The Anti Hindu Invocations in the Javan Landscape ? Mystery?

Author Dr Uday Dokras

Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism or Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia refers to

the traditions of Esoteric Buddhism found in Maritime Southeast Asia which emerged in the 7th
century along the maritime trade routes and port cities of the Indonesian
islands of Java and Sumatra as well as in Malaysia. These esoteric forms were spread by pilgrims
and Tantric masters who received royal patronage from royal dynasties like the Sailendras and
the Srivijaya. This tradition was also linked by the maritime trade routes with Indian Vajrayana,
Tantric Buddhism in Sinhala, Cham and Khmer lands and in China and Japan, to the extent that
it is hard to separate them completely and it is better to speak of a complex of "Esoteric
Buddhism of Mediaeval Maritime Asia." In many of the key South Asian port cities that saw the
growth of Esoteric Buddhism, the tradition coexisted alongside Shaivism. Under
the Sailendras Java became a major center of Buddhism in the region, with monumental
architecture such as Borobudur and Candi Sukuh. The capital of the Buddhist empire
of Srivijaya in Palembang, Sumatra was another major center.
The decline of Buddhist states and the rise of Islamic states in the region during the 13th-16th
centuries saw the steep decline of this tradition.
The Buddha was integrated into Vaishnavism through its mythology in the Vaishnava
Puranas, where the Buddha is adopted as the ninth avatar of Vishnu.
Chronology
The adoption of the Buddha in texts relating to Hindu gods, and of Hindu gods in Buddhist texts,
is difficult to place chronologically. According to Doniger, the myth of the Buddha avatar first
appeared in the pre-Gupta period, when orthodox Brahminism was threatened by the success of
Buddhism and Jainism, and by foreign invaders. According to Doniger, "Hindus came to regard
the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu between A.D. 450 and the sixth century," first appearing in
the Vishnu Purana (400-500 CE). According to John Holt, "The replacement of the Buddha as
the "cosmic person" within the mythic ideology of Indian kingship [...] occurred at about the
same time the Buddha was incorporated and subordinated within the Brahmanical cult of Visnu.
The Buddha has been a formative force in the origins of Hinduism. Regional Hindu texts over
the centuries have presented a spectrum of views on Buddhism, possibly reflecting the
competition between Buddhism and the Brahmanical traditions. [1] In the Vaishnavite sect of
Hinduism, the historic Buddha or Gautama Buddha, is the ninth avatar among the ten major
avatars of the god Vishnu. In contemporary Hinduism the Buddha is revered by Hindus who
usually consider "Buddhism to be another form of Hinduism". Similarly, other Hindus reject the
identification of Gautama Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu, referring to the texts of the Puranas
and identifying the two as different individuals.

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Some Hindus regard Buddha (bottom centre) as one of the 10 avatars of Vishnu..
The Buddha was integrated into Vaishnavism through its mythology in the Vaishnava Puranas,
where the Buddha is adopted as the ninth avatar of Vishnu.
The Buddha was integrated into Vaishnavism through its mythology in the Vaishnava Puranas,
where the Buddha is adopted as the ninth avatar of Vishnu.
Assimilation of Buddhist influences

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Rishabha is the 8th avatara of Vishnu in the Bhagavata Purana. In Jainisam he is the 1st Jina.
Elsewhere in Hinduism the 8th avatara is Buddha./Gautama Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu in a
Persian-style painting
The adoption of Buddha may also have been a way to assimilate positive aspects of Buddhism
into the fold of Hinduism. According to Wendy Doniger, "Helmuth von Glasenapp attributed
these developments to a Hindu desire to absorb Buddhism in a peaceful manner, both to win
Buddhists to Vaishnavism and also to account for the fact that such a significant heresy could
exist in India."
According to Donald Swearer, the understanding of Buddha in Hinduism is a part of his wider
and diverse influences. Even within Buddhism, states Swearer, Buddha and his ideas are
conceptualized differently between Theravada, Mahayana, Tibetan, Japanese and other
traditions. Similarly, in various traditions of Hinduism (and elsewhere), Buddha is accepted and
interpreted in different ways.
Mutual adoption of revered figures
Much like Hinduism's adoption of the Buddha as an avatar, Buddhism legends too
adopted Krishna in their Jataka tales, claiming Krishna (Vishnu avatar) to be a character whom
Buddha met and taught in his previous births. According to Alf Hiltebeitel and other scholars,
some of the stories in Buddha-related Jataka tales found in Pali texts seem slanderous distortions
of Hindu legends, but these may reflect the ancient local traditions and the complexities of early
interaction between the two Indian religions.
While Hinduism adopted the Buddha in its mythology, Buddhism adopted the Hindu
god Krishna in its own mythology. The story of Krishna occurs in the Jataka tales in Buddhism,
for example. The Vidhurapandita Jataka mentions Madhura (Sanskrit: Mathura); the Ghata
Jataka mentions Kamsa, Devagabbha (Sk: Devaki), Upasagara or Vasudeva, Govaddhana (Sk:
Govardhana), Baladeva (Balarama), and Kanha or Kesava (Sk: Krishna, Keshava). While the
Buddhist Jataka texts co-opt Krishna-Vasudeva and make him a student of the Buddha in his
previous life, the Hindu texts co-opt the Buddha and make him an avatar of Vishnu. Similarly,
in Dasaratha Jataka Buddha identifies himself as Rama.
Texts
The Buddha is mentioned as an avatar of Vishnu in the Puranas and the epics such as:

