extensive training therapy, Genie’s grammar resembled that of a typical
18 –month – old child. She made further advances as her therapy continued but was unable to
achieve full language ability. Even after eight years of training, Genie had not progressed past
the level of a four year –old. Even after years of care, her ability to use language remained that of
a young child and lived in a home for developmentally disabled adults. Like other children
subjected to prolonged isolation, Genie never did develop a normal facility with language.
Figure 3: Genie
Figure 4: Genie Grandfather’s House
73
Figure 5; Genie’s Grandfather
Anna’s Case
Born in 1932 to unmarried, mentally retarded mother. The child was not accepted by
grandfather. She grew up in attic room for five years alone. She received very little attention
and just enough milk and food to keep her alive. There was very little human contact.
74
Results of isolation:
The child was emaciated, feeble and unable to laugh, smile, speak or even shown anger. She was
completely unresponsive. When she was discovered by a social worker she was given intensive
social contact.
Training Therapy: Result:
At the age of eight her mental and social development was still less than that of a two year old.
She started to grasp language at the age of ten (10). She died at shortly there after.
5.9.2 Cases of Children Brought up in Orphanages
Children who grow up in orphanages lag behind in language and intellectual development. This
is because interaction with grown-ups is minimal.
One group of infants living in foster home were given proper food and medical care. Yet within
a two-year period an usually high proportion of children died from a variety of ailments. They
seem to have wasted away from a lack of foundling, cuddling and love. The nurses though well
trained and efficient had little time for those things. The majority of survivors ranging in age
from two to four years, fewer than 25 percent could even walk by themselves. And only one
could speak in sentences.
5.10 Conclusion
Examples cited suggest that human interaction is vital for normal development of an individual
socially, physically, psychologically and intellectually. Social isolation is a significant global
problem. There are several causes for social isolation, including mental and also physical health
issues. Social isolation often implies a lower quality of life for the affected people.
It may also translate into physical harm for others if these people become victims of
radicalization. Thus, it is crucial to effectively fight social exclusion in order to improve the
quality of life for all of us.
4 The diagram below illustrates the issue of social isolation in terms of causes, effects and
soulutions to social isolation. Solutions for Social Isolation
While the impact of total isolation can be severe, the good news is that these effects are
reversible. Exposure to daylight can normally correct sleep-wake patterns – though this might
take weeks, or even months in some cases, before it's fully adjusted.
1. Community programs 4. Fight poverty
2. Contact relatives to restore old 5. Be more tolerant
relations 6. Join clubs or associations
3. Fight homelessness 7. Eat healthier
75
8. Create friendships 11. Education
9. Explore new hobbies 12. Psychological help
10. Volunteering
76
5.11 Summary
Socialization is the lifelong process whereby individuals come to acquire

a sense of their culture and develop their human potential
The four stages of socialization are:- Oral stage; Anal stage; Oedipus
Latency; and Adolescence stage
Two types of socialization are: Status socialization and Role

socialization. Education plays a key role in achievement of these two
types of socialization.
Agents of Socialization are the channels through which socialization is

carried out. These main agents are: The Family; Peer group; The School;
The Mass Media and Religion
Social isolation is defined as having little or no contact with other

people. Children who are raised in isolation, cut off from all but the most
necessary human contact, do not acquire basic social skills, such as
language and the ability to interact with other humans.
Feral children are children who have been raised in isolation.
There are several causes of social isolation.
Social isolation can have many adverse effects for individuals as well as
for society as a whole.
While the impact of total isolation can be severe, the good news is that
these effects are reversible.
Classic Examples of Isolated Children: The case Isabelle, The case of

Genie, The case of Anna and Children Brought up in Orphanages
Activity
1) Define and explain the stages of socialization that an individual goes
through before adulthood.
2) Using experiences from your school, discuss the problems that adolescents
face while growing up.
3) Discus how each of the stages discussed in this lecture affect children’s
teaching and learning.
4) Briefly describe one example of how peers influenced you or someone you
know in a way that you now regard as negative.
5) Discuss the role of the school in socialization of the young children.
Illustrate your answer with examples.
6) What is the impact of isolating children from other human beings

when they are young on their behaviour patterns?
7) Define the concept of social isolation

8) Discuss the effect extended period of isolation on the development of
a child
9) How does social isolation of child affect his/future learning?
5.13 References
Jeanne H. Ballantine 1997 The sociology of Education: A

Systematic Analysis, 4th edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice - Hall
Introduction To Sociology – 1st Canadian Edition chapter 5

https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology/chapter/chapter5
-socialization/
Ezewu, Edward, (1983).Sociology of Education, Longman

Group Ltd. Essex.
https://environmental-conscience.com/social-isolation-causes-
effects-solutions/
https://study.com/academy/lesson/social-isolation-definition-
causes-effects.html
LECTURE SEVEN
Social Stratification, Social Mobility and Education.
Lecture Outline:
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Definition.
7.3.1Types of Stratification.
7.4. Patterns of Social Stratification
7.5. Social Class and Social Status
7.6. Social stratification In Kenya

7.7. The Effect of Social Stratification on School Education
7.7.1 The dropout phenomenon in schools
7.7.2 Public versus Private Schools
7.7.3 Urban versus rural schools
7.8. Social Mobility and Education

7.9 Types of Mobility
7.10 Influence of Social Mobility on Education
7.11 Summary
7.12 Activity
7.13. References
7.1 Introduction
All human societies from the simplest to the most complex have some form of social inequality. In areas we come
from, there are those inhabited by well of members of the society and those considered for the poor. In families
there are those classified as rich while others are regarded as poor. In education, some schools are termed as those
attended by children of the rich while others are attended by children from poor families. This lesson is based on
social stratification and school education. Areas analyzed include social economic status and its effect on
education, the dropout phenomenon in schools, public versus private schools, urban versus rural schools, facilities
and performance, and social mobility and performance.

By the end of the lecture, students should be able to:
1. Define the concept of social stratification and types of
stratification.
2. Define the concept of social class.
3. Explain the influence of social class and educational opportunity.
4. Explain the relationship between social class and academic
performance
7.3 Definition.
Social stratification division of members of society into social layers or ranks. The term
stratification is a word derived from “strata” or layers as used in geology to refer to the way
layers of rocks are laid on top of each other. When applied to Sociology, strata are the different
positions in which people are arranged in a hierarchy.
Social stratification therefore refers to the presence of social groups that are ranked one above
the other usually in terms of the amount of power, prestige, rewards and wealth that their
members possess. Those who belong to a particular group or stratum will have some common
interests and a common identity. They will share a similar lifestyle, which to some degree will
distinguish them from members of other social strata.
Mbiti (1974) defines stratification as “the division of a population into two or more layers each
of which is relatively homogeneous and between which there are differences in privileges,
restrictions, rewards and obligations.” He further points out that social stratification
demonstrates ranking orders in society and often demonstrates social inequality.
Ezewu (1983) states that society is divided into specific layers into which individuals are fitted
and categorized. Each of these layers is called a stratum and the process of categorizing and the
way members of each stratum relate to one another is called social stratification.
According to Jarry and Jarry(1991) social stratification refers to the hierarchically organized
structures of social inequality (ranks, status groups, etc) which exist in society.
7.3.1 Types of Stratification.
There are many types of stratification but four main types of social stratification are;
a) Slavery
b) Caste
c) Feudal/Estate,
d) Social class
a) Slavery
Slavery is the forceful condition of having to work for somebody without renumeration or
appreciation. Slavery is a legalized form of social inequality for individuals or groups. A slave is
occupant of the lowest class in a human society forced by the upper class to do the hard work for
no pay
Main sources of slaves in the past were the captives of war and piracy or weaker precolonial
independent African communities by use of European superior weapons
Modern slavery is in form of labourers and maids/house servants working in foreign countries.
Other forms of slavery are Illegal immigrants in the industrialized countries and young women
trapped in organized prostitution in Europe having being lured with promise for employment
b) Caste.
The caste system is another example of a rigid form of social stratification. Caste, a
uniquely Indian social institution has been a central influence on the lives of Indians and their
communities for millennia. India’s caste system is a social structure that divides different groups
into ranked categories. Members of “higher” castes have a greater social status than individuals
of a “lower” caste. Individuals are born into a position in the hierarchy and roles are ascribed
without regard for that person’s unique characteristics. The justification for this stratification is
based on religious grounds making it hard for members to adapt to social changes. Myth holds
that these groups were created from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of an ancient character
called Purusha.
The Hindu society in traditional India is divided into five main strata as follows:
i. The Brahmins- the highest caste of priests and religious people. They personify
purity, sanctity and holiness. They were the source of learning, wisdom and truth.
They were the only ones to perform important religious ceremonies. The
Brahmins were custodians of the law and the legal system that they administered
was based largely on their pronouncements. In a large rural economy, the
Brahmins tended to be the largest landowners and they monopolized the control of
land.
ii. Kshatriya- rulers and administrators- ie, a Kshatriya is a member of the warrior caste. The
traditional function of the Kshatriyas is to protect society by fighting in wartime and governing in
peacetime
iii. Vaisya - merchants and farmers ie assigned to traditional roles in agriculture and cattle-rearing, but
over time they came to be landowners, traders and money-lenders. Therefore, making it their
responsibility to provide sustenance for those of higher class, since they were of lower class.
iv. Sudras - manual workers. one of the lowest of the four varnas of the Hindu social order in India.
Sudra's main role in life is to work for the other three caste or 'Varna's'. The Shudras are usually
laborers, peasants, artisans, and servants. In some cases, they participated in the coronation of
kings. Shudra's face a large amount of discrimination from higher caste.
v. The “untouchables- at the other end also known as Dalits. They were defined as unclean, base and
impure, a status which affected all social relationships. They had to perform the unclean and
degrading tasks such as the disposal of dead animals. They were segregated from members of other
castes and lived on the outskirts of the villages and in their own communities. They were degraded
to the extent that if the shadow of an untouchable fell across the food of a Brahmin, the food was
considered unclean and polluted (Haralambos & Holborn 1990)
Activity
Write short notes on the law outlawing discrimination based on social class in
India.
c) Feudal System
Feudal society is a military hierarchy in which a ruler or lord offers mounted fighters a fief
(medieval beneficium), a unit of land to control in exchange for a military service. The
individual who accepted this land became a vassal, and the man who granted the land become
known as his liege or his lord. In the feudal system of medieval Europe, social stratification was
based on land. The more land an individual controlled the greater his or her wealth, power and
prestige.
A feudal society has three distinct social classes: a king, a noble class (which could include
nobles, priests, and princes) and a peasant class. Historically, the king owned all the available
land, and he portioned out that land to his nobles for their use. The nobles, in turn, rented out
their land to peasants.
The landless, and in less industrialised countries, are usually at the bottom of the social
hierarchy. Land was held by the landlords while poor and the landless were allowed to use the
land in return for the free domestic and military services.
Social stratification has also been identified in East European communist societies. The society
is divided into white-collar intelligentsia (professional, management and administrative
position), skilled manual positions, lower or unqualified white-collar positions and unskilled
manual positions. Top administrators, managers and professionals are accorded the highest
prestige with the unskilled manual forming the base of the prestige hierarchy (Haralambos &
Holborn 1990)
d). Social Class

A system of dividing people into social ranks on the basis of level of education, occupation and
income. There are three (3) major social classes:
i. High socio-economic status the rich and the very rich e.g. successful business
people, senior civil servants, airline pilots and professionals (3%).
ii. Middle socio-economic status moderately rich e.g. senior professionals,
university lecturers, and owners of large businesses (13%), and
iii. Low socio-economic, poor and those with low or little education e.g. semi-skilled
manual, small traders, house servants, peasant farmers, casual labourers (84%).
Members of a particular stratum have a common identity, similar interests and lifestyle. They
enjoy or suffer unequal distribution of rewards in society as members of different social groups.
There is a tendency for members of each stratum to develop their own “Subculture” that is,
certain norms, attitude and values which are distinctive to them as a social group.
Members of the lowest stratum tend to have a fatalistic attitude towards life. This attitude
becomes part of their subculture and is transmitted from generation to generation. They tend to
see circumstances as largely unchangeable and view life as composed of luck and fate rather
than individual effort.
All social systems share certain functional prerequisites, which must be met if the system is to
survive and operate efficiently. Davies and Moore (1945) state that stratification is universally
necessary due to the requirement of any society to motivate individuals to fill important social
positions. Unequal rewards, including income are seen as a means whereby scarce talents are
allocated to important positions. They describe social inequality as ‘an important
unconsciously evolved device by which societies ensure that the most important positions
are conscientiously filled by the most qualified persons’ (David and Moore 1945).
However, this view has been challenged in that opportunities to develop skills are not equal in
systems of stratification. Birth and inheritance of social positions are important and recruitment
in the elite system is routinely influenced by other factors other than talent.
A person’s position in a stratification system has an important effect on many areas of life. It
may enhance or reduce life’s chances in obtaining those things defined as desirable and avoiding
those defined as undesirable in their society. For example, it influences chances of staying
healthy and higher education. No social stratum is self-sufficient and must rely on other groups.
7.4. Patterns of Social Stratification

There are various patterns of social stratification identified through the different shapes or
structural profiles, for example the steepness of hierarchy and the number of steps in the
hierarchy of different systems. These patterns portray forms of inequality based on unequal
rewards including income and status grouping or classes. Members of a strata share a common
relation to the means of production and they remain identified through levels of education and
culture that set them apart from other stratums (Jarry and Jarry 1991). Below are some of the
patterns in social stratification:
a) Steep Pyramid Structure
Some societies including many traditional agrarian civilizations exhibit a steep pyramid
structure, with the elite being at the apex and the unemployed at the base. The upper class
may include the bourgeoisie, while the middle class includes the superior and petty
bourgeoisie, the working class may include the skilled and the unskilled and finally the
unemployed.
b) Diamond Shaped Structure

Modern western societies can be represented as having a diamond shaped structure. The
upper class is at the apex and consists of the elites such as businessmen (Bill Gates) and
industrialists. The upper middle class consists of professionals and politicians. The lower
middle class consists of the majority of the population. These include administrators,
teachers, doctors, those in permanent employment and skilled manual positions. The
lower class consists of unskilled manual positions, casual labourers and the unemployed.
c) Two class structure
This is the Marxian conception of capitalist society. It has the ruling class and the
dominant class. In this class structure, society is seen as increasingly polarizing into two
great hostile classes, the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and the proletariat (Working class).
The bourgeoisie exploit the proletariat by paying less than the value of their labor.
Through their private ownership of the means of production, the bourgeoisie frustrate the
collective and social interest of the proletariat (Jary and Jary1991).
Capitalist class
Proletariat
(Working class)
d) Three or more class Structures

This is a more complex three or more class structure. It is a class structure in modern
western societies. The upper class consists of the elites. The middle class consists of
professionals and politicians. The working class consists administrators, those in
permanent employment and skilled manual positions. The underclass consists of
unskilled manual positions and casual laborers. It also includes those in slum areas, those
in illegal businesses and asylum seekers.
Upper class
Middle class
Working class
Under class
e). Three structures
This class structure is common in many third world countries, Kenya included. The ruling class
comprises the economic elite. In Kenya, they comprise of the very wealthy who are influential in
policy and decision-making. They are major owners of the means of production, company
directors, top managers, high professionals and senior civil servants. Many are large
shareholders in private industry. The power of the upper class is derive from ownership and
control of the means of production (Sunday Nation, 2003).
The middle class consists of highly rewarded professionals such as Doctors, Lawyers,
Architects, Senior Managers and Senior Administrators. It also includes judges, barristers,
solicitors, engineers, lawyers, lecturers and accountants. They are influential in policy and
decision-making. Some are owners of the means of production, directors, managers and
shareholders in private industry.
In Kenya the lower class comprises the majority. These are manual, non-manual workers and the unemployed. The
non-manual workers include nurses, clerks, social workers, and accountants. The manual workers include peasant
farmers, masons, carpenters and those in the Jua Kali sector. They are the subordinate group with little influence in
policy and decision-making. Many have little or no assets. There main concern is survival. The power of the
working class derives from communalism.
Ruling class
Middle class
Lower class
7.5. Social Class and Social Status

Social status is used to refer to a typically effective claim to positive or negative privilege with
respect to social prestige. Social class is subjective and is based on:
i. The mode of living, that is, life style
ii. A formal process of education related to the acquisition of the corresponding life-
style; and
iii. The prestige of birth or of one’s occupation
Property and managerial positions are not in themselves sufficient to lend the holder a certain
social status. Propertied and property-less may share the same social status. The class of an
officer (military), a civil servant and a college student may be widely different in economic
terms but their social status remains the same since they adhere to the same lifestyle as a result
of their common education.
Status has much to do with prestige although it may go together with class. For example, some
aristocratic families, which are considerably wealthy, can be compared to some rich business
people. From a property point of view, they belong to the same class, but they do not have the
same social status because the aristocrat will have a higher prestige and is therefore more
revered.
7.6. Social stratification In Kenya

The highest status in many communities in Kenya used to be the traditional ruler. He performed
multiple roles ranging from administration of the affairs of the community to constituting the
community courts. A class of elders who were internally ranked from the most senior to the
junior followed him. Lastly, there were the commoners. In the Masai community for example,
authority and prestige was determined by age. Each community was organized according to age
groups, each of which had specifically assigned responsibilities in the community. Traditional
rulers children received education which was different from that received by the children of
commoners.
At the advent of school education, indigenous leaders gave way to a new class of people
enjoying high prestige and authority. Education became firmly established as a potent vehicle
for moving into the ranks of colonial administration as well as the clergy and trades. The new
breed of the educated were not necessarily the sons of the traditional rulers, as rulers prevented
their sons going to school since they wanted them to be prepared for the throne. It was this
people who were not rulers that became the leaders after the attainment of political
independence thus destroying the traditional indigenous class system (Bogonko 1992).
Social stratification was also evident during the colonial era and factors affecting current
academic achievement in schools in Kenya are traceable as far back as this era. During
colonialism, schools were in three major categories, European, Asian and African schools. Little
financial assistance was given to schools for Africans. From 1947 to 1957, Africans or 97 % of
the population received 38% (806,000 pounds) of the vote of education while the Europeans
and Asians accounting for only 3% of the population received the balance (Bogonko, 1992).
African schools were restricted due to limited finances at their disposal, and the social and
occupational roles to which they were destined. European Schools had better facilities. Asians
managed because of their strong economic and religious bases to create a viable Asian school
system supported mainly through self-help. Therefore, while the European and Asian schools
had better facilities, better-qualified teachers and students from rich families, the African schools
had poor infrastructure with the majority of teachers being untrained.
After independence the education system in Kenya was segmented along socio- economic lines
with the rich taking their children to the former European and Asian schools while the poor took
their children to the former African Schools. While the former European and Asian schools were
well endowed with facilities, the African schools were ill equipped. This affected the overall
performance (Sifuna 1986).
Currently, Kenyan schools tend to be ranked by parents and students according to their
perceived ability to guarantee education and social mobility. The classification corresponds with
the structural features so that the well-endowed schools rank highest in public estimation and
entering them is very competitive. Class structure corresponds to the distribution of better-
qualified teachers, availability of facilities and better performance in Kenya Certificate of
primary Education.
Learners in Kenya can be divided into three major socio-economic categories: high, middle and
low socio-economic statuses.
5 High Class
Families of learners from the high socio-economic category comprises of the very wealthy in
Kenya, who are the dominant group, influential in policy and decision- making. They enjoy
effective power. They are major owners of the means of production, company directors, top
managers, high professionals and senior civil servants. Many are large shareholders in private
industry. The powers of these families derive from ownership and control of the means of
production (Sunday Nation, 2003).
6 Middle Class
Families of learners from the middle socio-economic category comprises of the wealthy in
Kenya, who are economically stable but not as empowered as the ruling class. The upper middle
class consists of highly rewarded professionals, senior managers and senior administrators. They
include judges, barristers, solicitors, architects, doctors, dentists, and engineers. The lower
middle class includes lawyers, lecturers and accountants. They are influential in policy and
decision-making. They enjoy power. Some are major owners of the means of production,
directors, managers and shareholders in private industry.
7 Working class
In Kenya the working class comprises manual and non-manual workers. The non-manual
workers include nurses, clerks, social workers, and accountants. The manual workers include
peasant farmers, masons, carpenters and those in the Jua Kali sector. They are the subordinate
group with little influence in policy and decision-making. Many have little or no assets. There
main concern is survival. The power of the working class derives from communalism.
7.7. The Effect of Social Stratification on School Education

Social stratification affects education due to different privileges that places families at different socio-economic
statuses which influences academic achievement of learners.
Socio- economic status can be defined as the social and economic position of an individual or a
family in any given society determined by such factors as the level of education, occupation and
income. The socio-economic status (S.E.S.) of a family has been acknowledged to affect
positively or negatively the schooling of that family. Experience and research findings show that
the higher the socio-economic status of a family, the more likely it motivates its children to learn
in school and consequently to succeed in learning (Ezewu, 1983). Below are some examples of
how socio economic status affects schooling in Africa as a whole and Kenya in particular:
a) Early attendance of school

People of high socio- economic status send their children to school earlier than those of low-
socio-economic status. This is because they have the means and opportunities of sending them to
nursery schools as early as two years. They also know the importance of taking their children
earlier as they join the labour market earlier and hence occupy jobs before others. Wealthy and
better-educated parents utilize private nursery schools that deploy resources in a manner that
creates pre-school conditions, which are conducive to a successful school performance. They
also provide initial advantages, which are difficult to match among the poor, uneducated and
rural Kenyans.
Families with a high socio economic status prepare their children for school more adequately
than those with low socio economic status, as a result, children coming from wealthy
background are often more ready to learn as they enter the primary school level and
consequently stand better chances of succeeding in their studies as compared to families with
low socio -economic status.
b) Provision of books and other materials

People of high socio economic status usually earn a higher income and place more value on
school education than those of low socio-economic income status. They are likely to posses’
financial means and willingness to provide their children with books and necessary school
materials and spend a proportion of their income on books. They purchase books, educational
toys and read to their children at home, while parents from low socio economic status may lack
the money to purchase books and the quest for survival makes it impossible for them to create
time for their children. Children in low social status schools share books and materials and it
becomes difficult for teachers to give homework while those from high socio economic status
have individual textbooks and reference books. They can always read ahead of the teacher.
c) Attendance at the best school available