 Harivamsa (1.41)
 Vishnu Purana (3.18)
 Bhagavata Purana (1.3.24, 2.7.37, 11.4.22)
 Garuda Purana (1.1, 2.30.37, 3.15.26)
 Agni Purana (16, 49.8)
 Naradiya Purana (2.72)
 Linga Purana (1.71)
 Padma Purana (3.252)
Another important scripture that mentions him as an avatar is Parashara's Brihat Parashara

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Hora Shastra (2:1-5/7).
Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu is part of a cosmic cycle, in which the dharma is destroyed in
the Kali Yuga, and then restored again in the Satya Yuga, when Vishnu incarnates
as Kalki. The Bhavishya Purana incorporates historical facts about dynastical lineages, stating
the following:
At this time, reminded of the Kali Age, the god Vishnu became born as Gautama, the
Shakyamuni, and taught the Buddhist dharma for ten years. Then Shuddodana ruled for twenty
years, and Shakyasimha for twenty. At the first stage of the Kali Age, the path of the Vedas was
destroyed and all men became Buddhists. Those who sought refuge with Vishnu were deluded.
Some pre-13th-century Hindu texts, such as the Bhagavata Purana, portray the Buddha as born to
lead the asuras, who oppressed the people, away from the Vedic rituals, which they were not
worthy to perform.
Then, in the beginning of Kali-yuga, for the purpose of confusing the enemies of the devas, [he]
will become the son of Anjana, Buddha by name, in the Kīkaṭas.
His father is usually called Śuddhodhana, which is consistent with the Buddhist tradition, while
in a few places the Buddha's father is named Añjana or Jina. This is due to the fact that in some
texts both Buddhism and Jainism are used by Vishnu to mislead the demons, and a confusion of
names and doctrines appears, when the Buddha is called the son of Jina, mistakingly
mimicking Buddhist texts which refer to the Buddha as Jina (conqueror), a term more often used
in Jainism.
Other texts portray him in a more positive way, as born to stop all killing of animals. [2] Only a
few statements mention the worship of Buddha, e.g. the Varahapurana states that one desirous
of beauty should worship him,[15] Some pre-14th-century Hindu temples include Buddha reliefs
with the same reverence they show for other avatars of Vishnu,  but though an avatar of Vishnu,
the Buddha is rarely worshipped like Krishna and Rama in Hinduism.[2]
Rejection
Buddhists traditionally do not accept the Buddha to be a Vishnu avatar. B. R. Ambedkar, the
Dalit leader who in 1935 declared his intention to convert from Hinduism to Buddhism and
converted about 20 years later, rejected the belief that Buddha was an incarnation of Vishnu.
Some contemporary Hindus also reject the identification of Gautama Buddha as an avatar of
Vishnu, referring to the texts of the Puranas. Swami Shri Nischalanada
Saraswati, Shankaracharya of Govardhan Peeth, has stated that the Buddha avatar of Vishnu and
Gautama Buddha were different persons.[29] Stephen Knapp argues that in Bhagavata
Purana (1.3.24), "son of Ajana," refers to the Vishnu avatar, born 1800 BCE to Ajana, while
Gautama was born to Maya and Śuddodhana. Hughes argues that Sugata Buddha, an epithet for
the Buddha, refers to the Vishnu avatar, not to Gautama Buddha.
Buddha as Vishnu at Chennakesava Temple (Somanathapura)

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Buddha as an avatara at Airavatesvara Temple
Buddha is considered a holy being and revered as one who was awakened in India. [1] Outside
India, some contemporary Hindus revere the Buddha along with other gods during their festivals.
Prominent modern proponents of Hinduism, such as Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Swami
Vivekananda, consider the Buddha as an example of the same universal truth that underlies
religions. A number of revolutionary figures in modern Hinduism, including Mahatma Gandhi,
have been inspired by the life and teachings of the Buddha and many of his attempted
reformsSteven Collins sees such Hindu claims regarding Buddhism as part of an effort - itself a
reaction to Christian proselytizing efforts in India - to show that "all religions are one", and that
Hinduism is uniquely valuable because it alone recognizes this fact.
Some Hindus usually consider "Buddhism to be another form of Hinduism." [1] Various scholars
in India, Sri Lanka and outside South Asia state that the colonial era and contemporary attempts
to assimilate Buddha into the Hindu fold are a nationalistic political agenda, where "the Buddha
has been reclaimed triumphantly as a symbol of indigenous nationalist understandings of India's
history and culture."
According to Lars Tore Flåten, Hindu perceptions, particularly in the literature by Hindu
nationalists, are that "Buddha did not break away from the spiritual ideas of his age and country,"
claiming that scholars such as Hermann Oldenberg (1854-1920), Thomas Rhys Davids (1843-
1922) and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975) state there is much in common between
"Buddhism and the contemporary Hinduism." Yet, in present-day scholarly consensus,
Buddhism is considered to be very different from pre-Buddhist Indian religion.[

5
Buddha as an avatar at Dwaraka Tirumala temple, Andhra Pradesh/
Closeup of Vishnu, seated in the lotus position on a lotus. From depiction of the poet Jayadeva
bowing to Vishnu, Gouache on paper Pahari, The very picture of devotion, bare-bodied, head
bowed, legs crossed and hands folded, Jayadeva stands at left, with the implements of worship
placed before the lotus-seat of Vishnu who sits there, blessing the poet.

According to Lars Fogelin, in Archaeology of Early Buddhism: 4 (Archaeology of Religion),

2006, the Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent is "not a singular event, with a
singular cause; it was a centuries-long process."

Various personages involved in the revival of Buddhism in India such as Anagarika

Dharmapala and The Mahabodhi Movement of the 1890s as well as Dr. B. R. Ambedkar hold the
Muslim Rule in India responsible for the decay of Buddhism in India.
In 1193, Qutb-ud-din Aybak, the founder of the Delhi Sultanate and first Muslim ruler in India,
left defenseless the northeastern territories that were the heart of Buddhist India. The Mahabodhi
Temple was almost completely destroyed by the invading Muslim forces
One of Qutb-ud-Din's generals, Ikhtiar Uddin Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khilji, who later
becomes the first Muslim ruler of Bengal and Bihar, invaded Magadha and destroyed the
Buddhist shrines and institutions at Nalanda, Vikramasila and Odantapuri, which declined the
practice of Buddhism in East India. Many monuments of ancient Indian civilization were
destroyed by the invading armies, including Buddhist sanctuaries near Benares. Buddhist monks
who escaped the massacre fled to Nepal, Tibet and South India.
Tamerlane destroyed Buddhist establishments and raided areas in which Buddhism had
flourished.
Mughal rule also contributed to the decline of Buddhism. They are reported to have destroyed
many Hindu temples and Buddhist shrines alike or converted many sacred Hindu places into
Muslim shrines and mosques. Mughal rulers like Aurangzeb destroyed Buddhist temples and

6
monasteries and replaced them with mosques

The image, in the chapter on India in Hutchison's Story of the

Nations edited by James Meston, depicts the Muslim Turkic general Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji's
massacre of Buddhist monks in Bihar. Khaliji destroyed the Nalanda and Vikramshila universities
during his raids across North Indian plains, massacring many Buddhist and Brahmin scholar

According to Lars Fogelin, the Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent is "not a singular
event, with a singular cause; it was a centuries-long process."
Various personages involved in the revival of Buddhism in India such as Anagarika
Dharmapala and The Mahabodhi Movement of the 1890s as well as Dr. B. R. Ambedkar hold the
Muslim Rule in India responsible for the decay of Buddhism in India.
In 1193, Qutb-ud-din Aybak, the founder of the Delhi Sultanate and first Muslim ruler in India,
left defenseless the northeastern territories that were the heart of Buddhist India. The Mahabodhi
Temple was almost completely destroyed by the invading Muslim forces.
One of Qutb-ud-Din's generals, Ikhtiar Uddin Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khilji, who later
becomes the first Muslim ruler of Bengal and Bihar, invaded Magadha and destroyed the
Buddhist shrines and institutions at Nalanda, Vikramasila and Odantapuri, which declined the
practice of Buddhism in East India. Many monuments of ancient Indian civilization were
destroyed by the invading armies, including Buddhist sanctuaries [49] near Benares. Buddhist
monks who escaped the massacre fled to Nepal, Tibet and South India
Tamerlane destroyed Buddhist establishments and raided areas in which Buddhism had
flourished
Mughal rule also contributed to the decline of Buddhism. They are reported to have destroyed
many Hindu temples and Buddhist shrines alike or converted many sacred Hindu places into
Muslim shrines and mosques. Mughal rulers like Aurangzeb destroyed Buddhist temples and
monasteries and replaced them with mosque
Many scholars and authors have pointed out to the amicable relations between the two religions
in Jave. Probably because of ties and inter- connections between the Srivijaya( Buddhists) and

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the Sanjaya( Hindu) dynasties.

This earliest disposition of mutual respect comes through from the historic record of the
Mataram Kingdom (Indonesian pronunciation: [mətaram]) or also known as Medang
Kingdom (Indonesian pronunciation: [mdaŋ]) which was a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom
that flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries. It was based in Central Java, and later in East
Java. Established by King Sanjaya, the kingdom was ruled by the Sailendra dynasty. The history
of the Mataram area as the capital of the Central Javanese Mataram kingdom is also part of the
historical Yavadvipa or Bhumijava (the land of Java), and the classical Javanese civilisation.
The Indians collectively called them as 
1. Yawadvipa, the Khmer refer to them as 
2. Chvea, the Chinese called them as
3. Shepo, Chopo or Chao-wa, the Arabs called them as
4. Jawi, Jawah or Zabag, and Srivijayan refer to them as 
5. Bhumijava. The native Javanese most called it simply as 
6. Jawi (Java),
While the name of their nagara (country) is often based on their capital. The only foreign source
mentioning Mdaη was found from the Philippines inscription, dated 822 saka (900)