Some schools are more prestigious than others and attract the best-qualified teachers and receive
the attention of the government. Children from high socio-economic status families attend
prestigious schools. These families in order to maintain their status do everything possible to
ensure that their children attend the best nursery and primary schools to guarantee admission to
highly placed secondary schools, the entrance to which is very competitive. The schools have all
the facilities.
Highly educated families ensure that their offspring’s are schooled in superior institutions
increasing influence of home background upon access to good schools and subsequent
scholarships. The parents can afford to take their children for private tuition during weekends
and in the evenings after school. Children from poor backgrounds may lack extra coaching and
textbooks. Fees and other amenities in these schools push children from poor families out of
such schools. Parents deliberately demand for extra facilities thus pushing others out.
d) Encouragement in school education
A family may be supportive, neutral or antagonistic to school education. The value to which a
family attaches school education determines the motivation with which its children pursue such
education. Children from low socio economic status are involved in other activities in the home
after school or during holidays, such as businesses or manual labour for basic survival. These
results in constant absenteeism and late coming. This is bound to have a diverse effect on
academic achievement. In high socio economic status families, there are house helps to carry out
house chores and therefore, the learner’s study time is not interfered with.
Parental reaction to poor performance in school has an impact on performance. High socio
economic status families tend to show more concern over their children’s poor performance at
school. Most teach their children, encourage them and help them improve in poorly performed
subjects or take them for tuition classes. On the other hand, even if low socio economic status
families worry over their children’s poor performance, they are not always able to coach them.
Many are semi illiterate and their low income cannot enable them to take their children for
tuition. To some of these parent’s, basic survival is given more prominence than education.
In high socio economic status families’ parents are very influential and through this influence,
coupled by their high expectation in education, they are able to provide both support and bring
pressure to bear on teachers so that teachers do their best to ensure that learners perform well.
There is close supervision of learners and remedial classes. Parents are able to give tokens of
appreciation for good performance and this gives motivation factor to teachers to perform even
better. In low cost primary schools, parents may not visit the schools unless compelled to do so.
Many are unable to contribute money to be used as motivation for learners and teachers.
Indirectly, poor parents may through talking discourage their children from doing well in school.
They may talk of difficulties in getting school fees and other facilities.
e) Provision of a good model English
English is the language of instruction in most primary schools. Children from families with a
high socio economic status usually speak good English before going to school. This is so
because parents with their own good educational background can provide sound models of
English at home for the children to learn from. These children are provided with children’s
books which stimulate them, greatly fascinating the learning of English and other subjects.
Those from low socio economic backgrounds may use English only while at school and are at
times extremely handicapped. They are usually spoken to at home in mother tongue. This makes
them disadvantaged as they start school at a lower status than those from high socio economic
status.
f) Development of interest in school Activities

An all round education should develop the mental and physical potential of the learner as well as
character. Parents from low socio economic status homes show less interest in school activities
than parents from high socio economic status homes (Ezewu; 1983). Parents from high socio
economic status families are interested in both academic subjects and varied school activities.
The home and surroundings of pupils from low socio economic status scarcely have the facilities
or even space for sporting activities. Parents from high social economic status show interest in
what goes on in school. They support these activities and by extension motivate their children.
g) Academic and job aspirations

The academic aspirations of school children are positively related to the socio economic status
of their parents. Children tend to imitate their parents and so aspire to be as highly educated as
their parents. More pupils from the high socio economic status groups than the lower socio
economic status groups aspire to those highly rated professions for example, medicine, judges
and architects. Children from low socio economic status lack role models. They struggle on their
own and in most cases cannot advance very far.
h) Home Environment
The home environment plays an increasing influence upon academic performance of pupils in
primary schools. While most families in high socio economic status live in peaceful, quiet
environments conducive for reading, for learners in most of the low socio economic families, the
immediate environment is noisy and not conducive to reading. Congested and poorly lit rooms
make reading and revision almost impossible. Due to the noisy environment, most children do
their assignments after others have gone to sleep.
Besides malnutrition and poor living conditions, most families in low social economic status
encounter disturbances, harassment and violence. This creates worry, tension, anxiety and stress
especially in young children. The end results are neurotic attacks, phobia, nightmares and
nervous breakdowns. These disturbances have a lot of negative effect on education as the pupils’
concentration span in school is adversely affected (Biogiovanni 1979).
However, there are exceptions. There are those who, although they come from high socio
economic status families do not perform well in school. Some from low socio economic-status
families perform well and surpass children from high socio-economic status families at school.
However, on average, high socio-economic status homes encourage schooling more than low
socio-economic status homes and so such children are more likely to achieve better results at
school.
7.7.1 The dropout phenomenon in schools

At primary school level promotion from standard one through to class eight is supposed to be
automatic more so with the introduction of free primary education. On the contrary, a great deal
of wastage occurs in terms of dropouts and repetition (Eshiwani 1993). In Kenya the overall
wastage rate ranges from 30% to 47% (Eshiwani 1979). Dropout implies wastage in the
education system. Patterns of dropouts in primary schools tend to be significantly higher among
the low social economic status families than the high socio-economic ones. Below are some of
the factors that contribute to school dropouts:
a) Poverty
One of the major causes of learners dropping out of schools is poverty. According to
U.N.I.C.E.F. report (1990) approximately 31.7 % of all children under the age of fifteen years
live in urban areas and 50% of these are considered to be living in conditions of extreme
poverty. Children are forced to drop out of school to help their poverty-plagued families while
some become destitute street children. Lack of parental economic stability has led some children
to absent themselves from school, to search for food and offer their labor for sale such as in
coffee and tea picking, working in quarries, soap stone industries, sand harvesting, hawking and
herding. Girls in these families have at times been pulled out of school and married off or
employed as domestic workers so that parents get money to feed other members of the family or
educate the boys. This is rampant in low socio-economic status families.
8 b)Cultural influences
Cultural practices such as circumcision rites, early marriages and moranism has been found to be
contributory factors to school dropout in Kenya. However, there are more participants from low
socio-economic status families than the high socio-economic status families. A study by
Mukhongo (2003) among the Babukusu community in Kanduyi division of Bungoma Kenya,
found out that primary school learners tended to drop out of school at a higher rate during the
circumcision period than at any other seasons. This practice was common among low socio-
economic families, since the majority of parents from high socio economic status families took
their children to hospitals for circumcision and hardly participated in these rituals. These
children from rich families did not spend school time visiting relatives soliciting for funding nor
spend time rehearsing in song and dance before circumcision. There were no prolonged
ceremonies after healing. Therefore, while children participating in circumcision from poor
families had there school time interfered with; school attendance for children from rich families
was not interfered with. Unable to cope with schoolwork after prolonged absenteeism, some of
the children from poor families dropped out of the educational system.
Among the Masai and Samburu communities’ seclusion during moranism takes a long time and
usually results in school dropout. Female circumcision has been found to be a contributory
factor to school dropout among females as many girls get married after the ceremony.
In North Eastern Kenya, nomadic culture has made it impossible for pupils to identify with one
particular school. There is frequent movement from one area to the next in search of pasture.
This has contributed to school dropouts, as pupils are unable to have continuity in their
education. Culture is deep rooted among those in the low socio- economic status, particularly
among rural communities, where poverty is high.
9 c)Socialization
10 Socialization in some communities has put emphasis on various aspects other than schoolwork. For example,
boys after circumcision among the Kikuyu, feel that they are ‘men’ and have no respect for ladies/ teachers. In
some communities marriage and procreation with the aspect of extending the communities lineage is
emphasized and regarded of more value than education. This contributes to many youths dropping out of
school.
11 d)Excessive demands from Schools

Although there is free primary education in Kenya, there are various requirements that parents
have to meet. This includes school uniforms, books, desk fee and fee for clubs and school trips.
Poor families are not able to cope, the worst being in secondary schools where there is no free
education. This has contributed to learners dropping out of the education system.
12 e)Insecurity
Insecurity has greatly contributed to school dropout, particularly in crime prone areas. Families
from low socio economic status mainly inhabit insecure areas. This is because the areas are
cheaper in rent and lifestyle (for example the slum environment), or the families have no
alternative but to stay there as that is where they were born and they lack the capital to venture
into new sites. The insecurity in these areas affects their children’s education, as some pupils are
scared to go to school and eventually opt to drop out of school. Families with higher socio-
economic status are able to afford affluent and secure areas and therefore their children feel
secure to and from school.
In North Eastern province, the shifta menace has contributed to family displacement. This has
resulted in pupil’s withdrawal from primary schools. In Elgeyo Marakwet and Pokot districts,
cattle’s rustling has resulted in pupils and teachers avoiding schools and in the long run some
pupils drop out of school. Land clashes in Rift valley resulted in many pupils being displaced
and dropping out of the school system. Many of the learners affected are from low socio-
economic status families as the high socio-economic families take their children to secure
boarding schools. This hostile environment has a lot of effect on learning since some children in
such an environment develop intense fear and insecurity and thus develop phobia of leaving
their immediate surroundings. School attendance and performance is affected and many end up
dropping out of the system.
.
13 e)Nomadic Way of Life
The nomadic way of life has greatly contributed to school dropout in North Eastern province.
The value for cattle has resulted in families shifting from place to place in search of pasture and
water. Some of these areas have neither schools nor teachers. This has resulted in children
dropping out of the school system.
f) Lack of Parental reinforcement
Parent’s views on education and the extent they are able to sacrifice in order to ensure their
children get quality education plays a major role in motivating the children to stay in school. The
higher the socio-economic status of a family, the more likely it motivates its children to learn
and the less it encounters school dropout. In a comparative study by Odawa (1987) between two
city council primary schools, one attended mainly by children from high socio-economic status
families (Muthaiga Primary) and the other attended mainly by children from low socio-
economic status families (Pumwani Primary) it was found that child reinforcement was high in
Muthaiga (60%) while very low in Pumwani(10%). In addition to this, parental and community
interest in children’s education was high in Muthaiga primary while very low in Pumwani.
Educational wastage was very low in Muthaiga Primary as compared to Pumwani primary
(Odawa, 1987).
7.7.2 Facilities versus performance
School facilities such as desks, instructional materials especially books and school library,
enhance school performance (Fuller, 1985). While in schools catering for learners from higher
socio-economic status, specific criterion is expected in resource availability and allocation
mainly due to enlightened parents and the fees or levies paid, in schools catering for learners
from lower socio-economic status, accountability of resources is not strict and this can result in
learning taking place without the required resources. Therefore, pupils in schools with all the
relevant facilities are likely to perform better than those who go to poorly equipped schools.
In Kenya, school facilities range from well-equipped classrooms, libraries, halls and swimming
pools for well-equipped schools, to mud walled classrooms in poorly equipped schools,
particularly in rural and slum areas. In some primary pupils, particularly in rural areas, pupils
learn under trees and write on sand due to lack of exercise books. In schools with better
facilities, performance is better than those lacking facilities.
In a comparative study on how availability of resources within the learners home environment,
enhance learning, Odawa (1987), in a study, between learners from Muthaiga Primary School (a
public school catering for learners mainly from higher socio- economic status) and Pumwani
primary school (catering for learners from lower socio- economic status) found out the
following:
School Home Library Television Radio None

Muthaiga 62% 87% 100% -
Pumwani - 30% 75% 2.5
Source: Odawa 1987.
From the findings of the study, it was noted that many children in Muthaiga primary school were
exposed at home to other facilities that enhanced their education, as compared to those in
Pumwani primary school and therefore, they were highly motivated and performed better. There
is a relationship between school facilities and the economic status of parents.
7.7.3 Public versus Private Schools

Public and private schools in Kenya can be classified into high, medium and low category
schools, according to the socio-economic status of the learner’s families. In Nairobi some of the
public primary schools under the Nairobi city council that are attended by pupils from high
socio economic backgrounds include, Kilimani, Muthaiga and Kileleshwa Primary. Those
attended by learners from middle socio-economic status families include Kenyatta University
Primary School, Olympic primary school and Langata. The low socio-economic learners attend
schools such as Korogocho, Githurai and Dr Aggrey primary schools.
Private primary schools in Kenya can be classified into three major categories according to fee
payments. These are high, medium and low cost private primary schools.
High cost private primary schools charge very high fees which make them exclusive for the
children of the rich. In Nairobi some of the high cost private primary schools include: Makini,
Brookhouse, Consolata Primary, Riara and St Austins. The middle category includes Nairobi
Primary, St Annes, St Nicholas and Aga Khan academy. The low cost private primary schools
are normally located in slum areas such as Githurai, Mathare and Kawangware. However, there
are various contrasts between public and private primary schools in Kenya, such as the
following:
14 i)Teacher motivation
There is evidence that teacher motivation has a considerable effect on academic achievement.
Both public and private schools catering for learners from higher socio - economic status
families have higher teacher motivation and better performance than private and public schools
catering for learners’ from low socio-economic status families. This is mainly because, schools
catering for learners from higher socio-economic status make education interesting and
challenging through fieldtrips, visitation to other schools, sports, participation in school
competitions such as drama, music festivals and teachers get tokens of appreciation for good
results.
ii)Teacher/pupil ratio
In addition to these, the teacher /pupil ratio is low. Teachers are able to give learners
individualized attention. Children are able to finish their homework, as the home environment is
conducive to learning. They are able to read ahead of their teachers and even challenge the
teachers. This makes teaching challenging and interesting. Furthermore, the rich parents
reinforce teachers by giving them tokens of appreciation for any good performance.
iii) Caliber of teacher
Both public and private schools catering for learners from higher socio-economic status tend to
attract teachers of high calibers such as diploma and graduate teachers, because they are
established, well known and their pay is good. There is security and professional advancement,
unlike in schools catering for learners from lower socio- economic status where transfers and
termination of service is more frequent. However, teacher motivation is usually higher in private
schools catering for learners from higher socio-economic status than public schools catering for
learners from higher socio- economic families.
15 iv) School Culture
Most public and private schools catering for learners from higher socio-economic status have a
long tradition of academic excellence as compared to schools catering for learners from lower
socio-economic status. They have a culture of good performance and excelling, and many
believe in being leaders or holding top positions in society after school. The student aspiration
for further education is therefore high and the parents and teacher’s encouragement reinforce
this. Learners also have a desire to keep the good name of the school. On the other hand, many
schools catering for learners from lower socio-economic status have not set their own culture of
excellence (Odawa; 1987).
7.7.4 Urban versus rural schools
Urban and rural schools in Kenya can be classified into high, medium and low category schools
according to the socio-economic status of the learners’ families. However, in general there are
various factors that differ between urban and rural schools.
a) Facilities
Most schools in urban areas are generally better equipped than those in rural areas. This is
mainly because the socio-economic status of parents in most urban schools is higher than those
in the rural areas. Accessibility of textbooks and school stationery is easier for most learners in
urban than rural schools. Some learning equipment such as computers, projectors and
photocopiers cannot be used in some schools within rural areas due to lack of electricity yet in
urban areas, some learners can pursue subjects of their choice, such as computer lessons.
b) Teacher Motivation
In urban schools teachers have more opportunities for professional advancement as compared to
rural areas. They can go for evening classes or Saturday lessons. More workshops and seminars
to help teachers improve in teaching methodology are held in urban areas than in the rural
environment. These exposures enable teachers in urban areas to have an advantage over their
rural counterparts as far as teaching is concerned.
Teachers educational background form a significant variable in determining the performance of
pupils in Kenya Certificate of Primary Education or Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education.
In most schools within urban centres, teacher morale is high, not only due to the pay but other
privileges associated with the schools. The teachers can go an extra mile to ensure their learners
perform well. In most rural schools, teacher morale is low. Most teachers are cut off from any
professional advancement and usually carry out classroom teaching that is required and nothing
more.
c) Language of communication
Pupils in urban schools come from different language backgrounds, unlike rural schools where
most of the learners come from the immediate surrounding. A majority of pupils from rural
schools are of one tribe, or can all communicate in the language used in
the immediate surrounding. Mother tongue is mainly used as the medium of communication
among these learners. This affects grammar in English and Kiswahili.
However, in urban areas, English and Kiswahili are the medium of communication, thus the
frequency of using these languages in communication helps in improving the learner’s grammar
in these subjects.
d) Literate parents
The kind of environment the school is set in and the beliefs of the community surrounding the
school towards education influences the child’s school attendance and academic performance.
When a child’s family and friends have little interest in education and state how they are better
off economically than the educated people around them, then the likelihood of a child in such
families being allowed to stay away from school or drop out of school is increased (Coombes
1974). In rural areas, most parents are semi illiterate and since some feel that they are surviving
adequately without education, they hardly motivate their children as far as education is
concerned. Most parents of pupils in urban primary schools are literate and encourage their
children to excel in academic work.
16 e) Lack of Role models
Role models play a great role in educational motivation. While in urban areas achievement in
education is highly applauded, in rural areas survival techniques and capital accumulation is
praised. There are limited academic models in rural areas as most achievers within rural
communities migrate to urban centres in search of wage employment. The learners in rural areas
therefore lack educated people to identify with, to consult, to be talked to or be challenged by.
7.8 Social Mobility and Education
Social mobility is defined as a process by which people move from one social stratum to the
next. Social mobility can be upwards e.g. moving from working class to middle class or
downward such as moving from middle class to working class. Stratification systems, which
provide little opportunity for social mobility, may be described as “Closed”, while those with a
relatively high rate of social mobility are “open.”
The rate of social mobility has an important effect on class formation. If the rate of social
mobility is low, class solidarity and cohesion will be high. Most individuals will remain in the
same class of origin and this will provide for the reproduction of common life experiences over
generations. As a result distinctive class structures and strong class identifications will tend to
develop.
Social mobility can provide an indication of life chances of members of society. It can show the
degree to which a person’s class of origin influences his or her chances of obtaining a high status
occupation.
It is important to know how people respond to the experiences of social mobility for example, if
the downwardly mobile resent their misfortune and form a pool of dissatisfaction, which might
threaten the stability of society.
7.8 Types of Mobility
There are various conditions that contributes to an individual acquisition of social status or movement from one
social class to another. Some of them are discussed below but are not exhaustive.
a) Contest/Achieved status
These positions are open for competition. Able people are able to achieve. Achieved statuses are
not assigned to persons from birth. They are left open to be filled through competition and
individual effort. Among the commonly recognized achieved statuses are: education,
occupation, income and marital status. Statuses that may be achieved in modern society
include, college graduate, class positions, union organizer, police commissioner, major in the
army, millionaire, pauper, and married man. They are occupied due to personal effort in society.
b) Ascribed status:
These are permanent attributes for example sex, age, place of birth, color of skin, kinship by birth, height, born in
a rich or poor family and relationships. They are permanent attributes.
c) Sponsored Mobility. It is similar to ascribed in the sense that members are assisted to occupy
positions. An example of sponsored mobility is the case of tribalism and nepotism in job allocations
and promotions, regardless of a person’s merit.
Take Note: A good number of African societies combine both the

ascribed and the achieved statuses, except that achieved statuses
are increasingly more dominant over ascribed statuses. In effect
individuals in society are never equal. Through education people
are able to move to classes, income, status and prestige.
7.10 Influence of Education on Social Mobility
Education enhances achieved social mobility in that, a person is able to move upwards
given that one’s position in a stratification system has an important effect on many areas
of life. A breadwinner’s position may enhance or reduce chances of the child being in
schools with better facilities, qualified teachers and living in an environment conducive to
learning.
A parent’s movement from a lower to middle class status usually results in better
educational chances and improvement in their children’s school attainment as it increases
chances of scholarship, education out of the country, while movement from middle class
to lower class usually results in poor performance.
Educational achievement might well become the most important way to reach a high-
status occupation whether this involves social mobility upwards or the prevention of
social mobility downwards. Those with the highest educational qualifications are
pursuing the most prestigious and best-paid occupations. People with such backgrounds
send their children to the best schools and they end up at universities. They graduate from
universities to occupy high positions in society. This means that the high socio-economic
status occupiers are monopolizing the highest educational levels, as well as the most
prestigious occupations. Education therefore cannot be said to be a means of open social
mobility especially vertical mobility (Ezewu 1983).
In Kenya children educated beyond secondary schools and pursuing high ranking
professionals such as medicine, law and architecture are much more likely to be socially
mobile than those who have received only primary education. In poor families, a child is
more likely to be socially mobile if he/she has a superior education. A superior education
also lessens the possibility of downward mobility for those in the higher social status
groups.
7.11 Summary
In this lecture, we have defined social stratification as division of

members of a society into classes based on wealth, power, status
and prestige.
We have looked at examples of types of social stratification, such as
castes, feudal, slavery system.
Patterns of Social Stratification have such as pyramid, diamond and class
structures have been discussed, that places members of societies into
Social Class and Social Status.
Social stratification in Kenya was discussed as divided into upper,
middle, lower middle and low class society.
The Effect of Social Stratification on School Education has been
discussed as influencing performance, school dropout and future
professions and occupation due to inequality in status and facilities in
stratified schools, such as Public versus Private Schools, Urban versus
rural schools and marginalized areas in the country.
Social Mobility and Education has been discussed where education is
shown as the hope for low class occupants to move to upper class status,
referred to as achieved and sponsored status, while others members find
themselves in the upper social-economic status as a result of being born
in high class families, referred to as ascribed status. Types of social
mobility were discussed as upward, horizontal or downward. Downward
mobility has been discussed as resulting from irresponsible heirs of high
social-economics, or loss of employment or parents/working spouse.
Influence of Education on social mobility has been shown as the major
pathway for members of the low social economic status to move upwards
by achieving good scores that earn them good jobs and hence higher
status in the highly stratified societies that one belongs.
7.12 Activity
1. Define the concept of “social stratification” and discuss its

implication on allocation of educational resources.
2. Examine the relationship between parental socio-economic status
and academic educational opportunities for their children.
3. Elaborate the effect of language on equality of educational
opportunity.
7.13 References

Ogburu, W., and Nimkaff, M.F. (1960) A Handbook of Sociology. New

York. Routledge
Sheffer, Norman. (1975). Many Cultures, Many Heritages. Montreal

McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited
Tylor E. B. (1902) Primitive Culture. 4th Edition John Murry

Ezewu Edward ( 19630).Sociology of Education, Longman Group Ltd.
Essex
LECTURE EIGHT
Education and Cultural Transmission
Lecture Outline
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Meanings of culture and education
8.4 Types of culture
8.5 Characteristics of culture
8.6 Content of culture
8.7 Use of education in cultural transmission.
8.8 Role of the school in the process of cultural transmission
8.9 Impact of culture on education.
8.10 Summary
8.12 Reference
8.1 Introduction
This unit is packaged to familiarize you with the fundamentals of culture and education. It exposes you to the
meaning of culture and education. Specifically, you will study definition of culture, education, types of culture, its
characteristics and the role of the school and education in the process of cultural transmission.