In the period between the late 8th century and the mid-9th century, the kingdom saw the
blossoming of classical Javanese art and architecture reflected in the rapid growth of temple
construction. Temples dotted the landscape of its heartland in Mataram. The most notable of the
temples constructed in Mataram are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan, all quite close to
present-day city of Yogyakarta. At its peak, the kingdom had become a dominant empire—not
only in Java, but also in Sumatra, Bali, southern Thailand, Indianized kingdoms of
the Philippines, and the Khmer in Cambodia.
Later the dynasty divided into two kingdoms identified by religious patronage—
the Buddhist and Shivaist dynasties. Civil war followed. The outcome was that the Mataram
kingdom was divided into two powerful kingdoms; the Shivaist dynasty of Mataram kingdom
in Java led by Rakai Pikatan and the Buddhist dynasty of Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra led
by Balaputradewa. Hostility between them did not end until 1016 when the Sailendra clan based
in Srivijaya incited a rebellion by Wurawari, a vassal of the Mataram kingdom, and sacked the
capital of Watugaluh in East Java. Srivijaya rose to become the undisputed hegemonic empire in
the region. The Shivaist dynasty survived, reclaimed east Java in 1019, and then established
the Kahuripan kingdom led by Airlangga, son of Udayana of Bali. In the early 19th century, the
discovery of numerous ruins of great monuments—such as Borobudur, Sewu and Prambanan—
which dominated the landscape of the Kedu and Kewu plains in Yogyakarta and Central Java,
caught the attention of some historians and scholars in the colonial Dutch East Indies.[8] This
spurred archaeological studies to uncover the history of this ancient civilisation
Initially, the kingdom was identified only through its location Yawadvipa (Java island) as
mentioned in Canggal inscription (732). The inscription mentioned Rakai Mataram Sang Ratu
Sanjaya (King Sanjaya, the Rakai (lord) of Mataram). The earlier historians such as Soekmono,
identify this kingdom as Mataram, a historic geographical name to identify the plain south
of Mount Merapi in central Java, roughly corresponds to modern Muntilan (where the Canggal
temple on Gunung Wukir hill is located), Yogyakarta, Sleman and Bantul Regency. This is based

8
on the locations where large numbers of candi were discovered in and around Prambanan Plain.
Mother Land: Mataram is the name in Sanskrit-mātaram. Taken from the word mātṛ meaning
"mother", has the same meaning mātṛbhūmi meaning "motherland".In the inscription it is
referred to as kaḍatwan śrī mahārāja i bhūmi i mātaram, a phrase which means "Maharaja's
kingdom in Mataram", as a form of mother personification which symbolizes life, nature and the
environment.
Various inscriptions of dates: 654 Śaka or 732 AD, 802 Śaka or 880 AD 829 Śaka or 907 AD,
829 Śaka or 907 AD at a variety of places all in Sanskrit language- heavily leaningtowards the
hindu structure of the religious assemblies.
1. āsīddvīpavaraṁ yavākhyam
2. saŋ ratu sañjaya
3. dewatā prasiddha maṅrakṣa kaḍatwan śrī mahārāja i bhūmi i mātaram kita
4. Mamratipura and Poh P
5. At the earliest in 732, the kingdom was identified only through its location Yawadvipa
(Java island) as mentioned in Canggal inscription (732). The inscription mentioned Rakai
Mataram Sang Ratu Sanjaya (King Sanjaya, the Rakai (lord) of Mataram).
During the rule of Sri Maharaja Rakai Watukura Dyah Balitung Sri Dharmodaya Mahasambu 
the king of the Kingdom of Mataram between circa 899–911. Moved his palace to Poh Pitu area
and named Yawapura according to the Mantyasih inscription (also known as Balitung's charter),
containing the list of Medang kings and also mentioned in Kaladi inscription (c. 909 CE).
Sanjaya dynasty was an active promoter of Hinduism in ancient Java; it was an
ancient Javanese dynasty that ruled the Mataram kingdom in Java during first millennium CE.
this dynasty appears to have been founded in 732 by King Sañjaya. There are some theories
regarding the Sañjaya-Sailendra relationship. Some scholars suggested that there is no such
things as Sanjaya dynasty, since there was only one dynasty called Sailendra that ruled central
Java. This theory was proposed by Poerbatjaraka and suggested that there was only one kingdom
and one dynasty; the kingdom is called Medang with the capital in Mataram area, and the ruling
dynasty is Sailendra. He holds that Sanjaya and all of his offspring were belongs to Sailendra
family that initially were Shivaist.
Another suggests that the Sañjaya dynasty then was forced to the north of Java by the Sailendra
dynasty, which emerged around 778. The evidence for this event is based on the Kalasan
inscription. During this period, the Sañjaya dynasty existed next to Sailendra dynasty in Central
Java, and much of the period was characterized by peaceful co-existence and cooperation.
The association of Sailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Raja
Sankhara (Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran) to buddhism. The later Sailendran kings, successors
of Panangkaran become Mahayana Buddhist too and gave Buddhism royal patronage in Java
until the end of Samaratungga reign. This theory was based on Raja Sankhara Inscription (now
missing), Sojomerto inscription and Carita Parahyangan manuscript. Shivaist Hindu gain royal
patronage again since the reign of Pikatan, well until the end of the Medang kingdom.
Another evidence pointed that Sailendra family was using old Malay language in some of
their inscriptions, which suggested Sailendra dynasty's foreign origin in Sumatra and their

9
connections with Srivijaya. This theory holds that the Sailendras, with their strong connections
to Srivijaya, managed to gain control of Central Java and imposing overlordship on the Rakais
(local Javanese lords) including the Sañjaya, thus incorporated the kings of Mataram Sañjaya
dynasty in their bureaucracy. The center of the dynasty court seems to be located in South
Kedu (around Magelang, North of Yogyakarta).

Marital Alliances between the sanjaya and the Shailendras: Rakai Pikatan, who was the
crown prince of the Sañjaya Dynasty, wedded Pramodhawardhani (833–856), a daughter
of Samaratungga, king of Sailendra. From that time onwards, the influence of Sañjaya, who was
a Hindu adherer, began to emerge in Mataram, replacing the Buddhist Sailendra. Rakai Pikatan
toppled king Balaputra, son of Samaratungga, also the brother of Pramodhawardhani. As a result,
in 850, the Sañjaya Dynasty was the sole ruler in Mataram. This ended the Sailendra presence in
Central Java and Balaputra retreated to Srivijaya in Sumatra, where he became the paramount
ruler.
The information about Sañjaya Dynasty is also found in the Balitung inscription dated 907.
According to the Balitung inscription – when a ruler died, they transformed into a divine form.
From this inscriptions, the scholars estimated the possible sequence of the ruling kings of
Sañjaya dynasty:

 Sanjaya (732—760)
 Panangkaran (760—780)
 Panungalan (780-800)
 Samaragrawira(Rakai Warak) (800—819)
 Rakai Garung (819—838)
 Rakai Pikatan (838—850)
 Rakai Kayuwangi (850—898), also known as Lokapala
 Balitung (898—910)
It was also during the reign of the Sañjaya dynasty, the classic Javanese literature blossomed.
The translations and adaptation of classic Hindu literatures into Old Javanese was conducted,
such as the Kakawin Ramayana. Around 850s, Pikatan initiated the construction of
the Prambanan temple in Central Java, later completed and expanded extensively by king
Balitung. Prambanan temple complex is one of the largest Hindu temple in Southeast-Asia and
its greatness rivalled Borobudur, which happened to be the biggest Buddhist temple in the world.
The successions of Sañjaya kings after Balitung are:
Daksa (910—919)

 Tulodong (919—924)
 Wawa (924—929)
 Mpu Sindok (929—947)

The bas-relief of the Borobudur monument, illustrating Mahayana texts are a type of yantra to

10
promote meditation and ultimate union with the Buddha But Borobudur can also be identified as
a circle, or mandala, of supreme mystical power associated with the Vairocana Buddha (one of
the self-born Dhyani-Buddhas), according to the teachings of Vajrayana Buddhism. The mandala
was intended to protect the Shailendra realm for all time. The pedagogical symbolism of the
Prambanan temple complex is revealed in its iconography, dominated by the image of the four-
armed Shiva, the Great Teacher—the customary Indonesian representation of the supreme deity.
Prambanan affirms the Shaivite path to salvation; the path is indicated in the inscription of 856,
which implies that the king had practiced asceticism, the form of worship most acceptable to
Shiva. Thus, in Java, Shaivism as well as Mahayana Buddhism had become hospitable to Tantric
influences. An almost contemporary inscription from the Ratu Baka plateau, which is not far
from the Prambanan complex, provides further evidence of Tantrism; it alludes to special rites
for awakening Shiva’s divine energy through the medium of a ritual consort.

The Ratu Boko (or Rahl Baka) plateau, near Yogyakarta in southern central Java, is
surrounded by an impressive array of Hindu and Buddhist shrines. Notable among these are the
Prambanan temples to the north, and Candi Kalasan to the west, with the massive Borobudur
stupa 40 kilometres to the northwest, and the lofty volcanoes Merapi and Merbabu towering over
the northern landscape. The presence of dynamic mountains and Buddhist monuments makes the
Ratu Boko heights an ideal spot for locating the lost palace of the Sailendra 'mountain lords',
though they may well have resided on the plain or in a northern port (Jordaan 1996: 19-23 ).
However that may be, Ratu Boko was the site of the famous Sailendra monastery,
Abhayagirivihara, which had links with Sri Lanka (de Casparis 1961; Lokesh Chandra 1986).