vi) Define the term education and culture
vii) Discuss the characteristics of culture
viii) Describe the content of culture
ix) Discuss the role of the school in the process of cultural
transmission
x) Discuss the role of education in cultural transmission
xi) Explain the role of the school in the process of cultural
transmission.
xii) Discuss the impact of culture on education.
8.3 Definition of education and culture
Culture
 Derived from a German word “Kulture” which means ‘civilization’. To Western scholars, culture
and civilization were used (to mean the same thing i.e.) interchangeably.
 Culture is defined as the complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, laws,
customs and the capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of the society. (Edward
Reuter 1950)
 Culture is the realm of ideas and ideals, values and symbols; it is the design for living which
produces a distinctive way of life. (Kulkhon 1951) Bronslow Malinowski, British Anthropologist
[1933]
 Culture comprises of inherited artifacts, goods, technical processes, ideas, habits and values. It is
obviously the integral whole consisting of implements, of consumer goods, of human ideas and
crafts, beliefs and customs.
Education
 Emile Durkheim defines Education as the action expressed by older generations on those who are not yet
ready for social life. The aim is to awaken in the child physical, intellectual and moral traits required of
him by both society and himself. Here, Education includes all cultural influences that the child has to go
through in order to become a complete member of society –Knowledge (Cognitive) -Skills (Creativity) a
-Values/Moral
 According to R.S Peters, Education has to meet three basic criteria
(i) Must lead to knowledge and understanding – Learner must know
(ii) Must transmit something worthwhile/valuable.
(iii) Education should use socially acceptable methods.
Education plays the following functions in society among others
 Education for cultural transmission. Values, knowledge and skills of society are
transmitted from one generation to the next
 Human Resource Development. Learners are trained for roles in society. Skills to be
applied in the learner’s life
 Social Control Teaching socially acceptable behavior so that society can run in
harmony.
 Education serves the purpose of social selection. Individuals are selected and allocated
different functions and roles in society.
In-Text question
What do you understand by the concepts culture and education?
Using relevant examples examine the relationship between culture and

education.
8.4 Types of culture

We can discuss the term culture from two perspectives/types. That is material culture and non-material culture.
 Material culture, this is expressed by the objects used such as structures, homes,
dress, paintings and cars. Thus when the British, Japanese and Germans talk of their
own models of cars, they are expressing an aspect of their material culture.
 Non-material culture, this refers to the value system, mode of thinking, language,
religion and other forms of expression.
8.5 Characteristics of culture
George Peter Murdock has stated the following as characteristics of culture
1. The learned quality. Man is not born with culture. Hence, it is a learned process and man moulds himself
according to his environment.
2. The transmitter quality. Culture is transmitted from person to person. The individual is molded according
to his family and society of which he is a member.
3. The social quality each society has culture. Each member of the society is dependent on the other and
each expects from the other. This expectation binds the society.
4. The quality of idealism. Culture is based on some ideals and each generation acquires it from its
predecessors and each member has to follow it.
5. Gratifying quality. Man as a member of the society has various needs and these needs are satisfied by the
culture.
6. Culture is always idealized. Human beings are continuously refining and polishing their behavior action
and thought. Culture stands for ideals norms of human behavior.
7. The adaptive and integrative quality. Each culture tries to adopt the qualities from outside its
environment. The contact of two or more culture takes place and this interaction lends the adaptive quality
to the culture.
8. Culture meets recurring demand of mankind. Culture meets the various recurring demand of
reproduction, nursing an infant to maturity, marriage and finally disposal of the dead. All these demands
are met by culture from generation to generation. Culture points out the perceptual demands of individuals.
9. Culture is social. It does not exist in isolation. It is a product of society. It develops through social
interaction. No man can acquire culture without association with others.
10. Culture is shared. It is not something that an individual alone can possess. Culture is sociological sense
which is shared e.g. customs, traditions, beliefs, ideas and morale etc. are all shared by a people of a group
of society,
11. Culture is learnt. Culture is not inborn. It’s learnt. Culture is often called learned ways of behavior. Un-
learned behavior is not culture.
12. Culture is transmissive. It is transmitted from one generation to another. Transmission of culture may
take place by imitation or instruction.
13. Culture is dynamic. No culture ever remains constant or changeless. It is subject to constant change.
Culture is responsive to the changing conditions of the physical world. Hence culture is dynamic.
14. Culture varies from society to society. Every society has a culture of its own. It differs from society to
society. Culture of every society is unique to itself.
15. Culture is continuous accumulative. Culture exists in a continuous process. In its historical growth it
tends to become cumulative. Sociologist Linton called culture the social heritage of man.
According to (Ezewu; Kombo) Culture is;
 Organic – it involves in human beings Supra-organic – survives beyond the life of any
human being.
 It is Overt – can be observed. It is covert – it is hidden certain attributes can’t be observed.
 Explicit – Actions within a particular culture can be discerned or observed. Implicit -certain
aspects cannot be observed e.g. we believe in certain things even when we cannot explain.
 Culture is stable and yet dynamic because it is persistent for a long time. Important traits can
be transmitted from one generation to the next.
 Dynamic because it changes over time.
 Culture is ideal and manifest. Ideal culture refers to what we ought to be or to do. Manifest
culture refers to what actually happens in society –who are we
 Culture is shared and is Learnt. Shared by members of the same cultural community. Every
human being is born within a particular cultural setting. Learnt because we learn cultural
attributes at different times and different rates.
Take Note
Culture has many characteristics.
Culture has an impact on the mental physical and social development of
man.
Culture is continually changing.
Culture acts as an integrated system of learned behavior.
Culture is a complex whole that consists of everything we think do and
have as members of the society.
8.6 Content of culture

Let us now look at how sociologists have analyzed culture into its various components
 Speech: which includes languages and writings system? For example, we can distinguish between
Arabic, Greek, and Chinese alphabets and systems of writing.
 Material traits: these include food, habits, types of shelter used, dress, utensils, and weapons.
 Art: includes carvings, paintings, music, and drawing.
 Mythology and scientific knowledge: that include both myths and scientific discoveries
 Religious practices: include rituals, treatment of the sick the dead etc.
 Family and social practices: include customs related to marriage, inheritance, and methods of
establishing relationships.
 Property: standards of value exchange and trade.
 Government: political and feudal forms
 Warfare: thus a lot of things we do are culturally conditioned.
Culture is not just talking about traditions: it also involves looking at a whole set of values in a changing sense. A
culture gives a particular society a form of identity. It is because of this that many societies have come to
recognize that culture is too important a thing to be left to chance. Many societies have tried to organize and
selectively transmit to the young their cultural values. Education is one of the most important agencies in the
process in cultural transmission. Other agencies include the church, peer groups, mass media, and the family. In
the second lecture on the same topic we are going to talk more about the role of education in culture. We shall
examine in some considerable details the role of education in the process of cultural transmission.
8.7 Role of the school in the process of cultural transmission
Culture forms the content of socialization and education. In the case of the school, culture is the curriculum.
Sociologists, therefore, have made the following observations about culture and the school curriculum,
that is, subjects taught in schools and the cultural values they transmit.
These values that schools transmit can be seen as the culture of the society. It is culture that forms the content of
socialization and education. In summary culture is the curriculum. It is within this line of thought that sociologists
have made the following observations about culture and the curriculum:
1. Society must provide its members with the tools of communication. The teaching of language in schools is
crucial for socialization and education.
2. Society must provide its members with the tools for feeding themselves and improving their conditions of
living. Hence the necessity for the teaching of such disciplines as agriculture sciences, vocational and
technological courses.
3. Society must teach its members aesthetics values. This necessitates the teaching of the arts, and acquiring
the meaning of communicating feelings.
4. Society must prepare its members to be maters of their own physical environment. Hence the teaching of
geography, and natural sciences.
5. Society must provide religious education to meet the spiritual needs pf its members.
6. Society must prepare its members to live under acceptable social conditions with other members. Hence
the need for subject’s likes history, sociology and anthropology.
7. Society must produce people who can improve on the living physical environment. That is why there is a
need to provide courses in building and surveying.
8. Society must regulate itself in order to maintain its continued existence. It can do it through good
government and the study of the procedures for social control.
9. Society must prepare its members to fight against external forces and sometimes internal forces that may
threaten its continued existence – hence the study of military science.
The process of cultural transmission is not easy. Sometimes society places alt of demands on the schools.
Furthermore, we should note that in the process of cultural transmission schools compete with other transmission
agencies such as the peer groups, the church, radio, cinema, and television. Some of these agencies can command
a more powerful influence on the pupils than the schools.
In the case of the school, culture is the curriculum. Sociologists, therefore, have made the following
observations about culture and the school curriculum, that is, subjects taught in schools and the cultural
values they transmit.
(a) Languages
Communication is more than just talking. Whatever is being said must be understood. Hence,
communication is the transmitting of thoughts, ideas and feelings horn one mind to another.
Communication has been referred to as the lifeblood of a society. Society, therefore, must provide its
members with the tools of communication. Thus, the teaching of language(s) in schools is crucial for
socialization and education. In Kenyan schools, English and Kiswahili are compulsory.
(b) Agricultural Sciences, Vocational and Technological Courses
Members of a ROC Ply must feed themselves and improve the conditions of living by working on
their Environment-Hence the necessity for the teaching of such disciplines as agriculture sew vocational
and technological courses. In Kenyan primary school lot of emphasis is put on these subjects—Kenya being
predominantly an agricultural country.
(c) Aesthetic Values
Every society has its own ways of promoting and appreciating beauty. Aesthetic values are unique to
each individual sock Music, sculpture among others vary from one society to another Schools promote and
assist students to appreciate aesthetics and teaching of subjects such as arts and music. These subjects also assist
students to learn meaning of communicating feelings.
(d) Religious Education
The desire to worship is inherent in all human beings. Hence society must provide religious education to
meet the spiritual need of members. Social education and ethics is also taught in Kenya schools to
supplement religious education. The purpose of the subject is to assist students appreciate mural
values other the religious teaching. The argument for this subject is that people can religious but not
necessarily moral.
(e) Geography and Natural Sciences
The physical environment is, in reality, the main source of livelihood for any given society. For people to
fully benefit from it, they must master it properly. This, therefore necessitates the teaching, Geography and
the Natural sciences to pupils and students. The enables them to be masters of their own environment
early enough and thus act on it accordingly.
(f) Social Sciences
Subjects such as history, sociology, anthropology and other society sciences impact knowledge. that
enables members of any give society to co-exist tinder acceptable social conditions. These subject
therefore, help to prepare young people for better living.
(g) Building and Surveying Courses
Shelter is one of the basic needs for all human beings. Every society has its own form and design of shelter.
The teaching of these courses assists members of the society to construct goon shelters suitable to their
physical environment and geographical climate.
(h) Governance and Social Control
Governance and ruler ship are features found in all societies. No society can survive without rule and
order. Every society must therefore regulate itself in order to ensure its continued existence. The school
system does this through the teaching of good governance and the study of the procedures of social control
such as law.
From the foregoing discussion, it is very clear that schools have a formidable task of transmitting
acceptable societal cultural values. Society places a lot of expectations on the schools, some of which
cannot be accomplished by the schools. This is made difficult particularly by the social
stratification phenomenon which categorizes schools into different socio-economic levels. Thus, the
manumission of the same type of values on the same wave length becomes somehow difficult.
Furthermore, this process of cultural transmission by schools is made complex by competition with other
transmission agencies such as peer groups, religious organizations and the mass media. Some of these
agencies, especially the mass media, can command a more powerful influence on the pupils than schools
8.8 Use of education in cultural transmission
Education is a life-long process by which people new ways thoughts and action. It encourages changes in
behavior which aim improving the human condition. Education helps to instill sell confidence and self-
reliance in an individual and allows for information decision-making in such areas as health and nutrition,
water and sanitation, and food production and its management. It is the regard that education is recognized
around the world as a basic prerequisite for development (GOK/UNICEF; 1992:95).
Education can be looked at from the formal, non-formal and informal aspects. The formal aspect is
represented by institutions like schools, colleges and universities which inculcate knowledge skills and attitudes
into the young ones that are acceptable in the society. This is achieved through the content of the school
curriculum. The non-formal education refers to activities usually found outside traditional schooling in
which content is adapted to unique needs of the students or unique situations such as women’s groups.
The informal facet of education is the type of learning that one finds among peer groups. In traditional
societies, this was the mode of educating the young into the societal accepted norms. In a school
environment, for instance, this kind of education goes on in social clubs, sports and games. Outside the
school system, the "Jua Kali" sector is an informal system of education. Apprentices in motor mechanics
and other activates are also included in this sector (King,1914).
Education can be said to belong to the process of enculturation, whereby the young ones are initiated into
the culture of their given society. In this discussion, however, we shall limit ourselves to the formal aspects
of education generally referred to as schooling.
Schools are set up by a society to selectively transmit those values and knowledge that a society determines
as appropriate. This is done through the programs contained in the curriculum. The curriculum,
therefore, can be viewed as a planned document through which the values of a given society are
transmitted in a school setting. It is through the school that a society provides specialized training for its
young members. Thus education is concerned with the training of the whole personality of an individual,
that is, the physical, mental, emotional and spiritual characteristics of a person.
Education has several functions. Some of these strive to enhance creativity, critical thinking, develop
personality of an individual, improve the general living of not only an individual but also the
nation, and conserve and transmit aspects of cultural heritage that is valued. It is this conserving function
of education that is discussed here. Education has the task of transmitting culture and behavior
patterns of a society to its young members. It is through this process that a society achieves some
of basic social conformity. This is what is usually referred to as the conservative function of
education. it is conservative in the sense that it is only concerned with transmitting from one generation
to the next, the values that exist without fundamental changes.
As earlier mentioned, education encourages and promotes creativity. Youths are encouraged to develop critical
thinking. This is because a society needs critical and creative thinkers who can make inventions, discoveries
and initiate positive change. Universities, for example, are not just institutions where knowledge is
transmitted but also institutions where knowledge is created and discussed foe proper and useful
implementation Thus, education does not only reserve to social changes but is a factor that brings about
social change.
Education has also the function of minimizing cultural lag. As we saw earlier, Cultural lag refers to the
tendency of some areas of culture to change more slowly than others. For instance, different communities
within a nation do not adopt new ideas at the same pace. In a multi-ethnic nation such as Kenya, it has
been observed that some communities have embraced school education while others have not. Consequently,
individuals and communities arc at different levels fa' cultural transformation. The Maasai, for example,
a pastoralist community in Kenya, seen: to accept change at a slower pace than other communities such as
the Agikuyu, the Luo, the Kamba and the Kisii. This state of affairs makes ii nation less integrates' thereby
creating strains in the society. The role of education is, therefore, to ensure that people within a nation
have more or 19/• same knowledge, skills, beliefs and value systems.
To achieve meaningful cultural integration, all efforts should be made to ensure that education is made
available to all citizens. This is important because individuals who have not gone through an education system
are less prepared for coping with technological changes. Therefore, socially deprived people, the pool and
women generally should be helped to acquire education through bursaries and other special programs. Special
programs include school feeding programs, provision of milk time children, building of mobile school: in
areas occupied by nomadic peoples, construction and financing of boarding schools for primary and
secondary students in sparsely occupied areas of the county such as North Eastern Kenya and building of
single-sexed schools for girls and boys. Some communities, especially, the Muslims, do not allow most of
their girls after the age of puberty to attend co-educational schools for fear of pregnancy and sexual
harassment by male colleagues. Even the more liberal communities fear that their daughters will be sexually
molested by their male counterparts in co-educational schools. Such cases have been reported in Kenya
(Mackenzie, 1991).
Education must mould people to become problem-solving oriented rather than consumers of knowledge.
People educated using problem solving approaches such as project work, demonstrations, research work and
discussions are more prepared to learn all the time and cope with social change. Education therefore, does
not end with schooling; it is a life-long process.
8.9 Impact of culture on education.
Culture and education both compliment and supplement each other in various aspects. Following are some of the
influences of culture and education.
1. The aim and ideals of education are mostly determined by the values and patterns of society.
2. Curriculum is conditioned according to the culture of society. It is framed according to the ideals and needs
of the society to realize cultural values.
3. Methods of teaching and culture are intimately connected the shift from old methods of teaching which
were teacher centered to new ones which are child centered is a result of culture. Socialized methods like
project method seminar, symposium, discussion etc. are widely used in the teaching learning process
because of the influence of culture.
4. Discipline is also influenced by cultural values. The present cultural patterns of thinking and living are
directly linked to our concept of discipline.
5. Text books which are written according to formulated curriculum and promote and foster cultural ideas and
values which are always welcomed.
6. Teacher the one who has imbibed the cultural ideas and values of the society only can achieve this mission
successfully. Only such a teacher is able to infuse higher ideals and moral values ibn children.
7. School is a miniature of society, the total activities and programs of the school are organized accordingly to
the cultural ideals and values of the society. Hence school is the center of promoting, moulding, reforming
and developing the cultural pattern of society.
Relationship between culture and education
According to Wodkowksi (1995), teachers must relate teaching content to the cultural background of their
students if they want to be effective in multi-cultural classroom. The ultimate relationship between culture
and education is evident from the fact that one of the major aims of education is to educate the child about
his cultural heritage.
Every individual is born into a particular culture. This provides him with a definite pattern of behavior and
values which guide his conduct in different walks of life. The culture plays an important part in man’s life
in the adaptation to the natural environment, in the adaptation to the social environment, in the
development of personality and socialization. Hence culture is closely related to education. The
educational system of any society has a clear impact on education
8.10 Summary
In this lecture, we have defined culture as sum total of the elements of a
people’s way of life that have evolved in the society. The term is not just
restricted to mean traditional activities as many people tend to think. A
culture serves a society as a form of identity. Because cultures vary
societies will also differ. It is wrong to judge a particular society as weak
or inferior just because its culture is different from one’s own. Each
society has its own internal dynamics that make it unique. Some aspects
of culture such as law, language are constant in that they can remain
unchanged for a considerable period of time, while others like dress,
music can change frequently. Many societies have come to recognize that
such institutions as schools have been established deliberately to
selectively transmit those values that are considered important.
8.11. Activity/Self -Evaluation
1.Define the term culture with specific examples taken from your society.
2. Distinguish between material and non-material culture.
3. Based on the content of culture discussed in this lecture, give an
example of each cultural content found in your society
8.12. References


York. Routledge

LECTURE NINE
Social Change and Education
Lecture Outline
9.1 Introduction
9.3 Definition of Social Change, Characteristics of Social Change, Direction, and Sources of Social Change
9.4 Theories of Social Change and Cultural Lag Theory
9.5 Characteristics of Modern Societies
9.6 The role of education in Social Change
9.7 Goals of Education in Kenya
9.8 The teacher and Social Change
9.9 Summary
9.10 Self-Activity and Self-assessment
9.11 References
9.1 Introduction
This lesson starts with definition of social change followed by identification of characteristics of social change,
and Theories of Social Change. A brief discussion of modern societies and role of education in social change has
been discussed.
Activity
By the end of the lecture the learner should be able to:
1. Comprehensively define social change and identify characteristics.
2. Explain and evaluate theories of social change on society and
particularly on education.
3. Assess the role of education and the teacher in social change.
9.3 Definition of Social Change.

Social change refers to “any modification of a society in any of its social institutions or social roles” (Harper,
1993).
Sociologists define social changes as modification of human interactions and relationships that transform cultural
and social institutions (https://www.snhu.edu>2017/11).
9.4 Characteristics of Social change
a) Social change is inevitable, natural and universal.
b) Social change is sequential and in certain stages.

c) Social change has speed. Rate of social change for some societies is gradual while others is rapid.
d) Change is not easily predictable.
e) Social change brings change in the family, community and society at large.
f) Social change generally changes in direction.
All societies experience changes but at different speed. There are 3 patterns of social change.
Take Note
The three main direction are:

i. Linear change generally leads to progress associated with change
for good for instance, modes of transport, walking, bicycle,
motorcycle, car, train, plane, rocket etc.
ii. Fluctuating change: the change may be upward and downward.
The demographic change may at one time grow at a slow rate.
Other times population growth may be rapid. Economic change
can also be slow and fast at other times.
iii. Cyclical change: This type of change is unilinear. It explains
cycles of rise, decline and fall just as individual persons are born,
mature, grow old and die. The theory is also associated with rise
and fall of civilizations and nations.
9.5 Sources of Social Change

There are several sources of social change. These include both internal (endogamous) and
external (exogamous sources).
Internal or endogamous sources of Social change
 Social change can originate from within a society due to technological innovation in areas
such as, transport, human interaction (media, television, mobile, telephones etc),
entertainment, agricultural advancements, industrialization to name a few.
 Ideology in the realm of beliefs and values. Examples of ideologies by conservatism,
liberalism or radicalism.
 Note that: Liberal and radical ideologies are the most likely ones to produce change.
Conservative ideologies emphasize status quo.
 Social cultural conflicts for instance fight for scarce resources such as water, land, capital,
discrimination of women in society , land, capital, discrimination of women in society
among others.
 Planned change: education has been used as an instrument of social change.
Different types of External sources of change. These includes:
a) Cultural diffusion: This is movement of cultural traits from one society to another such as
religions, language, and means of transport, ideas, technologies and the like from one
group to another.
In some cases diffusion is forced upon weaker societies through “forced acculturation”.
Colonialism is a form of forced acculturation.
b) Natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, drought etc.
c) Biological disasters for instance contagious diseases such as Covid-19 that has currently
locked down the countries, Ebola, AIDs, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SALS)
9.6 Theories of Social Change

There are several theories that attempt to explain how social change occurs in society. The major ones include
evolutionary theories, cyclical theories, functional theories and conflict theories.
a) Evolutionary theories
These are grounded in Darwin’s idea of evolution of species. Charles Darwin (1859), the British biologist
propounded the theory of biological evolution that cleaned that species of organism evolved from simpler
organisms to the more complicated organisms through the processes of variations and natural selection. Charles
Darwin lived between 1809 and 1882.
Some of the proponents of the theory include Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim.
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
 believed that societies change gradually from simple beginning to more complex ones
 Auguste Comte postulated that society progressed in three stages based on development of human
thought, namely:
(i) Theological
 dominated by priestly class
 dominated beliefs, military conquest, slavery, and belief in super naturalisation
(ii) Metaphysical
 dominated by rationality or analysing social happenings.
(iii) Positive/Scientific Stage

 Age of science characterised by experimentation, observation and measurement. Positivism argues that
science is the only valid knowledge. Fact or what you can perceive using common senses of sight,
hearing, taste, touch and smell is the only verifiable knowledge.
Herbert Spencer’s ideas on Social Change
Intext Question
To what extent can Spencer’s ideas relevant to education?
• He was an English Philosopher, Biologist and Sociologist.
• Spencer is associated with the expression “survival of the fittest” coined by him in principles of Biology
(1864), after reading Charles Darwin’s on the origin of species.
• He believed that society progressed through various socio-cultural stages such as primitive tribal societies
described as (homogeneous) to heterogeneous societies or modern societies.
• He believed that there was no need for re-distribution of wealth or “social-engineering”. This would be
contrary to his belief of survival of the fittest.
• He argued that Western races had been able to adapt better to become industrial and wealthy nations. This
theory was popular in the 19th century.
Take Note:
Evolutionary theory of social change is a theoretical orientation that
emphasises improvement in adaptation of society to its environment
leading to societal change.
B. Cyclical theories
Intext Question
What are cyclical theories?
Cyclical theories postulate that civilizations have a life-cycle and just like biological organism that is birth,
maturity, old age and death. This idea was propounded by Oswald Spengler and Arnold Toynbee.
1) Oswald Spengler (1880-1936)
 Oswald Spengler was a German historian.
 Spengler studied 8 civilizations and concluded that western societies were entering the period of decay as
evidenced by wars, conflict and breakdown of social order.
 He concluded that societies experienced life cycles of birth, maturity, old age and death similar to those
of biological organisms.
 His ideas are found in his book “Decline of the West”. It was first published in 1918 at the end of Second
World War
2) Arnold Joseph Toynbee (1889-1975)
 His theory focused on “challenge” and “response”.
 He argued that challenges can come from physical environmental forces or enemies or internal forces or
biological forces.
 The survival of societies to challenges depends on effectiveness of response. Some of today’s challenges
include highly contagious diseases such as Covid-19 which has forced lockdown of the world from
December, 2019 when it was reported in Wuhan, China. The world is now looking for its cure. It has
now spread to almost all Counties of the world and has caused untold suffering and death.
 Failure to respond appropriately leads to death of a civilization as well as the human race. Covid-19 does
not seem to kill other species.
Karl Marx and Conflict Theory
Karl Marx is one of the most influential conflict theorists. Key ideas of Karl Marx are:
 He believed that societies changed due to economic, organization or structure. In his book “Communist
Manifesto” he stated that “all history is the history of class conflict” between the exploiter and the
exploited.
 Initially property was communally owned.
 Later property was privately owned by a few people giving birth to capitalism. Karl Marx believed that
there is perpetual conflict between the “haves” capitalists and “have nots” proletariats.
 He predicted that capitalism would be overthrown due to conflict between the “haves and “nots”.
 This gave birth to “socialism”. Socialism is a political term applied to an economic system in which
property is held in common and not individually.
 Conflict can neither be eliminated nor suppressed.
Self-Activity  C
onflict
Compare and contrast the ideas of Talcott Parsons with those of Robert Merton. makes
society
Intext Question
Identify proponents of functionalist theory and their main ideas
dynamic and ever changing, though prolonged and unresolved conflicts most of the times lead to
underdevelopment in all sectors of human endeavour and suffering of people. The world is replete with
examples of such conflicts and especially in Africa.
b) Functionalist Theory
Functionalist theory is a theoretical orientation that emphasises the functions or contributions made to society by
existing social structures in a society such as education, family, economic, religion and government.
The proponents of this theory are Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) and Robert King Merton (1910-2003).
1. Talcott Parsons’ ideas on Social change