The anti-Saiva nature of the mantra suggests that such a rude choice of the text by the
Sailendras would be an insult rather than a boon for the deceased. The foremost of Buddhist
ecclesiastics' of the Sailendra monastery of Ratu Boko have been credited with burying the
inscription which is on a golden foil. Supposedly associated with a statue rather than a building,
in line with the myth of Trailokyavijaya. It would then be a representation of Mahesvara being
subdued by Vajrapani.
Vajrapāṇi  as we will remember, ( "Vajra in [his] hand") is one of the earliest-
appearing bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism. He is the protector and guide of Gautama
Buddha and rose to symbolize the Buddha's power.
Vajrapāni is extensively represented in Buddhist iconography as one of the earliest three
protective deities or bodhisattvas surrounding the Buddha. Each of them symbolizes one of the
Buddha's virtues: Manjushri manifests all the Buddhas' wisdom, Avalokiteśvara manifests all the
Buddhas' immense compassion, and Vajrapāni protects Buddha and manifests all the Buddhas'
power as well as the power of all five tathāgatas (Buddhahood of the rank of Buddha).

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In India

The Buddha with his protector Vajrapāni. Gandhara, 2nd century

During the Kushana period Gandhara art depicted Vajrapani's images in which he is shown
primarily as a protector of Sakyamuni and not in the role of a bodhisattva. In
the Indrasalaguha scenes, mountains form a part of his environment where his presence during
the conversion of the naga Apalala is shown. In these depictions he is shown wearing exclusive
Western attire and always in the presence of other deities. The reliefs in this art form depict
Vajrapani always present in the scenes where Buddha is converting people; his presence is
shown when the Buddha confronts the opponents of the dharma like Mara before his
enlightenment. Scenes of Sakyamuni competing with the heretics are also part of this art
tradition. Scenes of Buddha using the vajra of Vajrapani as the "magic weapon" to perform
miracles and propagate "superiority of his doctrine" are also common.

ABOVE- Paintings of Avalokiteshvara or Padmapani and Vajrapani on either side of the Buddha in Cave 1
In the western groups of caves in Aurangabad, Vajrapani is depicted as a bodisattva with his

12
vajra in a tableau, a votive panel of sculptural composition in which he in a standing posture (the
only extant figure) over a lotus to the left of a Buddha in a dhyanasana. In this panel he is
adorned with a tall crown, two necklaces, a snake armlet and holds the vajra in his left hand, and
resting on a scarf tied across his hips. This close iconographic composition is at the entrance to
the porch of cave 2 and in the incomplete porch of cave 1. Such votive carved panels with
Vajrapani are also seen in the interior of pradkssina passage of cave 2 in which his presence is
with other the ascetic bodisattvas like Avalokiteśvara; in this panel he has a crown in the form of
a stupa with a scarf fastened over his left thigh.
In the eastern group of caves at the entry to cave 6 in Aurangabad, Vajrapani is carved as a
commanding persona in the form of a huge dvarapala along with Avalokiteśvara. Vajrapani
image is flanked by a small attendant. He carries Vajra, his luminous weapon on the left hand,
which rests on a scarf tied across his hip. His right arm is bent forward -perhaps he held a lotus
like his paredros Avalokiteśvara. Both the bodhisattvas guarding the entrance to cave 6 are
carved wearing princely headdresses (crowns)
In Indonesia

The Buddha Vairocana (center) flanked by Padmapani (left) and Vajrapāni (right). Mendut, 8th
century
From the translation of the words of the Ratu Boko inscription one can come to 2 conclusions:
1. It denotes an anti Shaivite legacy of those who wrote(etched) and buried it. Probably
Buddhists who did not concur with Hinduism
2. It is actually a Tantric mantra by the Hindus themselves to tell a story of the Shiva or
Rudra and Vajrapani conflict as seen in Tantric hinduism
In Indonesia, Vajrapani is depicted as a part of triad with Vairocana and Padmapani. A famous 3
metres tall stone statues of Vairocana, Padmapani, and Vajrapāni triad can be found in central
chamber of Mendut temple, located around 3 kilometres east from Borobudur, Central Java. Both
seated Padmapani and Vajrapani, regarded as the guardian of Buddha Vairocana, are depicted as
a handsome well-built men with serene expression adorned with exquisite crown and jewelries.
The statues are the fine example of the 9th century Central Javanese Sailendran art, which
influenced the Buddhist art in Southeast Asia, including Srivijayan art of Sumatra and Malay
Peninsula (Southern Thailand).

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 2 ( above) CONFLICT: The deity known variously as Lha chen (Skt. Mahadeva), Wangchuk
Chenpo (Maheshvara), Legden (Shiva), or Rudra is perhaps the most cosmologically significant
protector deity in the entire Tibetan Buddhist pantheonThe most elaborate version of the Rudra
subjugation myth appears in the Nyingma "Compendium of Intentions" Sutra (which is
technically classified as the main Anuyoga Tantra of the Nyingma canon). The story begins with
a man named Tharpa Nakpo ("Black Liberator") who many eons ago lived in Abhirati, the
Buddha-field of Akshobhya. Tharpa Nakpo, along with his servant, become the students of a
guru who teaches the Great Perfection (Dzogchen) doctrine that whatever arises is the
enlightened mind. While his servant correctly understands the teachings and becomes
enlightened, Tharpa Nakpo badly misinterprets the Great Perfection, taking the teachings to
mean that he can perform whatever actions he wants. As an aside, it is interesting to note the
parallels between this myth and the classical Hindu myth in which Indra, the king of the gods,
and Virochana, the king of the demons, both receive teachings from a sage about the nature of
the transcendent Self. While Indra understands the teachings correctly, Virochana misinterprets
them, thinking that the Self is nothing more than the.physical.body.