 Talcott Parsons was an American Scholar.
 Talcott Parsons stressed the importance of stability in the society. Therefore, overall equilibrium of the
society should be maintained in order to counteract social disorder. He wrote a book titled “Social
Structure” in 1964.
 In other words change is not something that alters the state equilibrium. According to Parsons change
should bring about a new and better social equilibrium or stability.
 Change is gradual and not revolutionary. There should be time for society to adapt to new ways of life and
of doing things.
 Change may come from internal or external sources.
 In simple traditional societies social institutions and division of labour are undifferentiated. The family in
traditional societies was self-sufficient. It performed the reproductive as well as educational, socialization,
economic and recreational roles.
 With time, the society develops different institutions for instance schools, universities, hospitals and well
as corresponding labour and specialization requirements.
 Talcott Parsons advocated for social differention and assignment of such tasks to people who were
qualified to do so.
Merton’s ideas on Social Change
 Merton too was a functionalist. He seen society as (homeostatic) system of interrelated parts.
 The normal state of society is one of equilibrium
 Society changes as it seeks to integrate conditions which act upon it. It is largely associated with Robert
King Merton (1910-2003)
 The changes, however are piecemeal and very gradual.
 The purpose of these changes is to bring society to a place of equilibrium or social equilibrium or state of
balancing social order.
 Societies change from simple to complex, from undifferentiated to highly differentiated division of labour.
c) Cultural Lag Theory
 William Ogburn (1959) defined cultural lag as unevenness in social change. He stated that change in
material culture, for instance, technology induced change is faster than adaptive or non-material culture
such as beliefs, laws, value systems and traditions.
 Thus he postulated that when change occurs, the modifications do not take place evenly in all the
interrelated parts of cultural heritage.
 In other words, change in material for instance, technology induced change does not keep pace with non-
material or adaptive culture.
 The gap between change in material and non-material inevitably leads to social disorganisation and moral
decay. Social disorder is to some extent attributed to irregular changes in culture generally and on the
whole is heightened by technological advancements.
 Technological societies give birth to modern or solidarity societies that are heterogeneous in nature.
Intext Question
Compare and contrast functional theory of social change with:
(a) Evolutionary
(b) Cyclical
(c) Conflict theory
9.7 Characteristics of modern societies
Intext Question
Identify characteristics of modern societies
Modern organic solidarity societies according to Durkheim (1893) are largely categorized as industrial societies
and are characterized by specialization, division of labour, and interdependence on each other. On the hand, pre-
industrial or mechanical organic societies are small societies and often based on family unit. Other characteristics
of modern societies are listed herebelow. These include:
 Urbanization
When large populations live in urban areas rather than rural areas known as urbanization. Usually results from
economic opportunities: either people move to a city for jobs, or rural areas become the sites of large businesses
which lead to population growth.
 Bureaucratization:
Process by which most formal organizations in a society (businesses, government, non-profits) run their
organizations via the use of extreme rational and impersonal thinking, an extreme division of labor, and record
keeping.
 Conflict and Competition:
These also play an important role to social change. For examples: War due to religion, ethnic tensions, competition
for resources, gender and women’s movement like for equal payment and property. Race and Civil Rights
Movement, collective political power, homosexuality becoming more available, but still denied civil and human
rights. But Positive Outcomes are like solidarity, safety notions, positively social development, welfare activities
are enhancing.
• Political and Legal Power:
a) Elected officials: Redistribution of wealth to the all the peoples by the elected persons and control over
income and property taxes. They can charge over negative action, ability to sue insurance companies,
increase minimum wage in labor (leads to change in unemployment, part-time employment, and health
insurance.
b) Unelected officials: Such as the civil society, they can control over corporate power (jobs, goods and services
and cost of culture, donations to political campaigns.
 Ideology:
Religious beliefs. Rise of capitalism in the world, due to religious beliefs for example Protestantism emerged
many other work ethics developed in the work place. Religious beliefs sometimes lead to revolution and civil
wars which lead to new countries. Like in Iran, Islamic revolution occurred in 1979 and developed an Islamic
Republic.
 Diffusion: populations in the world are adopting new goods and services from anywhere individuals
habitat. Much of the materialist products are introduced to different countries through aggressive marketing
policy via celebrities’ campaigns in drinking milk, beverages, alcohol and birth control strategies in less
developed countries among others.
 Acculturation
Acculturation is a cultural modification of individual group or people by adopting or borrowing traits from
another culture. For instance, Asian Americans, American Indians cultures are being eliminated through the
dominancy of white American people ways of life. People can to some extent control social change by
preventing acculturation,
9.8 Role of Education in Social Change

The change may occur in the total social environment surrounding the society. This may be due to some internal
forces or external forces arising in other societies as mentioned earlier. Social phenomena occurring in
neighbouring or distant societies have very widespread impact to the receiving culture.
Change in Social Goals, Objectives and Values:

Social change may be reflected in terms of social goals, objectives, values, institutional changes and curriculum
content.
Institutional Social Changes
Social change “institutional‟ which includes change in definite structures such as form of organization, roles and
content. The adoption of democracy and adult franchise in most countries has made training in responsible and
responsive citizenship absolutely necessary for the electorate. This may ultimately affect the content and the
method of teaching in educational institutions as well as the teacher and learner relationships.
Changes in Knowledge and Technology
The change in the existing knowledge and technology may impact realms of space exploration, industrialization,
agricultural, domestic technology, development of transportation, mass media of communication, and new
understanding of the human beings. The development of knowledge and technology is most likely to bring
changes in syllabus, teaching and methods of assessment including this role of teacher in facilitating learning
process.
Change in Size and Composition of Population
Change in population and its composition makes Government unable to provide education for all the children.
The role of Education in Social Change
Education has been accepted as one major agency of social change. Here are some quotations on power of
education.
Self-Activity
Using examples from your community evaluate the validity of the
statements on the power of education on social change outlined
herebelow with respect to social change.
9.8.1Some quotations on power of education on Social Change
 Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world (Nelson Mandela).
 Education is the passport for future, for tomorrow belongs to those who prepare for it today (Malcom X).
 Change is the end result of all true learning (Leo Buscaglia).
 Education is a liberating force and in our age it is also a democratizing force, cutting across barriers imposed
by birth and other circumstances (Indira Gandhi).
 If you educate a man you educate an individual but if you educate a woman you educate a whole nation (Dr.
James Emman Aggrey).
Intext Question
Define concept of Education
9.9 Education and Planned Change

Simply defined, education is a process through which a society’s cultural heritage in terms of knowledge, skills,
moral, and ethical values.
Emile Durkheim considered as one of those that are not yet ready for social life. Its object is to develop in the child
a certain number of physical, intellectual, and moral states which are demanded of him by both the political
society as a whole and the special milieu for which he is specifically destined.
Education falls under planned change and is used to bring new ways of thinking about politics, work and general
outlook to life through the curriculum in the school system. The school system is fairly effective in the
achievement of this. For example, in many countries, educational system is often modified or completely changed
to suit new situations.
The education system in Kenya has undergone several changes since attainment of political independence from
Britain in1963 in order to reflect the needs of the nation. An example, is the introduction of 8-4-4 system said to be
more practical oriented (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, 1969).
In 2017 a new curriculum that is Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) was launched in Kenya educational
system. It is designed to develop talents and adoption of technology in order to increase employability of school,
college and university graduates in formal and especially in self-employment.
The practical orientation of the curriculum was expected to equip its recipients with skills for self-employment
because opportunities for salaried employment had reduced (Stabler, 1969). However, it has been noted that
planned change through education is dependent on people’s attitudes, material and human resources, and political
dispensation among others. It has been observed that where planned change has occurred such as in China and
Cuba, political will was very critical.
The structure of Competency Based Curriculum comprises two years of pre-primary, 6 years primary, (3) lower
primary grades 1, 2 & 3 years of Upper primary grades 4, 5 and 6, three years junior secondary, three years of
senior secondary and three years of university education.
Core competencies of Competency Based Curriculum include: Communication and collaboration; Critical thinking
and problem solving; Imagination and creativity; Citizenship; Learning to learn; Self-efficacy; and Digital literacy.
By the end of the learning period, it is expected that the learner will have been internalized values of love,
responsibility, respect, unity, peace, patriotism and integrity.
Having enumerated key competencies and core value of Competency Based Curriculum, focus is on the national
goals of education in Kenya. A goal is an idea of the future expected outcome that a person or a group of people or
state plan and commit to achieve. A state endeavours to attain for instance educational goals within a definite time
by setting a deadline by each level of education system. Broadly educational goals refer to competencies, skills,
and value systems that learners from educational institutions are expected to acquire upon completion of a course
program or level of education. In a nutshell every individual who undergoes through education at various levels of
education in Kenya is guided by eight (8) national goals of education outlined hereunder.
9.10 National Goals of Education in Kenya
1. Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity
2. Promote social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national development
o Social needs: Prepare children for the changes in attitudes and relationships which are necessary
for the smooth process of a rapidly developing modern economy
o Economic needs: Produce citizens with skills, knowledge, expertise and personal qualities that are
required to support a growing economy
o Technological and industrial needs: Provide the learners with the necessary skills and attitudes
for industrial development
1. Promote individual development and self-fulfillment

2. Promote sound moral and religious values
3. Promote social equality and Responsibility
4. Promote respect for and development of Kenya's rich and varied cultures
5. Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitude towards other nations
6. Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection
Self-Activity
Using appropriate examples explain the importance of having national
goals of education in Kenya
9.11.The Role of the Teacher in Social Change.

Before discussing the role of teachers in social change, it is important to establish our perception of a teacher.
Simply defined a teacher is a woman or man been trained to instruct learners at school, college and university
levels. In order to be able to teach others properly, it is expected that such a person has higher knowledge and
skills in specific areas of specialization mainly acquired through formal training. In addition such an individual is
supposed to be imbued with positive value systems of a given society he/she operates in and beyond national
borders, since people also live in global world.
Quality of a good teacher
According to (https://www.edusys.co>blog>qual... 3rd June, 2019) good teachers have ten (10) qualities
enumerated hereunder.
1. Good teachers have strong communication skills. Through their communication skills they are able to
encourage student and use it to demonstrate how even perceived difficult subjects like Mathematics are linked
to everyday activities like shopping, hobbies, sports and even future careers. This good communication skills
becomes a weapon of overcoming fear during the educational process.
2. Effective teachers are good listeners. Good teachers listen to students concerns and this way they are able to
learn from them and also tailor their lessons to the level of the learners.
3. Good teachers work with others involved in the educational process such as school administrators, leaders,
learners, other teachers, parents, educators and community. Since a teacher is expected to impart knowledge,
skills and values that valued by the society it is incumbent upon her/him to collaborate with others within and
without the school for the benefit of all.
4. Good teachers are adaptable. Effective teachers are expected to adapt to ever-changing dynamics social and
technological environment. They must use methods of teaching that are age appropriate and relevant
resources.
They also called to be creative and improvise in accordance with demands of emerging situation. For
example, the emergence of Covid-19 pandemic towards the end end of 2019 in Wuhan, China that forced
lockdown of the entire world, meant teachers had to use technology to teach. Teacher who not technologically
survey are facing challenges teaching learners at home. Adaptability is critical for a teacher in the era of
rapidly changing environment.
5. Good teachers engage their learners and give creative lessons that enhance understanding. In addition,
engaging teachers have sense of humor able to keep learners alert and capitalized.
6. Good teachers show empathy. They treat each learner as an individual and give compassion, kindness,
fairness, justice and gentleness. Teachers like these are observant, attentive and able to inspire positive energy
and attitudes according to the needs of each individual learner.
7. Good teachers have patience. Teachers with patience have capacity to tolerate delay, challenges, and
inconveniences without becoming annoyed or anxious. It is important for teacher to exercise patience towards
the learner. This gives the time to adapt to the learning environment. Each learning episode is likely to bring
with it challenge and therefore the teacher must anticipate its occurrence and thus strategize how to deal with
it. Furthermore, the teacher must exercise patience when handling colleagues, school administrators as well as
parents and other stakeholders in education who may not always view issues from similar perspectives.This
gives the time to adapt to the learning environment. Each learning episode is likely to bring with it challenge
and therefore the teacher must anticipate its occurrence and thus strategize how to deal with it. Furthermore,
the teacher must exercise patience when handling colleagues, school administrators as well as parents and
other stakeholders in education who may not always view issues from similar perspectives.
8. Good teachers value real-world learning. This kind of learning is anchored on learning from practical
involvement in the learning process for example doing assignments as individuals and groups on topics in the
real world such as “our environment”, “family life”, “school life”, “transportation” system among others.
9. Good teachers are also willing to share their ideas with others through teacher forums and publication of
their research findings in journal articles, book publication and various mass-media avenues.
10. Good teachers are lifelong learners. Given that teachers operate in an overcharging environment, they can
only be effective if they renew the knowledge in the area of specialization and general knowledge regularly.
Failure to lifelong learners will make their teaching outdated and therefore irrelevant.
The Role of the teacher in social change therefore includes the following;
 Teachers impart specific values, aspirations and to the children through teaching of school
curriculum.
 In a static society educational system transmits the cultural heritage to the new generations
with minimal changes.
 In a changing society, educational system in such a society must not only transmit the cultural
heritage, but also aid in preparing the young for adjustment to any changes that may have
occurred or are likely to occur in future.
 In contemporary societies, schools teach materials which has been selected by societies as
being useful to the society through various subjects such as History, Science, Music,
Mathematics among others and also through Co-curricular activities.
 Education is also used to bring change through introduction of new subjects into school
curriculum and higher education in order to meet the emerging issues for example, HIV/AIDS
curriculum, Computer Studies, Environmental Studies among others.
 The relationship between educational system and society is mutual; sometimes the society
influences changes in educational system and at other times the educational system influences
changes in the society.
To sum up this section, we note that a good teacher is , knowledgeable, an effective communicator, a listener, team
player, creative, adaptable, empathetic and change agents. They recognize that the only “constant thing in the
world is “change” and that is why they embrace long-life learning.
9.12 Summary
In this lecture we have noted that-Social change is constant, universal and
inevitable, though societies experience different rates of social change. For
example, traditional societies change at a very slow pace compared to modern
industrialized societies in terms of belief system, knowledge and
technological developments. Change is not also predictable and it is caused
by both internal (endogamous) factors such as ideology, technological
advancements, social conflicts, and planned change included, cultural
diffusion, natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes and drought.
Biological disasters such as emergence of contagious diseases for instance
Ebola, HIV/AIDs, Severe Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and COVID-19
affect economy and social interactions. Theories of social change, namely
evolutionary, cyclical, conflict and functionalism and the corresponding
explanation of social change have been reviewed. Finally, the effects and
importance.
Self-Assessment/Activity
9.13. Self-activity and Self-assessment

1. Using relevant examples explain the causes of social change in your
society.
2. To what extent can education be used to reduce with negative effects of
social change in our present-day societies?
3. Give a brief interpretation of the following theories of social change:
i. Evolutionary theory
ii. Cyclical theory
iii. Conflict theory
iv. Functionalism theory
4.Explain the relationship between national goals of education and social
change
9.14 References
Kibera L.W. and Kimokoti A. (2007). Fundamental of Sociology of
Education. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press.
Thomas, W.L and Anderson R.J (1982). Sociology: The study of Human
Relationships. 3rd Edition: New York: Harcourt Brace Jevanovich
Publishers.
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, (1984). 8-4-4 System of

Education. Nairobi: Government Printer.
Stabler, E. (1969). Education since Uhuru. Middletown, Connectitut:

Wesleyan University Press.
Ogburn W.F. (1964). On Cultural and Social Change: Selected Papers.

Chicago: University of Chicago Press
LECTURE TEN
Social Problems and Education.

10.1 Introduction
This course is designed to help students identify and analyze complex social problems in society. The sociological
imagination refers to the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society
(Kendall, 1998:7). As opposed to looking at isolated events (like slavery or drug abuse) by themselves, the student
of social problems is encouraged to look at social problems in relation to other aspects of society like the
economy, culture or religion In this lecture, we will define social problem, discuss characteristics of a social
problem, hierarchy of awareness of a social problems, ways of solving a social problem and outcomes of action to
resolve a social problem. Drug abuse, alcoholism and family problems will also be discussed, as well as the role of
education in solving social problems. Students will be encouraged to explore several alternatives to solving the
social problems that are examined.
1. Define "social problem" from the sociological perspective.

2. Discuss characteristics of a social problem
3. Describe the hierarchy of awareness of a social problem
4. Discuss ways of solving a social problems and possible outcomes on
action against a social problem.
5. Explain the role of education in addressing social problems.
6. Understand the four major stages of social problems development.
Social problems are the opinion in a society which expresses need for public policies and requirement for social
control
10.3.1 Characteristics of social problems
• social causation- they originate from the society
• Evaluation as a problem- It must have been observed and defined as a problem
• Citizen concern-there are a number of people in the society who express their concern about the issue
• Need for Specific Action- there are calls that something need to be done
• Affecting non-sufferers
10.3.2 The hierarchy of awareness of social problems
It is defined at three levels.
• Statistical level
 Data of victims is given but nothing is done
 Sufferers may share with each other
• Coordination level
 Victims share the problem with non-sufferers
 Many people express concern
• Communal level
 Most people agree there is need for action
 Non sufferers agitate for action
 Policy makers may formulate
 Government may pass laws
10.3.3. Ways of Defining a Social Problem
Definition of a social problem involves moral evaluation of why the problem exists and who is responsible for the
problem.
Social Problem can be defined in six broad terms;
Social problem as a tragedy-when there is a conflict between an individual and superior or uncontrollable force
leading to calamity
• Eg. Suicide, Mental illness, Alcoholism.
• A tragedy evokes feelings of pity, strong sympathy or empathy for the sufferer.
Social problem as injustice-
Any form of unequal treatment of member of a community eg, discrimination of any form
• Sexism, racism, tribalism, poverty,
• when rich criminals get away with crime vs petty criminals
• Prejudiced beliefs against women as less important than women, or blacks vs whites
Social problem as a threat
• The threat would be to physical life, sustenance, shelter or any other fundamental right to life or happiness
• Eg overpopulation can jeopardize health of a people by malnutrition
• Illiteracy can be a threat to health by HIV/AIDS
• Overpopulation can be a threat to quality of life by misuse or abuse or exploitation of diminishing natural
resources
Social Problem as an abomination
• This is definition of something as hideous, intrinsically evil and thoroughly offensive.
• The response is overwhelming repulsion, a desire to wipe out or destroy the abominable.
• Examples are the reaction to brutality of rape, exploitation of minors in ‘child porn’ etc
• Abomination brings out personalized punitive response
• Suicidal terror attacks makes people want to get hold of the killers, though dead
• Mass murders in Rwanda made people want to kill the perpetrators
• Mob justice is a response to an abomination
Social Problem as an arrogant presumptuous intervention
• Pressure for ‘equal rights’ may be perceived as ‘interference’ with natural ‘divinely determined’
differences between male and female
• Some people view attempts to provide family planning devices as arrogant presumptuous intervention in
the lives of men and women
Social problem as a defect of civilization
• An example is the setting up of bureaucracy that turns individuals into mechanical things that produce
goods.
• Medical advances that are used to enhance abortion of unwanted gender
• Technological advancement in scanning leads to mass killings from a safe distance
10.4.4 Types of Action concerning Social Problems