In any case, Tharpa Nakpo and his servant get into an argument about who is correct in their
interpretation of the Great Perfection and when they ask their guru to clarify, the guru states that
Tharpa Nakpo is wrong. He becomes enraged and banishes both his servant and guru. He then
goes to live in the charnel grounds, killing men and eating their corpses and engaging in orgies
with prostitutes. When he dies, he is subsequently reborn in the lowest hell for incalculable eons,
followed by thousands upon thousands of rebirths in other hells, and then as different types of
particularly wretched life-forms, such as vomit-eating spirits.

At last, he is finally reborn as Rudra, the son of a rakshasi prostitute who dies in childbirth.
According to another version of the myth Rudra was conceived after his mother had sex with
three different types of demons and their seed combined within her to produce a hybrid
offspring. Horrified, the community buries her along with her mutant son at the base of a
poisonous tree named "Sexual Transgression," which is surrounded by pigs, snakes, and birds
representing the poisons of ignorance, hatred, and desire. Rudra survives by eating his mothers
corpse over the course of many days until he becomes strong enough to crawl out of his grave.
He has become a hideous monster with three heads, wings, scaly flesh, claws, smeared with all
kinds of repulsive substances and “[w]hoever saw him, their eyes would roll back in terror and
they would faint.”

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Rudra finds he is endowed with practically limitless evil magical power and proceeds to conquer
and gain control over every being in the world, starting with the charnel ground spirits, and
gradually moving up until he overthrows the gods themselves, stealing their wives for himself.
He sets up a kind of palace made of piled corpses and bones on the Isle of Lanka, and due to his
malevolence the entire world begins to resemble an hell-realm. Seeing this woeful state of
affairs, the buddhas decide that Rudra must be subjugated. They initially send Shakyamuni
Buddha who tries to convert Rudra to the Buddhadharma peacefully, but Rudra laughs in his face
and drives him off. The buddhas then send a series of wrathful buddhas to attempt to subjugate
him by force. Eventually, Vajrapani takes on a form identical to Rudra and impregnates his main
consort through deception. From this union, a being called Vajra-Demon is born who goes on to
defeat Rudra in combat, painfully subjugates him by eating him, then resurrects him as dharma
protector.

In other versions of the subjugation, Rudra is eaten by Heruka, shat out, and re-eaten by
Ucchushma before he finally submits. In a version where Hayagriva is the subjugating deity,
Hayagriva shrinks his body, flies up Rudra's anus and expands his body again so that Rudra
bursts and Hayagriva is left wearing his empty skin.

15
The Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara

 The bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, 1800–1900.  Tibet. Thangka; colors on cotton. Courtesy of

the Asian Art Museum, Gift of the Friends of Richard Davis, 1988.34.
    
Who is the central figure in this painting?
The main image in this painting is Avalokiteshvara (1), the Bodhisattva of Compassion. He is the
principle patron deity of Tibet. He sits on a lotus throne upon a lunar disc. This god takes many
forms, such as the Dalai Lamas of Tibet, to bring salvation to the living beings of the world. In
this painting he has four arms and is white in color. His upper hands hold prayer beads and a
lotus; the lower ones, poised in a hand gesture of prayer, clasp the wish-fulfilling jewel at
his heart. This jewel embodies the bodhicitta—the altruistic aspiration to attain highest
Enlightenment in order to thereby save all beings from misery and establish them in perfect
happiness.

What is a bodhisattva?
A bodhisattva is a person, either human or divine (occasionally animal) who has abandoned all
selfish concern and seeks only the ultimate liberation and happiness of all living beings. The
bodhisattva understands that as long as he or she remains trapped in the cycle of birth and death
(samsara) because of greed, anger and ignorance, there is no way that others can truly be helped.
Therefore, driven by concern for the welfare of others, a bodhisattva pursues the spiritual path to

16
 Buddhahood, which involves:
 the perfection of generosity—giving to others with the pure motivation to help them
 the perfection of morality—avoiding all harm to others, and engaging in activities that
benefit others
 the perfection of patience—never giving way to anger, and accepting the harm
perpetrated by others
 the perfection of effort—persevering with enthusiastic efforts in all virtuous activities
 the perfection of concentration—training the mind to hold its objects with a calm, clear
mind free of all distraction
 the perfection of wisdom/the realization of ultimate reality—seeing things as they actual
are without the overlay of dualistic conceptual processes.
In Buddhist art, a bodhisattva may appear in divine form wearing crowns and jewels, as an
ordinary human, or even as a animal. Avalokiteshvara is one of the most popular of the hundreds
of bodhisattvas commonly depicted in Buddhist art. Many, like Avalokiteshvara, appear in a
variety of distinct forms.