Intention of actions or intervention concerning a social problem is to resolve, reduce or mitigate the suffering or
eliminate the entire problem.
We will look at five main actions that may be taken to deal with a social problem.
Social Control
• Control may lessen or eliminate the problem
• eg. Courts apply ‘control’ to ‘deter’ crime by punishing the criminals
• Social control may be informal such as forming ‘vigilante’ groups to patrol and discourage muggers
Reformist Action
This kind of method works within the established social, economic and political systems such as the Western
Countries.
• Radical action to combat social problems assumes that it is impossible to solve the problem without
changing the existing institutions
• Eg radical reforms of judicially was aimed at enabling the elimination of corruption in the judicially
• Electoral reforms aims at fighting the social problem of ‘unfair distribution of resources’
• ‘irreducible minimums’???
Treatment of the problem
This would be the case where the society may form some infrastructure to treat the problem eg.
 vaccinate,
 build rehabilitation centers etc to treat those affected.
Symbolic Action
• Ceremonial actions enables a large number of individuals to display their sentiments and their evaluation of
the social problem simultaneously.
• Eg parents piqueting outside a video hall
• Women walking against brew licences to protest the social problem of alcoholism
• Women demonstrating against miraa trade to fight the social problem of ‘impotence’ and ‘violence’.
• Demonstration against legislators to fight the social problem of domestic violence
• Symbolic action is effective in raising the level of awareness of a social problem to communal level
• Demonstration against media to fight the social problem of ‘the blue whale’ causing social problem of
students’ suicide
Inaction
• Inaction may be due to) self fulfilling prophecy or ii) vicious cycle.
• No action may be based on cost-benefit analysis, either being too risky or high potential for backfiring.
No action may be as a result of self-fulfilling prophecy of blacks being less intelligent-hence social
problem of discrimination in work place
• The blacks will work less cos they are paid less, so the prophecy is confirmed.
• Women??, certain learners as stupid in class???
• Labeling of students as criminals???
10.3.5 Consequences of Action Taken Concerning Social Problems
Though action taken aims at resolving a social problem, Consequences are unanticipated and may include the
following;
• Solution to the problem-ie the problem can be eliminated
• Confinement of the Problem, such as, it could be kept to limits that are acceptable
• Shift of focus eg, change from focus on cure to prevention; Social problem of cancer change from
screening for treatment to education on healthy eating; Change from prosecuting alcohol brewers to
offering alternative jobs; Change from jailing drug addicts to providing safe homes
• Organization maintenance-A social problem may become chronic if there are pressures to maintain the
social problem. Organizations may be formed to assist the sufferers as mental health hospitals for drug
addicts and organization of rehabilitation centers for alcoholics etc.
• Shift of goals- Action taken may reveal a broad connection of a social problem to other problems. Eg. The
social problem of cholera epidemic led to a shift in upgrading of housing in slum areas instead of
treatment.
• Problem intensifies-This happens where the culprits creating a social problem develop other methods to
continue with a vice- eg the Mututho laws against consumption of alcohol may have intensified the
problem –where they invented take away arrangements
• New problem created. The availability of free choice of an individual over abortion may create another
problem of underpopulation. Likewise, Law allowing freedom of choice on sexual orientation may create
another problem of family structure.
It is important now we discuss in more detail’s individual cases of social problem to see how they fit as
social problems. We begin with discussing Alcohol as a social problem
Take Note
In sociology, problems experienced by individual members of a society
have elements of societies’ contribution, given that an individual is
socialized by the environment they find themselves in.
10.4 Alcoholism as a Social Problem
10.4.1. Definition
Alcohol is a fermented sugar-based solution intended to stimulate the drinker for the purposes of relaxation.
Alcoholism is a disease where an individual becomes addicted and loses control over alcohol intake
It is the status of becoming addicted to alcohol by changes in the body chemical combinations where one is unable
to undertake any task without taking alcohol first. (KUTOA LOCK)
10.4.2 Causes of Alcoholism
Biological-genetic predisposition or hereditary defect where an individual would become an addict on taking
alcohol where another individual takes without the same results.
2.Accessibility and affordability
3.Mental disorder such as depression, Bipolar, Anxiety. The underlying mental deficit triggers yearning for
alcohol
4.Psychological disorder due to trauma-eg sexual abuse, rape, loss of a loved one
5.Social environment, such as living in places with a lot of alcohol or morally permissive community
6.Poverty where some drink to forget their problems and responsibilities
7.Poor judgement in choice of company-peer pressure at any age.
8. Age or stage of development-the earlier that alcohol use begins, the higher the chances in progressing to
alcoholism
9. Poor parenting eg absentee fathers/mothers
10.4.3. Consequences of Alcoholism
• Reduction of life expectancy-10-12 years
• Poor performance at work/school
• Loss of employment/school dropout
• Lowered resistance to infection
• Brain disorders like hallucinations
• Liver cirrhosis for chronic alcoholism
• Degenerative disease of the nervous system(polyneuropathy)
• Hangover
• Numerous forms of brain damage
• Acute hepatitis
• High rates of accidents and deaths
• Diet deficiency
10.4.4. Treatment of Alcoholism
• In patient programs, such as rehabilitation centers
• Psychological therapy through counselling
• Organized self-help groups
• Alcoholic Anonymous meetings (AA)
• The use of abstinence maintaining drugs such as anti-abuse
• Injections of vitamins or hormones
• Aversion therapy based on behavior modification
10.4.5. Effects of Alcoholism on Education
• School dropout for children of alcoholic parent/s
• Poor performance by children from alcoholic families
• Trauma and low self esteem from children of alcoholic families
• Possible alcohol abuse by pupils from alcoholic families
• General indiscipline in schools due to poor role models
• Chronic poverty cycle among such families
• Loss of trained personnel by alcoholic teachers from alcohol related diseases or loss of jobs.
• Loss of potential talent useful to the society’s development
10.4.6. The Role of Education in Reducing/Eliminating Alcoholism
Education has the manifest function of transmitting knowledge, skills and values for the development of the
society. Therefore;
• Train teachers in teacher training institutions on issues of alcohol use and misuse
• The curriculum should include subjects that transmit knowledge about alcohol
• Guidance and counselling personnel to be trained on re-socializing learners from alcoholic families
• Psychological programs to assist traumatized learners
• Creation of awareness of biological predisposition so learners can avoid alcohol
• Programs to assist children who drop out due to parents’ problem in order to fight poverty.
• Laws banning alcohol sellers near schools should be implemented
• Age limit for alcohol users be enhanced
• Studies on social causes of alcoholism be encouraged
10.5. Drug abuse as a social problem
The history of the human race has also been a history of drug use. Since earliest times, herbs, roots, bark, leaves
and plants have been used to relieve pain and help control disease. In and of itself, the use of drugs does not
constitute evil; drugs properly administered have a medical component. Unfortunately, certain drugs also initially
produce side effects, such as euphoria, a sense of feeling good, elation, serenity and power. However, what began
as the use of drugs for relaxation evolved in time into a problem of dependence and abuse (Kerachio 1994).
10.5.1 Meaning and concept of drugs, drug use, and drug-abuse
A drug is any chemical substance that, when taken into the body, can affect one or more of the
body’s functions. These include substances that are useful or harmful to the body.
Drugs can be divided into three simple types; positive, negative and hard drugs. Positive drugs
are those accepted by society. They can be bought easily from shops, chemists, herbalist,
hospitals or any other community based health centre. They are used to cure ailments. Negative
drugs are drugs taken for pleasure or for making someone feel ‘high’. Some of these drugs are
socially accepted but their effect on the user is a slow drive to permanent addiction. Examples of
some these drugs are; alcohol, Tobacco, Khat (miraa) and glue. Hard drugs are chemically made
to stimulate the user and one becomes ‘hooked’ to the habit and soon begins to show
dependence on the drugs. These drugs include Bhang, opium, heroin, mandrax and cocaine.
Drug abuse refers to the use of drugs for purposes other than therapeutic ones. In therapeutic
use, drugs have intended effects aimed at relieving certain symptoms while the subject abusing
drugs takes them to experience some effects associated with them. This may lead to dependence
where the subject takes the drug on a continuously basis in order to experience the psychic
effect or to avoid the discomfort of not taking the drug. Not only do unpleasant physical
symptoms occur when the drug is withdrawn, but the body habituates itself to the drug’s effect
and larger and larger doses are required. Psychologically, the addict is unable to face life and its
problems without the drugs.
The addict has a chronic physical and psychological compulsion or craving to take the drugs in
order to avoid unpleasant physical and psychological effects resulting from withdrawal from the
drugs (Jarry and Jarry, 1999). Therefore, a drug is abused when its use causes harm to personal
health, to others and to the society.
Take Note
Alcohol discussed earlier is considered a drug even though it is legal.
You will understand why we say so as you study the effects of drugs to
the taker and the society.
Types of Drugs.
There are various types of drugs some of which are useful for health purposes, others for social purposes and
others for medical reasons but with proper prescriptions according to the health problem being treated or managed.
The following are examples of some of them.
a) Alcohol (ethanol);
This is a sedative hypnotic drug obtained by fermenting of carbohydrates using yeast. The active
form of alcohol is ethyl alcohol or ethanol. Alcohol includes busaa, muratina, mnazi, beer, wine
and whisky. Alcohol is a depressant, a drug that slows down the body’s functioning (Lions
Clubs International, 1992).
b) Cannabis sativa (bhangi)
This is the scientific name for marijuana (bhangi). These are relaxant drugs. The active
ingredient is called Tetro HydroCarinabinal (THC).It is used through smoking or ingested in
drinks or foods by some users.
c) Amphetamines:
This is a group of behavioral stimulants that temporarily increase energy and mental alertness.
Khat (Miraa) is an example.
d) Analgesics
17 These are drugs that relieve pain without the loss of consciousness. Such drugs
include aspirin and paracetamols.
e) Anesthetics
These are drugs that cause loss of sensation of feeling especially
pain. They affect the nervous system. General anaesthetics produce
a sound sleep and are used for surgical procedures. Local
anaesthetics are drugs that deaden a specific area of the body for
medical procedures such as dental extraction. Xylocaine is an
example of such a drug.
f) Anti-depressant:
These are medicines used to treat patients with depressive psychological illness.
g) Anti-psychotic:
This is a drug that produces an effect of emotional quietness and relative
indifference to one’s surroundings. These drugs are also major tranquillizers.
h) Barbiturates:
These are sedative hypnotic drugs that decrease the activity of the central
nervous system and depress respiration, affect the heart rate and decrease
blood pressure and temperature. They are normally used to manage mental
health conditions but may be abused for wrong purposes.
i) Caffeine
This is one of the bitter crystalline alkaloids found in coffee (Cola drinks and
chocolate). It acts as a central nervous system stimulant and mild diuretic.
j) Cocaine
It is a white, crystalline, alkaloid, which acts as a local aesthetic. It is a
dangerous, illegal stimulant. It causes increased heartbeat as well as a rise in
blood pressure. In high doses, it can cause paranoid, thought disturbances and
tachycardia. Crack or crack cocaine is the free base stable form of cocaine. It
produces a ‘high’ much more intense and rapid effect than that of normal
cocaine.
k) Codeine:
This is a sedative and pain-relieving agent found in opium and commonly used
in cough syrups and analgesics. It is abused by those who want to feel okay in
idle living
.
l) Ecstasy:
It is a designer drug that gives users a great sense of well-being affection for
all those around them, increased energy and sometimes hallucinations. Its
adverse effects can make users feel ill or experience a sense of loss of control,
dehydration and long-time memory and weight loss.
m) Hallucinogens or Psychedelics
These are substances that produce profound alterations in perception. Users
may see, hear and feel things that are not there and may exhibit psychotic
behavior. These drugs include Lysergic Diethyllamide (LSD) and Mescaline
n) Hashish
A drug made by faking the resin from the stalk, leaves and flowers of the
marijuana plant and pressing it into cakes.
o) Heroin
A semi-synthetic derivative produced by the chemical modification of
morphine. It is highly addictive and potent than morphine. It exists in white or
brown powder form.
p) Khat (Miraa)
This is an evergreen plant tree botanically called catha edulis. The parts used
as drugs are the leaves and the fresh fender shoots that are plucked and then
chewed by the users. The parts contain two known chemicals referred to as
cathinone and cathine whose pharmacological properties are similar to those
found in amphetamines.
q) LSD-Lysergic Diethyl amide
This is a drug manufactured from lysergic acid, which is found in ergot, a
fungus that grows on rye and other grains. It is one of the most potent mind-
changing chemicals and is mostly ingested by placing a small square paper
containing the drug on the tongue.
r) Morphine
This is a derivative of opium, which has a depressing effect on the central
nervous system, particularly respiration. Morphine is the major sedative and
pain-relieving drug found in opium.
s) Narcotic;
Medically this is a drug that produces sleep or stupor and also relieves pain.
Legally, a narcotic is any drug regulated under the Dangerous Drugs Act and
should only be obtained with a doctor’s prescription.
t) Opiate:
It is a drug that is derived from the opium poppy. Morphine, codeine or
heroine are in this category. Opiates induce sleep, relieve pain and are strongly
addictive. Heroine is the most abused opiate. It produces a euphoric dream
state. The user becomes desperate to avoid withdrawal syndrome and may
engage in aggressive and risk-taking behavior.
u) Opium:
It is an opiate derivative obtained from the juice of opium poppy. It takes the
form of dark brown chunks or of a powder, which is usually smoked or eaten.
The law strictly regulates its use and sale.
v) Robypnol:
‘Club drug’ is a tranquillizer that helps to relieve anxiety and helps in sleep. It
is prescribed for insomnia. It is popular in clubs and parties for giving a
drunken –like high. Rapists, who spike the drinks of victims, use it.
Activity.
Name other types of drugs that are abused that are not in the above list.
Give the colloquial names of the various types listed above
10.5.4 Factors influencing drug use in schools

a) Modern day rite of passage
Many adolescents get into drug use as a way of signifying to
themselves, peers and grownups that they are mature and can fit in any
social group. Adolescents who use alcohol but avoid other drugs tend to
have more self-confidence and feel less lonely than their peers who use
‘hard’ drugs. Students may use alcohol and cigarettes as a way of
hiding their true self.
a) Media
Alcohol and cigarette commercials are an integral part of
primetime television advertisements. They are advertised with tempting
and appealing languages. Given the fact that most youths spent time
watching televisions, it is inevitable that attitudes towards drinking and
smoking are reinforced. Drug abuse is rampant among the youth
because some copy role models such as musicians from the west who
are successful, although they are known drug users.
b) Peer Influence
Most youths influence others through social relationship centred on
friendship and peer groups rather than families. The need to conform to
their groups results in some indulging in actions such as drug taking to
please other youths. A group of students who smoke may influence
their peers to become partakers of drugs (Plant and Plant 1995). A
student may smoke as a means of approval or entry into a certain group.
c) Ignorance
Most youth’s are ignorant about the side effects of drugs. Deceptions
coupled by their ignorance are powerful weapons used to lure them into
drug taking. Uncontrolled indulgence in the so-called fun and pleasure,
are turned into pathways to share drugs. Many youths are poorly
equipped on the long time effects of various drugs. They venture
intodrug use mainly for experimental purposes but later they became
addicted.
Some parents are ignorant and passive, never imaging that their
children could abuse drugs. This assumption may prevent such parents
from discussing the danger of the vice with their children.
d) Breakdown of family unit
A breakdown of the family values and structure because parents have
lost control over their children who have freedom to experiment on
alcohol and drugs. Youths have to cope with more distressing
conditions than their counterparts a few generations ago. Without the
benefit of experience, unstable families and stressing conditions many
turn to drugs for solace (Chowdhury 1995). These affect poor and
affluent families.
e) Easy accessibility to drugs

Drug peddlers target school children for a sure supply market particularly
children from rich families. Drug moguls are cleverer by the day. They
produce designer drugs whose molecular structures have been altered but
whose potency is stronger than ordinary ones. With the alteration of the
molecular structure, the merchants can elude legal specifications by claming
they are not trafficking forbidden drugs. The drug trade involves money, police
cover ups and syndicates. Some of the law enforcers collaborate with drug
peddlers. The menace starts right from the family level. Drug peddlers gain
accessibility through school fences and video showrooms. Bhangi is widely
used and abused because it is obtained cheaply. In some regions everybody as
a norm, including women and children, takes miraa.
According to World Health Organization (1987), exposure plays a crucial role
in drug abuse. In a group of ten addicts that were studied, four got into the
habit because of exposure to drugs. Students may be exposed to drugs by
parents, teachers, friends and members of the society.
18
19 f. Unemployment
Unemployment among the youth is one reason why many are indulging in
drug abuse, as they are often idle. Because of lack of jobs, the adults have
resorted to selling drugs to schoolchildren to earn a living. They do not care to
whom they sell the drugs or alcohol so long as they earn a living.
20 g. Laxity in school management

Some school administrators do not seem to care or have administrative skills
of curbing drug abuse (Kanya 2000) as a result, some of their students indulge
in the vice. Some teachers, parents and members of the community smoke
openly in front of students. This behaviour is likely to change the perception of
students towards smoking. Some may be tempted to emulate.
21
22 h. Labelling
Drug abuse can occur as a result of labelling. If a student is always referred to
as a trouble maker, ignorant, antisocial etc by teachers and fellow students, the
label is given a major status and it affects the individuals self-concept (self-
image), making the pupil prone to deviant behavior as a component of their
personality.
23 i.Hostile Environment
There is too much violence, hostility, fear and uncertainty in the world we are
living in today. This has resulted in anxiety and depression among many
people. Drug taking is seen as an escape from all these as it helps reduce
anxiety and tension thus creating courage and determination (Irura, 1994).
Some young people use drugs to cool down certain pressures such as anger,
stress, anxiety, fear, boredom and depression. Young people who are
vulnerable and insecure may use drugs to boost their self-esteem and also to
escape from reality.
10.5 .5 Symptoms of Drug Abusers in schools

a) Company
When the student suddenly gets new friends, is secretive about the friends and
spends a great deal of time with these unknown persons yet is very sensitive
and almost abusive when asked about the friends.
b) Physical appearance
When the student appears drowsy and disoriented, with a cold clammy skin.
Other symptoms include excess sweating, running nose and watery eyes. The
student may have widely dilated pupils and will often wear dark glasses to
protect eyes from light and long sleeved shirts to hide injection marks. The
student may have traces of white powder around the nostril and at times scars
on the inner arm.
c) Character
The student may frequently complain of headaches and display memory loss,
such as lack of homework completion and not remembering what homework
was given. Poor concentration in class and daydreaming may be noticed. The
student may display acute irritability over minor issues, be unnecessarily
argumentative, violent yet at other times display nervousness, outbursts of
laughter and loud speech.
10.6 Effects of drug abuse in schools
24 a. Poor performance
Drug abuse hampers learning as those who take them lack concentration and
are always drowsy. They waste more time thinking about how to acquire the
drugs than on academics. This is a major waste on human resource.
25 b. Indiscipline
Most students on drugs steal from others, in order to have money for drugs.
Some are violent and bullies as they feel they always have to be defensive due
to their negative actions. Many are very untidy and often breaking school rules
such as sneaking out of the school compound. These actions result in being
sent home and missing class lessons. Many end up performing poorly in
academics. Drug abusers are likely to exhibit violent behaviour towards their
fellow students and teachers. Subsequently, such vulnerable groups spend
more time thinking about their security than studies (education). This can
result in poor performance.
26 c. Dropouts
Students on drugs are more likely to drop out of school than those not on drugs
due to lack of interest in education and the need to have more money to buy
the drugs. This results in teachers and other educational facilities being under
utilized in these schools.
27 d. HIV/AIDS
Youths on drugs are more prone to unprotected sex and expose themselves to the risk of
contracting HIV/AIDS. Studies show that the rate of infection is usually high among the youth
than other age brackets.
28 e. Loss of life
There have been cases of students losing lives due to drug abusers. A case in
point is the 1999 Nyeri High School arson in which four prefects were burnt to
death by their colleagues, and the 2001 fire tragedy in Kyanguli Secondary
School, where 67 students died in a fire started by arsonist. According to the
National Campaign against Drug Abuse (NACADA) director, by 2007, drug
abuse will have claimed more lives than aids in Kenya, a country where 92%
of youth aged between 16 and 26 have experimented with drugs (Daily Nation,
2003).
Cases of students injuring or killing each other in fights after taking drugs are
common. Young drug abusers are usually more impulsive, more delinquent,
more depressed, more suicidal, less successful in school and less self-
confident.
Smoking is responsible for nearly five million deaths in the world (Amayo and
wangai, 1994;Irura, 2000). Lung cancer is 20-25 times more in smokers than in
non-smokers.
Whatever reasons may be cited to rationalize drug abuse, it does not have any
significant benefit to human life. Besides getting ‘hooked’ to the habit, one’s
performance and discipline are affected. Drug abuse also calls for expensive
and difficult rehabilitation procedures, shortens career prospects and creates
health problems. Therefore, stopping the habit has its long-term benefits
besides reducing diseases. School administrators, teachers, parents the entire
society should play their rightful roles in sensitizing the youth on the dangers
of drug abuse.
10.8 The Role of Education in addressing Social Problems of Alcohol and Drugs abuse.
Education can be used in many ways to solve or minimize the social problems of alcohol and
drug abuse. Below are relevant examples of the same, but you are encouraged to add to the list
as it is not exhaustive.
a) Job Creation
Unemployment is one of the major contributors to idleness, drug peddling and
abuse among the youth. The society and by extension the government should
erase that state of hopelessness. This could be attained through job creation.
b) Censorship of Media
The government should ensure that programmes in print and mass media do
not influence youth negatively on drug use. Police should take action on video
showrooms where drugs are sold.
c) Policies
The government should formulate policies for school heads and teachers on
how to deal with drug abuse in schools. Taxes on tobacco and its products
should be increased to make them more unaffordable and strict penalties
should be given to people selling drugs to youths. Drug offences should not be
bail able. Bars, pool centers and video shows should be removed from
residential areas. Designated places for smoking should be set aside and it
should be a crime punished by law if found violating the law. Businessmen
should be prohibited from selling cigarettes to schoolchildren
d) Sensitization
Seminars and workshops should be held for teachers, students and parents to
sensitize them on drug abuse. Efforts should be made to minimize stress
related activities. School administrators should be in serviced on skills of
detecting the vice among students. Parents who are smokers should be
sensitized to avoid smoking in the presence of their children. Teachers should
be equipped with the skills and knowledge of identifying drug abusers and
counselling them
e) Accountability
Parents should take their responsibility in childrearing seriously and ensure
that their children account for the money given. They should not abdicate their
parental roles to other agents of socialization such as peer groups, teachers and
house helps.
f) Development of Youth Talents
Public land should be repossessed and used to develop youth talents such as
sports, drama and arts. Social halls should be built where they can hold
informative seminars on ways to avoid drugs.
g) Conducive School environment
Drug abuse can be countered through making the school experience
pleasurable and rewarding. Counselling problem students rather than
castigating them gives positive results. Teachers can help the problem pupils
understand their own problems so that solutions can be arrived at. Good
classroom and school management will reduce undesirable behavior in
learners. Cooperation between schools, parents and the community will help to
counter drug abuse in society. Guidance and counselling units should be
strengthened in schools.
h) Government Involvement
The government should introduce the study of drugs as a compulsory course in
schools and colleges. This would make students more aware of the dangers
associated with the vice. The government should set up national consensus
groups composed of members of the police force, teachers, the clergy,
pharmacists and consumer organizations to sensitize people on the dangers of
the vice. The body should also have the power to investigate cases of people or
businessmen who sell drugs to the underage or students (W.H.O1987).
i) Rehabilitation
Students addicted to drugs should be rehabilitated. These centers should be
established throughout the country.
10.9 Summary
This lecture has analyzed social problems as societal induced conditions that
harms any segment of the population, and acts and conditions that violate the
norms and values found in society The characteristics, hierarchy, of awareness,
evaluation and treatment a social problem has been discussed.
Alcoholism and drug abuse as examples of social problems have been discusse.
Alcoholism is defined as a disease where an individual becomes addicted and
loses control over alcohol intake and causes of alcoholism as biological,
accessibility and affordability and Mental disorder such as depression, Bipolar,
Anxiety. Effects of alcoholism on education includes school dropout, family
breakup, poverty, violence, indiscipline, illness among others. Drug abuse has
been defined as intake of drugs for purposes they were not intended or taking of
illicit drugs for the purpose of stimulation. Factors influencing drug use in
schools in Kenya include among others, a sign of maturity by youths, media
influence, peer influence, ignorance, breakdown of family unit, the easy
accessibility to drugs, unemployment, hostile environment, laxity in school
management and labelling where a student who is always referred to as a
trouble maker, ignorant, anti -social etc by teachers and fellow students will use
drugs as escapism. Symptoms that indicate drug abusers in schools among them
include the company students’ keep, physical appearance and character of
students. The effects of drug abuse in schools in Kenya include poor
performance, indiscipline, school dropouts, HIV AIDS and loss of life.
The role of education in solving social problems include, job creation, policies,
creation of sensitization, accountability, development of youth talents,
conducive environment, government intervention, rehabilitation.
Activity/ Self-assessment
7. Define "social problem" from the sociological perspective.

8. Discuss characteristics of a social problem
9. Describe the hierarchy of awareness of a social problem
10. Discuss ways of solving a social problems and possible outcomes
on action against a social problem.
11. Explain the role of education in addressing social problems.
Understand the four major stages of social problems development
References



York. Routledge


Essex
Peil,Margaret and Olatunji Oyeneye, (1998). Consensus Conflict and
change.A Sociology introduction to African Societies. East African
Education Publishers LTD. Nairobi.
LECTURE ELEVEN
Gender and Education
Lecture Outline
11.1 Introduction
11.3 Meaning of Sex and Gender
11.4 Ideology of Sexism
11.5 Theories of Gender Differences
11.6 Gender Disparity in Education
11.7 Factors affecting Education of boys and girls
 Societal beliefs about education
 Teacher interaction dynamics with boys and girls
 Hidden Curriculum
11.8 Effects of under-presentation of girls in education on socio-economic, political and
leadership status
11.9 Ways of Improving Education Status of girls and women
11.10 Summary
11.11 Self-Activity and Self-Assessment Questions
10.12 References
11.1 Introduction
This lecture has a belief description of the meanings of the key concepts pertaining to gender and
education. Some of these concepts include sex, gender and ideology of sexism. Factors that
affect education of females such as societal beliefs, hidden curriculum, teacher attitudes, and
textbook images have been discussed. In addition, the status of girls and women in terms of
education, employment, political standing, and leadership in educational institutions have been
examined. Finally, ways of improving education for females in society have been discussed.
By the end of the lecture the learner should be able to:
1. Comprehensively define terms, sex, gender, and ideology of sexism.
2. Using relevant examples explain the factors that negatively affect accessibility of
education by females and academic achievement.
11.3 Concept of Gender and Sex

It is difficult to comprehend the concept of gender without first understanding the meaning of the
term sex.
Intext Question
What does the term sex mean?
Meaning of Sex
• Judith Butler (1990) defines sex as biological differences between females or males genitalia
with respect to their reproductive functions.
 Sex variations are innate while gender ones are socially constructed (Judith Butler, 1990).
 Gender differences represent expectations people have of someone who is female or male
Concept of Gender
Intext Question
What is gender?
Gender refers to socially designed differences rather than biological differences between males and
females for instance, males are perceived to be leaders and fit better in public sphere, female fit in
domestic sphere, work at home, and males are clever while women are not very clever.
• Gender differences start at birth; people treat boys and girls differently;
 girls are expected to develop feminine qualities that best fit them into a domesticated home
life
 boys are supposed to acquire masculine traits for activities outside the home domain or
public sphere;
• Society expects women to do more work than men.
• Across the world women work 67% of the hours worked, produce 50% of the food, yet earn
only 10% of the world’s income (Christian Aid, 2015).
• Division of labour is gender based thus women cook, cultivate and give care to children and
society in general; men provide security, leadership, resources among others.
• Men are said to be clever, emotionally strong, courageous, and possess leadership qualities.
• Women are said to be emotional, illogical and weak among others.
11.4 The Ideology of Sexism
Intext Question
What does the term ideology mean?
• Ideology is a set of beliefs and visions about men and women that cannot be backed with
facts.
• According to Ashley Crossman (2000) an ideology is a set of cultural beliefs, values, and
attitudes that underlie and justify either the status quo or movements to change it.
• Ideology can also underlie movements for social change, which rely on sets of ideas that explain
and justify their purpose and methods.
• Ideology of sexism argues that a female is weaker compared to male sex intellectually,
emotionally and physically among other deficiencies.
• Sexist ideology is oppressive to both sexes but more to females.
Intext Question
What is sexism?
• Sexism is any form of description assigned to individuals because of their biological sex
• However, most often implies a bias based upon one's gender, more often than not sexism is
used to relay a degradation in some form to a woman as opposed to a man. While this is not
intended to create any type of stereotype, it is often a fact that in the world women have been
treated as lesser than men (Margaret Mead, 1945).
11.5 Theories of Gender Differences
Intext Question
What is a theory?
A sociological theory is defined as facts, ideas and principles that attempt to explain the nature
of society, its organizations, structures and patterns of behaviour. Sociological theories that
attempt to explain differences between men and women and their different roles in society
included and not limited to socio-biology, brain literation, social cultural theory and feminist
theory. A brief outline is given here below.
29 Socio-biology Theory
Intext Question
Explain the ideas associated with socio-biology theory
Socio-biology is anchored on the assumption that certain behaviours are inherited but can be
influenced by natural selection. Natural selection is a process that was expounded by Charles
Darwin in 1859 in his book titled “On the Origin of Species”. The theory postulated that
organisms that are able to: adapt themselves to their environment have a higher chance of
survival and reproduction of more offspring. Change behaviours and physical traits.
Socio-biology theory seems to attribute gender differences to hormones which are bodily
secretions that control development of male and female bodies. For instance, some of the
scientists argue that the main male hormones (testosterone and androgens) make males more
aggressive compared to females. On the other hand, female hormones (oestrogen and
progesterone) make women menstruate under normal circumstances from puberty between ages
of 10 and 14 years and continues to the age of 50 years each month for 4 to 5 days.
Consequently, all other things being equal women within this age bracket can get pregnant, give
birth and breastfeed babies while normal men on the other hand, impregnate women from
puberty between 12 and 16 years of age and well beyond 50 years of age.
It has been posited that hormones in men and women produce different behaviours. However,
Oakley (1981) argued that environment can weaken the effect of biology for both men and
women. She found out that if a boy is dressed as a girl and continues to be treated as a girl, he
will display behavioural characteristics of a girl. Further, although testosterone and androgens
are expected to make men more sexually aggressive, females in some societies such as
Trobriands of Papua New Guinea, Lesu of China, Mataco of South America and Lepcha of
Himalayan have been found to be more sexually aggressive compared to their male counterparts
(Nicholson, 1993; Steven Rose, Kamin & Lewontin, 1984; Oakley, 1972). These findings seem
to suggest that to extent sexual aggression and gender roles are socio-culturally determined and
modified.
Activity
Explain ideas of socio-biology and gender differences
30 Brain literation theory and gender differences
Intext Question
What does brain literation mean?
According to Nicholson (1993) the right and left hemispheres of the brain specialize in different
functions. The right hemisphere of brain in about 95 percent of the population specializes in
verbal and language skills. Women’s brain is more literalized to the right, and explains the
apparent superiority of females in verbal and language skills and liberal and social science
subjects. On the other hand, men’s brain is literalized to the left. It is argued that, that is why
men pursue scientific, mathematical and technological oriented disciplines. However, this
argument is fallacious because not all men are good in mathematics or science-technology
oriented subjects. Similarly, not all females perform better than males in verbal and language
skills as well as social science subjects contrary to the belief that females are good in these
subjects.
Activity
What is brain literation?
Explain the validity of brain literation theory in relation to learning abilities of boys and
girls.
31 Socio-Cultural Theory and Gender roles
Basically, men can behave like women and vice versa through enculturation of behaviour and
intellectual capacities. Murdork (1949) justified division of labour between males and females on
biological make up. He arrived at his conclusion after carrying out a cross-cultural survey of 224
societies ranging from hunting, gathering to modern states on gender roles. Talcott Parsons
(1955a) like Murdock (1949) had similar ideas. However, this is a cultural belief, since a man
other than child bearing function and breastfeeding, is able to bottle feed, clothe, and wash the
baby. Oakley (1974) has reported that in Alorese society, a traditional community in an Island in
Indonesia, women left babies under the care of a sibling or father or grandparent as they went to
cultivate and collect food since cultivation was women’s role. In fact, fathers from the Aka, a
pygmy tribe in the Republic of Congo offer babies their nipples to pacify them when “moms” or
mothers are not within reach (http://www.fatherly.com). These findings seem to confirm that
gender roles areActivity
predominantly culturally designated rather than biologically predetermined.
To what extent does socio-cultural theory explain the origin of gender roles in your
culture?
32 Feminist theories and gender differences
Intext Question
What is feminism?
Feminism is a doctrine or a social movement, which advocates the granting of the same social,
political, and economic rights enjoyed by males to their female counterparts. The history of
feminism can be traced back to the ideals of French revolution, which took place between 1789
and 1799. In pre-revolutionary France, women had no part in society outside the home and
specifically house. The main pre-occupation of women was to give birth to heirs for their
husbands and to perform household duties. Apparently, women were perceived to be incapable
of any meaningful intellectual discourse towards political and philosophical engagements. It is
observed that although women participated in the revolution, that ushered social, political and
economic rights to men from oppressive oligarchy, women did not gain such rights. Since that
time women started fighting for their rights in society.
Deckard (1975) argued that women have had lower social status than men and that they have
been and are still being discriminated socially, economically and politically. Generally, feminists
have been concerned with inequalities between women and men in education, employment,
leadership and ownership of property. Within the feminist movement, there are four major
ideological positions, namely: liberalism, Marxist socialism, radical feminism, and post-modern
feminism. A brief discussion of each ideological perspective is given hereunder beginning with
liberal feminism.
33 Feminism
Feminism is the advocacy or movement of women’s rights on the ground of equality of sexes.
Feminism as a belief in equality of the sexes, encompasses social, political and economic
equality. There are different perspectives of feminism. Some of these include liberal feminism,
Marxist socialism, radical feminism, and post-modern feminism.
Intext Question
Briefly outline ideas associated with liberal feminism
The adherents of liberal feminism such as Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), Mill (1809-1873) and
Friedan (1921-2006) argue that women should enjoy same and equal rights as their male
counterparts because all people are born equal irrespective of their gender, race, class and colour.
Liberal feminism is thus committed to equal opportunities for all human beings without any
discrimination. It is assumed that whenever inequalities are detected in the treatment of females
and males, for instance, in the curriculum content and in the subjects offered in schools, these
differences should be eliminated. Children should have access to the same schools, teachers,
subjects, the same examinations, irrespective of race, gender and any other form of difference.
These are no good reasons, according to liberal feminists, why boys should not learn the subjects
done by girls such as home science.
Similarly, there is no reason why girls should not play football or do physics and become successful in
them as well as boys or even perform better. Differences in gender inequality of educational
opportunities and access including other hidden discriminatory practices such as failure to pay attention
to the needs of girls for instance, in respect to provision of sanitary towels, can be achieved through re-
socialising society for such a need. According to liberal feminists, a society stands to gain a lot by
educating women who constitute more than fifty per cent of the human race.
Intext Question
Why is liberal feminism said to be reformist?
Liberal feminism has a reformist approach and has achieved some success in improvement of
educational facilities for girls and access to institutions that were only accessible to men.
However, its pace is very slow for it heavily relies on the state and political rights to gain
equality. Liberal feminism, for instance, supports affirmative action, legislation requiring
employers and educational institutions to make special attempts to accommodate women in the
pool of applicants. The assumption is that legislation by itself will naturally melt discrimination
away. However, there is evidence that legislation that is not accompanied by advocacy, new
ways of thinking and implementation of legislation to the letter, may take a long time in
changing the status quo. For instance, out of 774 million illiterates two thirds are women
(Education for Global Monitoring Report, 2013). The same report notes that 31 million of girls
of primary school age compared to 27 million boys are locked out of education. Recently,
UNESCO (2017) has reported that adult illiteracy stood at 750 million and women constituted
two-thirds of the illiterates. This is in spite of the fact that education has been declared a basic
human right (The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 & UNESCO, 1960).
34 Marxist Socialist Feminism
Intext Question
Identify the major ideas of Marxist-Socialist Feminist theory
Marxist socialist feminism thought is anchored upon Marxist theory that generally links
inequality in society to social class inequality. It is focused on investigating and explaining the
ways in which women are oppressed through systems of capitalism and private property
(https://en.m.wikipedia.org). The theory argues that schools exist to serve the needs of capitalism
in order to reproduce workers of a segregated labour force in the workplace. Capitalism is an
economic system in which means of production and distribution are owned and controlled by
private individuals and businesses for profit.
Intext Question
Explain the contribution of capitalism to gender in equality?
In a capitalist economic set up, women join labour force at the lower ranks of the working class
where the majority do the traditional service jobs. Since a substantial proportion of women are
less educated compared to men, they are hired for lowly paid jobs and often on temporary and
part-time basis. Thus, women often form a “reserve army of cheap labour”. Furthermore, many
women are not wage earners since majority of them stay at home to bear and nurture children a
role assigned to women. This situation makes women dependent on men for financial support.
Marxist socialist feminist contend that women did not always occupy an inferior place in the
society. In the primitive society, the epoch of tribal collectivism, women were equals of men and
recognised by men as such. In fact, they argue that during this period women were cultural
leaders because food gathering was more important than hunting. Hunting was done by men and
was an unreliable source of food. The vegetable foods that women collected and prepared
formed the staple food. Women also discovered agriculture and domesticated small animals
making food more readily available.
Causes of inequality between men and women according to Marxist Socialism Theory
Emergence of capitalism towards the end of eighteenth century, diminished power and status of
women in the society when men became engaged in money economy. Socialist feminists further
view the institution of marriage (family) as a means of bringing women under the control of
men. According to socialist feminists, the family did not develop to fulfil human needs for
companionship, but its function was a preservation of wealth within the paternal line after the
industrial revolution. The role of the women within the family thus became that of a breeder
especially of sons in order to continue the family line and holders of material and cultural
heritage. Socialist feminist have argued that state should provide child care services.
According to Marxist socialist feminism, gender inequality is economical and therefore: it must
be totally dismantled. Socialist feminist vision of an ideal society must be established where
means of production would be publicly owned and the fruits of production equally distributed to
all members of the society.
Take Note:
Socialist feminists have been criticized for assuming that all women belong
to the working class. In addition, all women do not experience the same
kind of oppression. For instance, black women may not in most cases be at
par with their white female counterparts in multi-racial societies. Thus, while
all women are discriminated in the labour market, politics, education,
economy and other aspects of social life, black women may face more
35
Activityand disadvantage in white-dominated societies.
isolation
36
Identify major differences between liberal feminist theory and Marxist
37
and socialism theories.
38 Radical Feminism
Intext Question
Describe the major sources of gender inequalities as articulated by radical feminism
theory.
Radical feminism is an ideological movement which attributes women's inferior standing in

society and oppression to sex class system and patriarchy. Firestone (1970) states that the origin
of sex class system lies in the biologically determined reproductive roles of men and women and
therefore it predates all other forms of women oppression. For instance, since women become
pregnant and bear children, it is assumed that they are the natural nurturers. Thus, unlike
economic class which is society created, sex class is directly linked to biological reality which
puts men into a more privileged position compared to women. Consequently, reproductive
differences between men and women led to the first division of labour whereby most women
were and are still forced to stay at home to take care of children and perform home maintenance
chores while men work outside home in order to provide for women and children materially.
Effectively, women became domesticated into the private sphere whereas men occupied
positions in the public sphere such as, employment sector, government and leadership in almost all
sectors of the society.
Intext Question
Explain the factors that maintain oppression and inequality of women in your
society
Radical feminists are convinced that oppression of women is mainly maintained by male
instituted social structures and particularly the family under patriarchy system, motherhood, love
between the two sexes sexual intimacy and religion. Most of social institutions and especially the
family boost up the psychological power of man at the expense of that of a woman. The woman
besides being economically dependent on man is also emptied of her emotional independence
and self-confidence. According to radical feminists, the behaviour and actions of girls/women
are geared towards pleasing men at the expense of them growing up into self-confident and
authentic individuals.
Radical feminists also trace women’s inferior place in society to patriarchy. Patriarchy is a social system
that allocates political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property and
inheritance of material wealth as well as resources mostly to males. Dominance of men over women is
often unjustifiably anchored on sex differences in terms of physical strength, and biological roles in
reproduction. Radical feminists view patriarchy as a social product and not as a consequence of inborn
differences between females and males. The main focus of radical feminists is therefore to dismantle
any social structures that promote power differentials between females and males and especially
marriage.
Intext Question
Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of Radical Feminism towards
ending inequality between men and women in your community
Radical Feminists’ strategies towards elimination of inequality between men and women in
society
Radical feminists advocate for the development of technology in the area of contraception in
order to free women from giving birth throughout their procreative years which can begin as
early as nine years to age of fifty years. They further suggest that babies should be reproduced
artificially through test tubes. These measures according to radical feminists would free women
from the yoke of biology of child bearing and taking care of children. Further, they argue that
oppression of women will not just cease because the biological determinants are overcome.
Thus, they recommend that all social structures perceived to maintain and sustain male
dominance should be deconstructed and be replaced by establishment of the new social order.
The envisaged social order should:
(i) free women from the tyranny of their reproductive biology. Child-rearing and even child
bearing is expected to become the responsibility of society as a whole where men as well
as women will be involved in nurturing children. Advances in biological sciences should
make use of artificial reproduction possible for those who wish to make use of it and not
directly through a man;
(ii) recognise full self-determination of women as well as economic empowerment of both
women and children;
(iii) guarantee sexual freedom so that can live together as sexual partners in what radical
feminists refer as “non-legal/companionate arrangement” without necessarily conforming
to heterosexual relationships. Some of the radical feminists practise lesbianism and
celibacy as they view heterosexual relationships as “going to bed with an enemy”.
(iv) legalise abortion in order to free women from the burden of nurturing children; and
(v) uproot the institution of marriage for it gives man an overbearing power over women.
Radical feminism has been criticized for being too radical with respect to accepted social norms
and reproductive roles of women and men. It has been argued that radical feminism is divisive
along female and male lines instead providing workable solutions to elimination of inequality
between female; and male instead it seems to create social disorder and competition instead of
complementarit
39
40 Postmodern Feminism
11.11 Self-Activity
Postmodern feminism tends to reject the claim that there is a single theory that can explain the
situation ofEvaluate
womentheinstrengths
the universe. The theory argues that different groups of women for
of strategies offered by radical feminists in eliminating gender
instance, middle class women, upper class women, black women and poor class women have
been exposedinequality in society.challenges. Postmodern feminist theorists have thus developed
to different
different strategies for dealing with predicaments facing women.
Intext Question
Discuss the contribution of postmodern feminism to feminism movement
Postmodern feminists largely locate challenges of women in the use of language and not with such
things as improving job opportunities, removal of biological constraints as well as freeing women from
domestic work (Tong, 1998). They argue that language is the main instrument that classifies the two
genders in terms of opposites but in favour of the males. For example, language describes male and
female gender as opposites in terms of strong/weak, brave/coward, rational/emotional, and so on.
Intext Question
Using examples demonstrates the power of language in heightening and
minimizing gender inequality in your society.
The positive labels are often associated with males while their opposites are assigned to females.
The use of negative and less powerful labels on women in time becomes internalized as part of
their identity. Use of neutral words such as “human resources” instead of “manpower”,
“headteacher” instead of “headmaster”, “ancestor” instead of “forefathers” and “humankind”
instead of “mankind” and so on is better because these words accommodate the two genders.
Proper use of language can minimize gender gap and differential treatment of the two genders.
Deconstruction of language would therefore assist women to enjoy equal status comparable to
that of their male counterparts. Use of male specific words instead of neutral ones essentially
serves to marginalize and silence females in all aspects of human interaction.
11.6 Gender Disparity in Education
This is in spite of documented evidence that suggest that female education is one of the most
important forces of development (King, 1991). While it is important to educate both females and
males, Forum for African Women Educationist (FAWE) enumerates a number of reasons in
favour of educating the girl child. These are:
 It is a basic human right.

 It promotes gender equity
 Educating girls is a better investment than boys' education because it has the highest return
investment in the developing countries; it has multiplier effects, and empowers women to
bring about other necessary changes like smaller family size, increased income, and non-
market productivity.
• Nearly two-thirds of the world’s illiterate adults are women, a proportion that has remained
stubbornly unchanged for the past 20 years.
• In Africa overall literacy rate for women is at 62% and that of men is at 79%
(Worldbank.org, September 05, 2019).
• This ignores the wisdom of scholar’s such as Dr. Aggrey (1875-1927), a renowned Ghanaian
educator and sociologist who said that “If you educate a man you educate an individual, but
if you educate a woman you educate a family and nation”.
According to King (1991) female education is one of the most important forces of development;
Educating girls is a better than boys’ education because;
 It has highest return in the developing countries for it has multiplier effects, and
empowers women to;
 raise smaller families, and
 increased income among other benefits.
 Of the 796 million adults are estimated to be illiterate, 530.6 million were women (UN
Women, 2018).
 In Kenya men have attained literacy at 86.59% while women at 85.21% in 2018.
Consequently, in 2019 more women were illiterate in Kenya compared to men. Thus in the same
year 68.7% of women were enrolled in Adult Education versus men at (31.3%).
Results of marginalization of women in Education, employment and leadership positions
Take Note:
Marginalization of women in education in Kenya has translated into their
under-representation in employment and political participation as
illustrated here below.
Women and political participation in Kenya
Employment status by Gender in 2015
Types of Job Male Female
Regular employment 65.6 34.4
Informal Sector 34.3 65.7
Representation of Women in Leadership in Kenya
Males (%) Females (%)

Members County Assemblies 1456 (66.4%) 737 (36.6%)
National Assemblies 273 (78.2%) 76 (21.8%)
Senate 49 (68.7%) 21 (31.3%)
Note: most women work in Education services, agriculture, domestic services, trade, hotel and
restaurants. By and large these sectors do not offer jobs with high financial rewards.
11.7 Factors that Affect the Education of Girls
• The society sees educating of boys more important than that of girls ;
• The society does not put a lot emphasis on the education of girls;
• educated women are perceived to be less "feminine" and are not easily controlled by men;
• Sometimes girls drop out because of pregnancies;
• Girls drop out school because they cannot cope with the pressure of school work and
domestic chores;
• majority of secondary schools for girls poorly equipped and under staffed secondary
schools;
• high pregnancy rate at 18% among school girls (Kenya Demographic and Health Survey,
2014)
• sexual harassment in mixed secondary schools from both their colleagues and the male
teachers;
• In 1993 boys of St. Kizito burnt the dormitories of girls and 71 of them were girls raped and
19 girls died from fire.
Hidden Curriculum is defined as:
• Hidden curriculum comprises unwritten purposes of education exposed to pupils by school
environments e.g. school practices, behaviour of teachers, students etc.
The under-representation of girls and women in educational institutions mean that:
• occupational skills and as a result they are not able to access financially high rewarding
employment;
• lack of management and entrepreneurial skills to assist them in self-employment;
• High poverty levels among women;
• Lack of health and nutritional skills including those of their families;
• Underrepresentation of women in decision-making.
11.8 Some Ways of Improving the Educational, Occupational, and Leadership

Chances of Women
1. Because of the links between education and the economy, Kenyan women are marginalized
in all wage employment sectors of the Kenyan economy. This is further aggravated by the
fact that whether woman has received education or not, they are still marginalized due to the
ingrained social cultural beliefs that women are unequal to men. But, in spite of socio-
cultural beliefs education of women remains the key to socio-economic and political
emancipation.
As more women receive formal and higher education, they acquire more skills and expertise
needed in various fields of development. Educated women will become more aware of
issues, more adaptable to change and less passive to their conditions.
Towards the goal of women education world organizations, governments, communities, non-
government organizations, women organizations must give top priority to the education of
girls. More bursaries should be specifically set up for girls from poor families. When this
happens, poor families may refrain from withdrawing girls from schools on account of lack
of school fees.
2. Members of society at large and especially parents and teachers must be sensitized on the
importance of educating girls through the radio, public lectures and songs.
3. More research should be carried out in schools and in the communities in order to establish
the relative importance of the factors that impinge on the education of girls.
4. Comprehensive data on the situation of girls and women with particular reference to poor
urban, poor rural, nomadic, school dropouts, adolescent mothers should be compiled to
facilitate appropriate planning.
5. Confidence and capacity building-skill sessions should be organized for women and girls.
Households, especially those headed by women should be assisted in starting and sustaining
income-generating activities so that they are empowered to cater for the material needs of
their families.
6. A vigorous career education counselling for girls should be introduced in schools to
enlighten them on career options that exist, and their academic requirements particularly for
Science subjects and mathematics. Girls do very poorly in these subject. If this counselling is
not carried out women will continue to aspire for jobs such as teaching, nursing and
secretarial work that are traditionally associated with women.
7. Since girls drop out from schools due to pregnancies, serious campaigns to educate girls
about their sexuality and how to deal with teenage relationships should form part of the
school curriculum from the upper primary classes onwards. A large proportion of women
from primary to university have had their education interrupted and sometimes ended due to
teenage pregnancy.
8. Adult education which has been in the decline, should be revitalized to cater for vast numbers
of illiterate women.
9. A bi-annual publication on the status of the education of girls should be launched.
Additionally, Gender studies should be offered in all institutions of teacher education.
10. Educational materials and textbooks that portray girls and women only in their traditional roles
should be rewritten in order to provide more balanced role models.
11.9 Summary
The review of educational status of women worldwide and especially

developing countries like Kenya has shown that women have been
11.11 Self-Activity and Evaluation
outstripped by men at Questions
all levels of the education system and especially at the
post-secondary level. To ignore the education of women who constitute the
Using examples from your community, explain the concepts of sex, gender, sexism
majority, is to hamper the country development. Education of women should
ideology and their impact on the education of girls.
be given priority. To achieve this, intervention measures such as bursaries,
Critically establishment
examine the factors that influence
of quality unisexualthe boarding
education secondary
of girls andschools,
boys in your
career
country. education and sex education should be provided for girls. The society at large
should explain
Using examples be sensitized aboutparity
how gender the importance
in educationofcan
education of girls and women
be achieved.
and its overall impact on the development of the society. Finally, research on
Explain the strengths and weaknesses of the following theories in relation to gender
the effect of the hidden curriculum on the educational chances of both
differences.
females and males should be carried out.
Sociobiology
Brain iteration
Social-cultural theory
Liberal feminists
Marxist-socialism theory
Radical feminism
Postmodern feminism
11.12 References
Coard, B. (1971). How the West Indian Child is Made educationally sub-
normal in British School System. London: New Beacon Books.
Haralambos, M. and Holborn, M. (2000). Sociology: themes and perspectives.
London. Harper Collins publishers limited.
Philips, Bernard (1979). Sociology: New York. Mc. Grow-Hill Book
Company.
Kibera L.W. and Kimokoti A. (2007). Fundamentals of Sociology of
Education. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press.
Mitsos, E. and Browne, K. (1998). “Gender differences in Education: The
underachievement of boys”. Sociology Review, Vol.8, No.1.
UNIT TWELVE
Education and Development

Lecture Outline
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Definition of education
12.4 Meaning of development
12.5 Components of development
12.6 Education and development
12.7 The role of education in development

12.8 Summary
12. 9 Activity/Self-evaluation
12.10 References
12.1 Introduction
Education is a social institution charged with cultural and social reproduction, that is, with the
education of children and youth for individual and social survival. The function of a social
institution refers to the contribution it makes to the maintenance and continuance of the total
system of which it forms a part. As a social function of schools, education comprises knowledge,
skills, attitudes, values and sensibilities. These attributes are necessary for the maintenance and
continuance of any society. Education is any nation is regarded as the panacea which means cure
of all problems of development. Education is expected to produce manpower, educated citizens
as well as enlightened leaders. This lecture introduces you to the meaning and role of education
in society. Further, we shall examine also social problems in schools and highlight various ways
the government uses to minimize indiscipline in schools in Kenya. Understanding education
and development will not only help in understanding our society but will also help you to
understand the basic components of development.

(i) Explain the concept of education and development.
(ii) Discuss the components of development
(iii) Explain the functions of education
12.3 Definition of Education
Education is a social institution charged with cultural and social reproduction, that is, with the
education of children and youth for individual and social survival. The function of a social
institution refers to the contribution it makes to the maintenance and continuance of the total
system of which it forms a part. As a social function of schools, education comprises knowledge,
skills, attitudes, values and sensibilities. These attributes are necessary for the maintenance and
continuance of any society. Education is any nation is regarded as the panacea which means cure
of all problems of development.
Take Note
Education is a process of transmitting knowledge, skills and cultural

values of the society. Culture is defined as a way of life of a given society
and therefore education and culture are synonymous.
12.4 Meaning of development
Development is a process that creates growth, progress, positive change or the addition of
physical, economic, environmental, social and demographic components. The purpose of
development is a rise in the level and quality of life of the population, and the creation or
expansion of local regional income and employment opportunities, without damaging the
resources of the environment. Development is visible and useful, not necessarily immediately,
and includes an aspect of quality change and the creation of conditions for a continuation of that
change.
In-Text question
What do you understand by the term 'development'?
In the simplest terms, development can be defined as bringing about social change that allows
people to achieve their human potential. Development is a process rather than an outcome: it is
dynamic in that it involves a change from one state or condition to another. Ideally, such a
change is a positive one - an improvement of some sort (for instance, an improvement in
maternal health). Furthermore, development is often regarded as something that is done by one
group (such as a development agency) to another (such as rural farmers in a developing country).
Some of the words or phrases that you may associate with development are: change,
consumption, economic development, economic growth, education, entitlements, equality,
equity, freedom, gender equity, goals, good governance, Gross Domestic Product (GDP), health,
human development, human rights, income, justice, livelihoods, Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs), participation, peace, positive change, poverty reduction, process of change, production,
progress, reducing vulnerability, responsibilities, self-determination, social development, social inclusion,
sustainability, targets, wealth.
12.5 Components of development

The following are components of development:
i. Level of agricultural development
Agricultural development is a pre-requisite of economic growth in our country. Rising
agricultural productivity supports and sustains industrial development in several important ways;
firstly, to permit agriculture to release part of its labour force for industrial employment while
meeting the increasing food needs of the non-agricultural sectors. Secondly, it raises agricultural
incomes, thereby creating the rural purchasing power needed to buy the new industrial goods and
rural savings.
ii. Level of industrial development
Industrialization is a key force of rapid development of any economy. Most of the infrastructure
facilities such as, means of transportation and communication, power and banking expand along
with industrial development, while, their availability in the area causes concentration of
industries. Industrialization not only provides employment opportunities and reduces the
dependence of workforce on agriculture but also acts as an agent of socio-cultural transformation
by bringing about urbanization.
iii.Level of urbanization
There is a great degree of association between industrialization and urbanization and both of
them move side by side in the same direction. If one try to explain the genesis of urbanization
finds that as soon as a new manufacturing plant is located in rural areas, it gives rise to trade,
commerce and transport activities. It also further attracts many more allied industries in that area
due to certain locational advantages. The level of urbanization is considered to be an indicator of
industrialization, modernization and economic development. It not only improves the economic
condition of people but also changes their life style. In India the old traditions of caste and joint
family system have been weathering away as a consequence of urbanization. Urbanization as a
process of change and development plays a vital role in determining the livelihood structure of
people in an area. Urban occupations differ to a great extent from rural ones. No doubt
urbanization brings change in development processes, but at the same time also creates regional
disparity.
iv.Occupational structure
The occupational structure of a region is known with the distribution of its working population
among different economic activities which are most significant aspect of an economy.
Occupational structure of a society is one of the good indicators of social and economic
inequality, because to a large extent it determines the level of living. In addition to providing an
insight into the nature of economy it also throws light on socio-economic, cultural and political
conditions of the society. Thus, changes in the composition of workforce reflect change in the
economy of a region.
v.Levels of educational development
Education is a crucial factor of social, economic and cultural development. It provides economic
opportunities and helps to overcome social barriers. It also enhances earning potential and
productivity of people through acquisition of skill and information for various opportunities and
jobs. It is education that contributes significantly in improving conditions of people from state of
deprivation to prosperity. Education not only yields a huge set of benefits to individual
concerned as well as to the society in the form of a larger set of externalities, but, it also regarded
as a great equalizer in income distribution and reducing poverty and disparities.
vi.Level of health status
The term 'health' has been defined in different ways by scholars and organizations. In view of
WHO, "a state of complete physical and mental well-being and not merely the absence of disease
or infirmity". It is rightly said, "Health is Wealth". The ultimate aim of all economic policies is to
achieve a healthy nation. A healthy nation can emerge only when there is adequate supply of
proper balanced food, when people are not undernourished or malnourished. Poverty and health
do not go together and hence in order to improve the health standard it is imperative to eliminate
poverty. Health and nutrition are the most important and essential aspect of social concern. These
are the basic needs of the social well-being, because a sound body and mind are the basic
requisites for the maintenance of a healthy society function. Likewise, the proper nourishment is
also prerequisite to maintain both sound physical and mental health.
vii.Transport and communication
Transport and communication is an essential economic infrastructure for the rapid development
of any region. In a planned economy, location of industries, development of backward areas,
decentralization of economic activities, better distribution of products, better maintenance of law
and order, justice, defence and security all necessitate a proper system of transport and
communication.
Take Note
The lack of transport facilities retards the process of economic

development, even if a region is endowed with rich mineral resources or
any other natural resources, because their availability and utilization may
not always coincide. Hence, the development of transport facilities is a
necessary precondition for economic and social development.
viii. Population structure

At present, as we know, all the governments irrespective of their socio-economic and political
ideologies are undertaking regional planning to optimize economic production and to minimize
regional disparities in economic and social development. Since, population structure such as
population growth, population density, age, sex, fertility, mortality etc. determine the nature and
magnitude of demand pressure on resources as well as the quantity and quality of workforce to
operate economic production mechanism no regional and socio-economic development plan can
afford to neglect them but at its own risk.''
ix. Per capita income

Per capita income is widely accepted as a general measure of development. The regions which
enjoy higher per capita income are deemed to be more developed than the states or regions with
low per capita income. Generally per capita income has been taken at current price. This variable
or component is commonly used for measuring economic development. Under-developed
economies are distinguished from the developed economies on the basis of their low per capita
income.
12.6 Education and development
Education is any nation is regarded as the panacea which means cure of all problems of
development. Education is expected to produce manpower, educated citizens as well as
enlightened leaders. Education helps to bring about social change or social revolution. Education
is expected to prepare the people to bring economic change. So important is education today and
so far-reaching are its functions that in many countries education policy is a matter of national
concern and frequently a pressing political issue.
In-Text question
What is the role of education in development?
12.6.1 Types of functions of education
Functions of education can be manifest or latent. Manifest functions are objective consequences
of the system which are recognized and in fact intended by the participants concerned. The
manifest functions of education are the obvious general ones of imparting knowledge,
information and skills. Thus the manifest or intended function of the educational system is to
supplement family socialization. The school uses experts (teachers) to teach children the
knowledge, skills and values that are necessary to function in the world outside the school.
a). Latent functions are neither intended nor recognized. Latent functions are termed as
placement. This has two aspects; first children are placed in an educational stream that is
supposed to suit their capabilities and their probable job, trade, profession or vocation. Secondly,
children are taught what their place in adult world society is likely to be. Thus, education has the
latent function of preparing children for adult life in which their rank and status is relatively pre-
determined and fixed by their schooling and later education. This implies that the latent function
of education is to create and maintain class or elite versus non-elite barriers in society.
b). The manifest function of education
This section discusses the manifest functions of education. In general, education is expected to
perform six manifest functions. These are discussed below.
i. The transmission of culture
This is basically the conservative function of passing on the main patterns of life of the society
through schools. An important function of education is that it preserves the society’s dominant
culture and passes it on from generation to generation and from the existing population to people
who are newly incorporated into the society such as immigrants. There are two component
elements of the culture transmitted through education. First, the instrumental component
comprising skills, facts and procedures; and secondly the expressive component consisting of
values, norms, concepts and images of approved behaviour. Thus education may be an agent for
promoting better understanding of societal traditions and for the development of local culture in
the forms of art, music and literature. Further, each new generation of children leans the rights
and wrongs, values and roles of the society into which it is born. The schools have to struggle
with the problem of selecting a specific set of values to be imparted to pupils in a country where
there are differences of race, ethnicity, etc. Education as a whole provides for the preservation
and transmission of culture. It is, above all, the means by which a society perpetually recreates
the conditions of its existence. By passing on from one generation to another established beliefs,
knowledge, values and skills, it contributes to continuity and the persistence of an organized
social life. The schools, more than any other agency are explicitly organized to familiarize
children with their cultural heritage. Moreover, with increasing cultural heritage, schools have
taken over, or have been explicitly assigned – the major, or, even total responsibility for
communicating certain types of knowledge and skills. With few exceptions, most people now
learn to read, write and calculate in school, there, too, they become familiar with common
symbols, national traditions and at least part of the stock of reliable knowledge.
ii. Socialization
Educational systems socialize students to become members of society, to play meaningful roles
in the complex network of independent positions. Education helps in shaping value and attitudes
to the needs of contemporary society. It widens the mental horizons of pupils and teaches them
new ways of looking at themselves and their society. Further, education offers young people
opportunities for intellectual, emotional and social growth. Thus education can be influential in
promoting new values and stimulating adaptation to changing conditions. The education system
is responsible for basic literacy. It teaches language and also how people communicate with each
other according to their positions in society. The girls and boys are educated into the skills that
are expected of them in adulthood. They also learn their place in the network of relationships:
what it means to be a male or female. What sort of a person is a male, or a female. Children are
educated to be adult members of their society. They educated to achieve a sense of identity that
satisfies both themselves and is acceptable by their society. Children learn what it means to be a
Maasai, Luo, a Kenyan, rich or poor, etc. Education teaches the laws, traditions and norms of the
community, the rights that individuals will enjoy and the responsibilities that they will undertake.
It also instills the community’s pattern of respect. In many African communities, young people
are expected to be respectful and obedient to elders. Education leads toward tolerant and
humanitarian attitudes. For example, college graduates are expected to be more tolerant than
high school graduates in their attitudes toward ethnic and racial groups. Thus education will train
useful citizens who will obediently conform to society’s norms, and will accept the roles and the
status that society will confer upon them when they have finished their schooling.
The schools transmit and reinforce social values, both overtly and explicitly as well as covertly
and implicitly (Van Scotter 19, 125) for the society as a whole the school provides for the
preservation and transmission of culture. It is the means by which society perpetually recreates
the conditions of its existence by passing on from one generation to another , established beliefs,
knowledge, values and skills the schools contributes to continuity and the persistence of an
organized social life , the schools, more than any other agencies are expressly. Organized to
familiarize children with their cultural heritage (Chinoy; 1967:389-390). Schooling influences
the morals of children- generally for the better (Datta 1984:88) according to Peil schools should
teach moral values e.g. to be clean, well-dressed, respectful, and disciplined. If school children
are observed to be badly behaved not conforming to community norms of conduct, the parents
will blame the school even though the cause may be their own (Peil;19:181) schools teach
students to develop themselves to discipline themselves, to cooperate with others and to obey
rules, all of which are necessary for the youngster to survive in the organization or society
(Eshleman;1985:142). This is achieved by schools when they teach sets of expectations about the
work children will do when they mature. For example, the child begins by learning about the
work roles of community helpers and later they learn about occupations more formally. Based on
information gained in school students now set their occupational goals (Eshleman;1985:142). In
African societies, many parents, because of inadequate education, are not in a position to guide
their children in academic and vocational matters. The teacher has thus to take the role of the
counselor, thereby making the role of the school very important in career choice. Schools also
transmit values in less obvious, implicit ways such as through the teaching of the importance of
time and through the organizational and bureaucratic structure of the school itself, which is
hierarchical structure of virtually all organizations in the contemporary societies (Peil,1984:179
and Van Scotter, 19:125).
iii. The innovative function of education
In most modern societies, the education system is expected to be a major source of new ideas and
knowledge. This is called the innovative function of education. Someone must initiate the social
change that is necessary for a society to survive under modern conditions. Such change may be,
for example, technical, political or artistic. Education is expected to maintain a delicate balance
between the experience of the past and needs of the future. Once the broad fundamentals of the
future policy have been agreed upon, the school is allowed considerable freedom in devising
ways to achieve these aims. The importance of the school as an agency of change has been
underlined since independence by the leaders of modern African societies. Modern education can
be seen as performing four innovative functions. First, education is an instrument for effecting
economic change (for example by training people for different occupations); that is, equipping
the recipients with the necessary skills that will enable them to participate in the development
process. Secondly, education is an instrument for effecting technological change (for example,
by training technicians). Thirdly, education is an instrument for effecting change of ideas (for
example, by changing people’s attitudes towards work, saving, the idea of social justice). Finally
education is an instrument for effecting personality change. A modern society must change if it
wishes to survive. The educational system is expected to supply the innovators and ensure that
changes take place smoothly. Educational systems in Africa cannot be regarded as being
particularly successful in providing innovators.
iv. The political function of education
Education has been used to politicize future citizens and foster national integration through the
inculcation of a common culture. This way education contributes to the political socialization of
its recipients. Political socialization refers to the transmission of values, beliefs, ideas and
patterns of behaviour pertaining to the generation, distribution and exercise of power in a given
society. The political function of education may be looked in two ways. There is firstly the need
to provide political leaders at all levels of a democratic society and; secondly there is the demand
that education should help to preserve the present (existing) system of government by ensuring
loyalty to it. Education is a basic prerequisite for effective political participation. Universal
education is recognized as a useful instrument of social and political stability in a complex,
multi-group society. No other institutions could transmit as readily or efficiently the values and
symbols, the attitudes and knowledge upon which political unity rests like education can.
Exposure to modern education, it is presumed, makes the students see things in a broader
perspective, beyond the narrow horizons of a tribal, religious or linguistic community.
Education, through a common language, for example English or Kiswahili at the post-primary
level provides young children with a channel of interaction – which is a necessary condition for
national integration. Furthermore, the schools offer the young a common cultural experience
which is supposed to contribute to the emergence of a feeling of national solidarity. Finally, in
recruiting pupils from diverse backgrounds, the school itself becomes a microcosm
(representative) of the society – a nation in miniature. All these factors contribute positively to
the strengthening of national integration. Schools can transmit political values, beliefs and skills
to the pupils through a number of ways. First, children may be initiated into political ideas by the
way in which the school is organized and administered. Secondly, by making the schools
residential (boarding) to guard against the alleged ‘harmful’ influences emanating from the local
community. This was one of the justification of the secluded boarding schools of the colonial
period. Thirdly, the administration of the school, too, can influence the political ideology of the
pupils for example the prefect system. This tells one that there are people in the society who
guard others against bad behaviour. Fourthly, the classroom environment also shapes pupils’
political attitudes. The teacher exercises unquestioned authority in the class. Forced conformity
to an authoritarian system throughout childhood and early adolescence, if supplemented by other
factors, is likely to encourage a passive acceptance of authority in later years. A democratic and
participatory classroom is supposed to contribute to the development of a critical and reflective
attitude among pupils. Finally, the curriculum as taught by the teachers can influence the
learners’ political thinking. The teachers’ expression of values can bear upon the political ideas
of the pupils, although in most African countries it is rare to find teachers openly asserting their
political beliefs, when these are against the government.
Governments rely on education to teach the students to be loyal and active citizens. In Kenya, for
example, schools should sing the national anthem, recite the loyalty pledge, hoist the national
flag twice a week (Mondays and Fridays). All these teach the students that they are part of
something larger than their local community. But there is often considerable disagreement
among government and educational officials about what content of a political education ought to
be. It has been shown that the higher the level of educational attainment, the greater the degree to
which democratic attitudes are held. Similarly, education is a prime correlate of interest in
politics. For example, college graduates are more supportive of democratic reforms such as
having a multiparty system of government. High school graduates are more involved politically
than those with only primary school education. An increase in the number and proportion of high
school and college graduates might therefore be expected to increase political interest
The political function is sometimes known as the socialization function of indoctrination. The
school plays an important role in the political culture of the society. Schools teach citizenship in
many ways: they encourage children to take pride in their communities; to feel patriotic about
their nation; to learn about the country’s geography, history, civics and national holidays; to
study government, explain the role of good citizens, urge parents to vote and pledge allegiance to
the flag; to become informed about community leaders; and to respect school property
(Eshleman;1985:142). Education is a basic prerequisite for effective political participation.
Universal education is recognized as a useful instrument of social and political stability in a
complex multigroup society. No other institution could transmit as readily or efficiently the
values and symbols, the attitudes and knowledge upon which political unity rests than the school
(Chinoy;1967:387).
v. The economic function of education

In the modern world there is now widespread agreement that education has become a major
source of economic progress, a conclusion that has contributed heavily to the substantial growth
of secondary schools, colleges and universities. They are now expected to satisfy an increasing
demand for the highly trained manpower needed by a complex technology, elaborate
bureaucratic structures, and an extensive array of agencies providing professional services.
Simultaneously, they are called upon to contribute to the expanding body of knowledge upon
which economic growth has come to rest. All levels of labour force should be provided with the
quantity and quality of educated manpower required under the current technical conditions. This
is achieved through education. Thus education is a direct and indirect means of training the
future labour force and hence important in manpower planning and in fostering social mobility.
The educational system is expected to supply adequate manpower to different sectors of the
economy. This, the so-called manpower function of education, is being achieved in Africa by
among other things, the tremendous expansion of primary education since independence, by
technical, vocational and trades training institutions, the founding of universities with diverse
faculties, and the provision of in-service training and refresher courses for those who are already
employed. The educational system has to furnish personnel for the future needs of the economy.
Inadequately planned educational expansion in excess of occupational needs may indeed by
dysfunctional, as it lowers the returns on investment in education and may even lead to
unemployment or underemployment of trained personnel.
Education prepares boys and girls for the vocational tasks that await them in adulthood.
However, careful consideration concerns the balance in the content of education. How practical
should the education be? should we teach agriculture and vocational/technical subjects to all
students at the primary and secondary levels? Arguments about the expansion of education are
often in terms of the nation’s need for an educated labour force. The very considerable efforts of
parents and community leaders in many countries to provide education for their children have
been motivated by a desire for social, economic and political benefits which education can bring.
From the individual point of view, education is desired because it leads to an improved standard
of living and because it is seen as a “good thing” which gives prestige to those who participate
and the country which provides it.
vi. The selective and allocative function of education
The educational system is central to the process by which the more able are sorted out of the
population as a whole. The educational system of a modern society acts as a filtering agency – a
sieve for selecting and directing people to different areas of specialization and levels of
operation. When the educational systems performs this function satisfactorily, the society is able
to make full use of the so-called “pool of capability”, that is, the sum total of the intellectual
qualities, talents and other abilities of people. In all societies certain reserves of capability remain
unused, or at least underused, for example, the women. Generally in Africa, early selection
favours children from more affluent and educated families. The fortunate few who are selected
for higher institutions undergo relevant programmes of education or training, followed by
appropriate certification. In choosing a few of the many aspirants for higher levels of schooling,
the educational system in effect allocates young people to different occupational fields, and thus
operates a graded series of take-off ramps into the labour force. For example, some people enter
(start) as clerks (Form 4’s), while others enter (start) as managers (College graduates). In Kenya
few students move from primary to secondary and; from secondary to university. For example in
1990 there were 384,500 students in standard 8. Those who joined form one in 1991 were
171,637 (less than half). Those who continued to Form 4 in 1994 were 140,985; the public
universities admitted only 8,000. The school system, through its system of tests, examination and
reports fixes children into categories. Children are labeled as bright, or slow learners or
unacademic achievers or non-achievers. These labels have the effect of streaming children into
the professions or into jobs or trades. The school system is responsible for the identity and
destiny of groups of people and directing them into a narrow or into rewarding life opportunities.
The school tests and certifies (by diploma, degrees and transcripts of letter grades) school sorts
students along a continua or in either categories for its many curricular and extra-curricular
activities. School teaches students to test their achievement through competition. The school
introduces the child to a bureaucratic organization where achievement matters more than
ascription. The schools promote individualism through the award of prizes to the best performer
students often assume that the shortage of places at higher levels means that they can be
succefull only by doing better than others (Peil; 198:179).
A person’s social position and social class membership are determined by both ascribed (i.e.
inherited) and acquired (i.e. achieved) statuses or characteristics. It is the school in modern
societies which on the one hand reinforce the individual ascribed status and on the other hand
provides arenas (avenues) and activities for the individual to perform and achieve acquired
characteristics. Thus access to education is one of the important keys to opportunity; people use
it as the basis for economic and social advancement. Teachers and other personnel in the school
reward student’s behavior which they consider acceptable and desirable according to the
standards of their social position and class. According to Van Scotter (198:124) the school
functions as an integral part of the process of status allocation in four ways: by providing a
context in which the individual can demonstrate his abilities , by channeling individuals into
paths that lead in the direction of different occupations or classes of occupation. By providing the
particulars skills needed to fulfill the requirement of various positions and finally, by transferring
to the individual the differential prestige of the school itself. Education has therefore become a
central determinant of the individual’s life chances that is, his opportunity for employment,
earnings and consequently status. Access to higher ranks is increasingly related to higher
education. Income too is closely related to the amount of formal education one has. Both
monthly earnings and estimated life-time income increasing with the greatest gains coming from
College attendance. However, it should be noted that while thus contributing to social mobility,
educational institution serve nonetheless in various ways to sustain and reinforce existing social
differentials (Chinoy, 1967; 392-393)
b) Latent function of education
These are the unintended functions of education. These may not be recognized by those who
organize and run the educational system. Thus, the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake can set
in motion a new school of thought or new wave of thinking, which may influence the world of
mass media, commerce, industry, agriculture and government policies in different fields.
Unplanned change may also result from the sheer expansion of education and the longer period
of education experience is likely to stimulate a variety of economic activities such as the
publishing industry and the building trade. The schools – particularly boarding schools – separate
children from their children. This is known as age segregation – the separation of certain age
groups from the larger population. Children in schools spend their time with children of the same
age, their peers. This leads to rise in elements of an adolescent subculture which may differ in
some respects from the dominant culture of the society. For example the members of the
adolescent subculture may dress alike, wear similar hairstyles and make ups and develop code
words and slang language of their own. Education also widens the child’s circle of acquaintances
and friends. In the secondary school, especially he/she comes into contact with peers from
different geographical areas, provinces, ethnic groups and social strata. The opportunity to mix
with young people from different social groups is likely to create conditions for the
establishment of friendship, even marriage, a state of affairs which may have many implications
for the emergence of a common culture, and a bond of solidarity among students. From the
individual point of view such contact may prove useful to a young person in his social life and
occupational career.
Education can also affect the employment situation of a country by withdrawing a large number
of potential job-seekers from the labour market for as long as their education lasts. Students stay
in school longer when unemployment rates are high and jobs are not available, and parents have
to continue to support and assume responsibility during this extended education. Another latent
function of education is prolonged adolescence. Children are relieved of work roles for
increasing longer periods so that they can acquire education. Students today have to remain in
school for a longer time than they once did. Another factor that has increased the number of
years they spend in school is that many jobs require a high school or college certificate. The
education system has also developed the latent function of baby-sitting. This function has
become increasingly important because in many families both parents must work simply to make
ends meet. Some schools offer after-school play groups – at a nominal fee – to take care of
children until a parent gets off work and comes to pick the children.
c) Dysfunction
Certain consequences of education may sometimes be unanticipated, as well as

unwanted by educational planners. For instance, the spread of education in African
colonies which gave rise to a local elite from the ranks of which leadership of
independence movements emerged; a situation which the colonial authorities did
not particularly like. In some countries, a massive expansion of general education
has resulted in the production of a large number of school leavers and even
university graduates with general degrees; many of whom cannot be employed.
This situation has contributed to political instability in these societies by creating a
large mass of educated unemployed.
Take Note
Schools are expected to nurture, shape or mould pupils in ways that

ensure the attainment of certain prescribed attitudes and skills. Thus,
creating academic mastery, teaching social interaction skills, helping
students develop societal commitment and loyalty.
12.7 Role of Education in Development
Education is the most effective tool that promotes development in all aspects of life in any
society. This is illustrated in the following observations.
 Education is viewed as the most important factor for improving peoples’ life
chances and enhanced living standards. In this regard education plays a very
important role in society in the following ways:
 Education plays an important in the process of cultural transmission in Kenya.
Culture therefore can be said to be the accepted way of living of a particular
human group. Each individual society has its own body of customs, beliefs and
institutions. Societies use their educational systems to transmit their values from
generation to generation. The values that the school transmits can be seen as the
culture of the society. This helps the young people to acquire a sense of
nationhood by promoting positive attitudes of mutual respect which will enable
them to live in harmony and to make a positive contribution to society.
 Education system should aim at producing individuals who are properly
socialized and who possess the necessary knowledge, skills, attitudes and values
to enable them to participate positively in nation- building.
 Education is responsible for basic literacy.
 There are high social and private returns (benefits) gained from education.
 In so far as education equips individuals with skills for self employment, it can
improve the employment situation in the country/ society.
 Basic education is likely to improve agricultural productivity by creating
awareness of new techniques, providing the ability to read extension literature and
instructions on fertilizer packets, etc,
 Education enables individuals from low social economic status to achieve
upward social mobility.
 Education leads to economic development. This is because education changes
behaviour and that such behaviour change results in the production of more goods
and services. Faster economic development requires accelerated development of
the human resources. Expansion of educational opportunities at all levels
contributes to the creation of a more productive labour force.
 The educational systems act to reduce inequalities and poverty. Formal
education is a tool for improving life chances and enhanced living standards.
 Education produces educated leaders at all levels both in the private and public
sectors.
 The education system is expected to be a major source of new ideas and
knowledge the so called the economic function of education.
 Expansion of educational opportunities provides widespread employment and
income earning opportunities for teachers, school and construction workers,
textbook and paper printers, school uniform manufacturers, etc.
 Education is a prerequisite for effective political participation. Education helps
in institutionalizing participatory in democratic state structures.
 Education is a basic human right, an end in itself, an intrinsic part of life and
development. In other words, being educated is a “good thing”.
 Greater investments in education are expected to yield the benefits of lower
fertility rates in the society.
 The education system is expected to produce skilled and high level manpower to
meet the growing and changing demands of the economy.
12.8 Summary
In summary, the educational system fulfills both manifest and latent

functions. It reinforces the socialization process that started with the
family, prepares children for work and guides them into occupations. It is
because of these functions that education has to be recognized as an
institution of society. Nyerere has summarized the functions of education
as: “to transmit from one generation to the next the accumulated wisdom
and knowledge of the society, and to prepare the young people for their
active participation in its maintenance of development…to liberate both
the mind and the body of man.” For the developing nations, education
has been defined as the “key that unlocks the door to modernization.”

1.Explain the concept of education
2.Discuss the role of education in development
3.Discuss the components of development
4.Explain the latent and manifest functions of education
12.10. References
Bourdieu, P., (1990) Reproduction: In education, society and culture,

Sage Publications, London
Kibera, LW, & Kimokoti, A. (2007). Fundamentals of Sociology of


York. Routledge


Essex
Peil,Margaret and Olatunji Oyeneye, (1998). Consensus Conflict and
change.A Sociology introduction to African Societies. East African
Education Publishers LTD. Nairobi.
LECTURE THIRTEEN
Globalization and Education
Lecture Outline
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Meaning of globalization
13.4 Meaning of education
13.5 Features of globalization
13.6 Globalization theory
13.7 Globalization and education
13.8 Summary
13.10 References
13.1. Introduction
Welcome to our last lecture in sociology of education. In this lecture we will introduce you to the
concept of globalization and education. Specifically, we will look at the meaning of
globalization, and how it affects and relates to education and society. This is expected to shed
light on the impact of globalization on education at national level.
13.2. Lecture objectives
1. Define globalization and education
2. Discuss types of globalization
3. Discuss features of globalization
4.Analyze the effects of globalization on education
5.Discuss the pros and cons of globalization
13.3. Meaning of Globalization
Globalization is the word used to describe the growing interdependence of the world’s
economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services,
technology, and flows of investment, people, and information. Countries have built economic
partnerships to facilitate these movements over many centuries. But the term gained popularity
after the Cold War in the early 1990s, as these cooperative arrangements shaped modern
everyday life.
Globalization typically refers to the process by which different economies and societies become
more closely integrated, and concurrent with increasing worldwide globalization, there has been
much research into its consequences (Nilson, 2010). Covering a wide range of distinct political,
economic, and cultural trends, the term ―globalization has quickly become one of the most
fashionable buzzwords of contemporary political and academic debate.
In popular discourse, globalization is often synonymous with internationalization, referring to

the growing interconnectedness and interdependence of people and institutions throughout the
world. Although these terms have elements in common, they have taken on technical meanings
that distinguish them from each other and from common usage. Internationalization is the less
theorized term.
Globalization pursues liberal or free market policies in world economy for economic
liberalization. It aims at realizing one single unified world community where no social conflicts
exist calling for social and cultural integration. Globalization entails privatization and
marketization of economic and political structures in which ability of the state to control all the
activities within its borders is becoming limited. Simply put, globalization in fact is a
combination of free exchange of goods services and capital. Globalization is the tendency of any
entity, activity, and technology to acquire a dimension that grows beyond any “frontier” that
would be imposed by such criteria as geography, religion, gender, age and the like
1 3.4 Meaning of Education
When talking about education people often confuse it with schooling. Many think of places like
schools or colleges when seeing or hearing the word. They might also look to particular jobs like
teacher or tutor. The problem with this is that while looking to help people learn, the way a lot of
schools and teachers operate is not necessarily something we can properly call education.
Education, as we understand it here, is a process of inviting truth and possibility, of encouraging
and giving time to discovery. It is, as John Dewey (1916) put it, a social process – ‘a process of
living and not a preparation for future living’. In this view educators look to act with people
rather on them.
Such education is:
 Deliberate and hopeful. It is learning we set out to make happen in the belief that people
can ‘be more’;
 Informed, respectful and wise. A process of inviting truth and possibility.
 Grounded in a desire that at all may flourish and share in life. It is a cooperative and
inclusive activity that looks to help people to live their lives as well as they can.
So what is education?
Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values,
beliefs, and habits. We can also define education as “a process of acquiring knowledge through
study or imparting the knowledge by way of instructions or some other practical procedure.
13.5 Features of Globalization

i). Growth of transnational corporations and multinational corporations/organizations.
ii). International division of labor.
iii). Encouragement of markets rather than government central planning.
iv). Growth of offshore finance and telecommunication that can link banks, stock markets,
companies and organizations together in a global network.
v). Increasing migration of peoples within and across national boundaries in search of work.
vi). The growth of media by satellite that ensures programs to be beamed across the globe
regardless of national boundaries.
vii). Growth of national and international Non-Governmental Organization (NGOs).
Take Note
Modern globalization is known as an increasingly international

integration in all fields of economics, culture and society. It has impacts
on every individual, society, organization, and state. Globalization, both
as a phenomenon and as a creed, may influence and affect education
13.6 Globalization Theory
Globalization is both a process and a theory. Roland Robertson, with whom globalization theory
is most closely associated, views globalization as an accelerated compression of the
contemporary world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a singular entity.
Compression makes the world a single place by virtue of the power of a set of globally diffused
ideas that render the uniqueness of societal and ethnic identities and traditions irrelevant except
within local contexts and in scholarly discourse.
Although the theory of globalization is relatively new, the process is not. History is witness to
many globalizing tendencies involving grand alliances of nations and dynasties and the
unification of previously sequestered territories under such empires as Rome, Austria-Hungary,
and Britain, but also such events as the widespread acceptance of germ theory and
heliocentricism, the rise of transnational agencies concerned with regulation and communication,
and an increasingly unified conceptualization of human rights.
What makes globalization distinct in contemporary life is the broad reach and
multidimensionality of interdependence, reflected initially in the monitored set of relations
among nation-states that arose in the wake of World War I. It is a process that before the 1980s
was akin to modernization, until modernization as a concept of linear progression from
traditional to developing to developed–or from gemeinschaft to gesellschaft as expressed by
Ferdinand Toennies–forms of society became viewed as too simplistic and unidimensional to
explain contemporary changes. Modernization theory emphasized the functional significance of
the Protestant ethic in the evolution of modern societies, as affected by such objectively
measured attributes as education, occupation, and wealth in stimulating a disciplined orientation
to work and political participation.
The main difficulty with modernization theory was its focus on changes within societies or
nations and comparisons between them–with Western societies as their main reference points–to
the neglect of the interconnectedness among them, and, indeed, their interdependence, and the
role played by non-Western countries in the development of the West. Immanuel Wallerstein
was among the earliest and most influential scholars to show the weaknesses of modernization
theory. He developed world system theory to explain how the world had expanded through an
ordered pattern of relationships among societies driven by a capitalistic system of economic
exchange. Contrary to the emphasis on linear development in modernization theory, Wallerstein
demonstrated how wealthy and poor societies were locked together within a world system,
advancing their relative economic advantages and disadvantages that carried over into politics
and culture. Although globalization theory is broader, more variegated in its emphasis on the
transnational spread of knowledge, and generally less deterministic in regard to the role of
economics, world system theory was critical in shaping its development.
Activity
In your own words, define globalization and show its

relevance to education today
13.7 Globalization and Education

Modern globalization is known as an increasingly international integration in all fields of
economics, culture and society. It has impacts on every individual, society, organization, and
state. Technological progress, especially new technologies in telecommunication, and
transportation as well as free trade policies in international trade are main reasons for its
dissemination.
Knowledge has become a principal economic currency, and its rapid production and circulation
have become a crucial input for economic performance. Education is undergoing constant
changes under the effects of globalization. The effects of globalization on education bring rapid
developments in technology and communications are foreseeing changes within learning systems
across the world as ideas, values and knowledge, changing the roles of students and teachers, and
producing a shift in society from industrialization towards an information-based society. It
reflects the effect on culture and brings about a new form of cultural imperialism. The rise of
new cultural imperialism is shaping children, the future citizens of the world into ‘global
citizens.
In-Text question
What is your take on globalization in education?
Listed below are some points that highlight the positive and negative impacts of
globalization on education.
i). Globalization has radically transformed the world in every aspect. But it has especially
transformed the world economy which has become increasingly inter-connected and inter-
dependent. But it also made the world economy increasingly competitive and more knowledge
based, especially in the developed western countries
ii). Global education interconnects methods of teaching from worldwide systems to encourage
the international development of environmental sustainability, as well as contribution toward
fortifying global industries. These educational initiatives prioritize global access to school from
the primary to the university levels, instigating learning experiences that prepare students for
multinational leadership roles.
iii). As education serves as foundational to global stability, the development of multicultural

awareness from an early age may integrate ideologies sourced from various societies in order to
arrive at well-balanced conclusions regarding issues that surround the world as a whole.
Globalization and education then come to affect one another through mutual goals of preparing
young people for successful futures during which their nations will grow increasingly connected.
iv). With globalization some of the challenges for knowledge, education and learning will
provide today’s learners the ability to be more familiar and comfortable with abstract concepts
and uncertain situations.
v). Information society and global economy requires a holistic understanding of systems
thinking, including the world system and business eco-system. Globalization uses a holistic
approach to the problems. The interdisciplinary research approaches are seen as critical to
achieving a more comprehensive understanding the complex reality currently facing the world
system.
vi). It enhances the student’s ability to manipulate symbols. Highly productive employment in
today’s economy will require the learner to constantly manipulate symbols, such as political,
legal and business terms, and digital money.
vii). Globalization enhances the student’s ability to acquire and utilize knowledge. Globalization
enhances the ability of learners to access, assess, adopt, and apply knowledge, to think
independently to exercise appropriate judgment and to collaborate with others to make sense of
new situations.
viii). Globalization produces an increased quantity of scientifically and technically trained

persons. The emerging economy is based on knowledge as a key factor of production and the
industries demand the employees remain highly trained in science and technology.
ix). It encourages students to work in teams. To be able to work closely in teams is the need for
employees. Working in teams requires students to develop skills in-group dynamics,
compromise, debate, persuasion, organization, and leadership and management skills.
x). Globalization breaks the boundaries of space and time. Using advanced information and
communications technologies, a new system of knowledge, education and learning should apply
a wide range of synchronous and asynchronous activities that aid teacher and student in breaking
boundaries of space and time.
xi). Globalization meets the knowledge, education and learning challenges and opportunities of
the Information Age. Knowledge based businesses often complain that graduates lack the
capacity to learn new skills and assimilate new knowledge. Globalization makes it easier for
businesses.
xii). Globalization creates and supports information technologists, policy makers, and
practitioners for the purpose of rethinking education and supports mechanisms for the exchange
of ideas and experiences in the use of educational technologies.
xiii). Globalization encourages explorations, experimentation to push the frontiers of the

potential of information technologies and communications for more effective learning.
xiv). Global sharing of knowledge, skills, and intellectual assets that are necessary to multiple
developments at different levels.
xv). Mutual support, supplement and benefit to produce synergy for various developments of
countries, communities and individuals.
xvi). Creating values and enhancing efficiency through the above global sharing and mutual
support to serving local needs and growth.
xvii). Promoting international understanding, collaboration, harmony, and acceptance to cultural

diversity across countries and regions.
xviii). Facilitating communications, interactions, and encouraging multi-cultural contributions at

different levels among countries.
13.8 Summary
In summary, we have discussed the meaning of globalization, education

and highlighted the relationship between education and globalization. In
a nutshell globalization brings rapid developments in technology and
communications as well as changes within learning systems across the
world. There is a shift in society from industrialization towards an
information-based society.
4. Explain the concept of globalization.

5. Discuss the impact of globalization on education in Kenya
6. Discuss the positive and negative effects of globalization in
Kenya
7. Explain the features of globalization.
13.10. References
Bottery, M. (2006). “Education and globalization: redefining the role of

the educational professional” Educational Review 58(1), 95–113.
Braman, S., & Statan, C. V. (2000). Globalization and culture. Study
guide for Unit 12 of the Postgraduate Diploma in Telecommunications
and Information Policy.
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. The Macmillan Company

Giddens, A. (2001). Sociology (4th ed.). Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers
Featherstone, M., 1995. Undoing culture: Globalization, postmodernism
and identity. Sage Publications, London.
Teitel, S. (2005). Globalization and its disconnects. Journal of Socio-
Economics, 34, 444–470.
Waters, M. (1995). Globalization. Routledge, London.

TFD 301 - Notes For The Whole Unit

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

TFD 301 - Notes For The Whole Unit

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

University of Nairobi

College of Education and External Studies

Department of Educational Foundations

Subject Name: Sociology of Education

Level of Course: Bachelor of Education

TFD 301: Sociology of Education

Printed by College of Education and External Studies, University of

P.O. Box 30197, 00100, Nairobi, Kenya, 2012

© University of Nairobi, 2012, All Rights Reserved. No part of this Module

TFD 301: SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION.................................................................................................................. 9

SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION: MEANING, ROLES, SCOPE, DEVELOPMENT AND RELEVANCE OF SOCIOLOGY OF

SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES AND THEIR RELEVANCE TO EDUCATION.....................................................................24

3.4 SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM THEORY.....................................................................................25

3.6 THE CONSENSUS THEORY (STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM THEORY)..............................33

3.6.1 DEFINITION OF CONSENSUS/ STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM THEORY......................................................33

3.7 THE CONFLICT THEORY............................................................................................................... 38

3.7.1 DEFINITION OF CONFLICT THEORY...........................................................................................................38

3.8 CONSENSUS AND CONFLICT THEORIES COMPARED..............................................................43

3.10 ACTIVITY/ SELF- ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS..............................................................................46

What do you understand by the term 'teaching profession?.............................................................................51

PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION AND EDUCATION.................................................................................................. 56

5.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................................. 57

5.3 DEFINITION OF SOCIALIZATION................................................................................................. 57

5.4 STAGES OF SOCIALIZATION......................................................................................................... 58

5.4.1 ORAL STAGE.............................................................................................................................................59

5.5 TYPES OF SOCIALIZATION........................................................................................................... 60

5.6 AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION........................................................................................................ 62

5.6.1 THE FAMILY..............................................................................................................................................63

5.8. SOCIAL ISOLATION......................................................................................................................... 69

5.8.1 WHAT CAUSES A PERSON TO ISOLATE THEMSELVES?................................................................................71

5.12 ACTIVITY/ SELF- ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS..............................................................................79

A) STEEP PYRAMID STRUCTURE.........................................................................................................................87

7.12 ACTIVITY............................................................................................................................................. 103

 ACCORDING TO R.S PETERS, EDUCATION HAS TO MEET THREE BASIC CRITERIA...........106

What do you understand by the concepts culture and education?....................................................................107

9.13. SELF-ACTIVITY AND SELF-ASSESSMENT.....................................................................................127

A) MODERN DAY RITE OF PASSAGE..................................................................................................................139

TFD 301: SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

Introduction to Sociology; Scope, Nature, Meaning, Development and Branches of

Introduction to Sociology: Scope, Nature, Meaning, Development and

1.3 Definition of sociology

1.4 Scope of sociology

1.2 Lecture Objectives

1. Define the term sociology

1.4 Nature and Scope of Sociology

1.5 Origin of Sociology

1.6 Branches of Sociology

1. the structural-functional theory

1. Discuss what you understand by the term sociology.

Sociology of Education: Meaning, Roles, Scope, Development and

2.2 Lecture Objectives.

Sociology of Education is defined in many ways according to the perspective of

1. Olive Banks (1968) Sociology of Education. “Major and specialized branch of

2. Jarry (1999) Dictionary of Sociology. “The application of sociological theories,

3. Awuondo (1993) Introduction to Sociology “… a discipline that provides a

5. Sociology of education refers to a discipline which attempts to analyze

These definitions suggest that sociology of education concentrates on studying and

2.4 Role of Sociology of Education …..to what?????

• Sociology of education enlightens all: teachers, administrators, students, parents,

What do you understand by the term sociology of education?

2.5 Origin and Development of Sociology of Education

According to Dewey, children risked utter confusion as they prepared to be adulthoods

Dewey intended to promote a practical way of educating children in relation to