Vajrapani (4) detail from The bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, 1800–1900. Tibet. Thangka; colors

on cotton. Courtesy of the Asian Art Museum, Gift of the Friends of Richard Davis, 1988.34.

What are “peaceful” and “wrathful” deities?

To those who seek help, both spiritual and mundane, Buddhas and bodhisattvas typically appear

17
in peaceful, benevolent forms. To those beings whose minds are set on evil, who stubbornly
engage in actions that harm others, the Buddhas and bodhisattvas appear in powerful, wrathful
forms to subdue them and lead them to virtue. On a psychological level, the wrathful deities
represent the powerful, dynamic processes of Buddhist meditation that can destroy the
underlying causes of all misery—greed, hatred, and delusion, etc.
The Bodhisattva of Compassion is a peaceful deity. He emanates beauty and
benevolence. However, in the lower right of the painting is Vajrapani (4), a wrathful deity, who
embodies the sacred power of the Buddhas. Vajrapani

1. White Tara (3) detail from The bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, 1800–1900. Tibet. Thangka; colors on

cotton. Courtesy of the Asian Art Museum, Gift of the Friends of Richard Davis, 1988.34.

2. Manjushri (5) detail from The bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, 1800–1900. Tibet. Thangka; colors on

cotton. Courtesy of the Asian Art Museum, Gift of the Friends of Richard Davis, 1988.34.

3.
The colour  is deep blue in color, has bulging eyes, sharp fangs, fiery hair standing on end, and
stands on a golden sun disc. His right hand shoots out in a threatening gesture and wields
a vajra. This attribute gives him his name meaning “vajra in hand.” Vajrapani is a great protector
of Buddhism. His ferocity is a comfort to believers and terrifying to demons who seek to harm
living beings and destroy their paths to salvation.
In the lower left of the painting sits Manjushri (5), the God of Supreme Wisdom. He holds the
Book of Wisdom and the flaming sword that cuts the roots of ignorance, and severs the
sprouts of misery. He is a semi-peaceful deity and sits on a lotus throne on a lunar disc. The three
deities togethe —Manjushri, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani—are the Three Great Protectors
(Tibetan: rig sum gonpo) representing Wisdom, Compassion, and Sacred Power respectively.
Who are the Green and White Taras?
Above Avalokiteshvara are the Green and White Taras (3), goddesses of compassion and

18
wisdom. White Tara has a third eye in the forehead as well as eyes on her palms and feet. Green
Tara, extends her right leg downward. Both Taras hold the stems of lotuses that blossoms above
their shoulders. Their right hands are lowered with the palm upward in the gesture of bestowing
boons and gifts. The Taras are both the objects of prayer and veneration because of their ability
to bestow such things as longevity, merit, wisdom, protections from every fear, and spiritual
attainments, from the mundane up to supreme enlightenment.
The two goddesses have historical significance also. Songtsen Gampo, the Tibetan king who was
the first royal patron of Buddhism in Tibet in the seventh century, married two princesses—
Bhrikuti, from Nepal, and Wen Cheng from China. These two women helped bring Buddhism to
Tibet, and the Nepalese princess introduced the practice of Tara to Tibet. The two queens are
worshiped as manifestations of the Green and White Taras.

Tsongkhapa (6)  detail from The bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, 1800–1900. Tibet. Thangka; colors on

cotton. Courtesy of the Asian Art Museum, Gift of the Friends of Richard Davis, 1988.34.

Who is pictured at the top of this painting?

Above the Green and White Taras are three seated lamas. The central one is Tsongkhapa (1357–

19
1419) (6), the founder of the Gelukpa order of Tibetan Buddhism. Tsongkhapa is a human
disciple of Manjushri, and like the God of Wisdom pictured below, he has a sword and book
supported by lotus blossoms at shoulder level. He is accompanied by his two chief disciples—
Gyal Tsab on his right and Khedrup on his left. Tsongkhapa’s presence in the painting indicates
this work belongs to the Gelukpa order.

What are the objects below the main image?

The group of five objects below the main image is known as the Offering of the Five Senses: the
mirror stands for sight, the silk beneath it for touch, the fruit for taste, the conch shell for smell,
and the pair of cymbals for sound. This is a typical offering presented to peaceful deities. For
wrathful deities, the offering consists of a skullcap heaped with ears, eyeballs, nose, tongue and a
heart of demons. Paintings like this may have been hung behind the altar in a temple in the home
or monastery. Real offerings of tea, fruit, flowers, pure water, butter and barley sculptures called
torma would be made as well.

How is a traditional Tibetan thangka mounted?

A tangka is a painting of a Buddhist deity, done for religious purposes and made according to
strict codes of iconography. A thangka must be framed in silk brocade and consecrated in a
ceremony by a qualified Lama. It has a pole running across the bottom edge and a cord to hang it
at the top. There is usually a yellow silk covering that is hung over the front to provide the deities
with privacy. This is folded and draped at the top when on view.
This format allows tangkas to be rolled up to be carried from place to place or to be rotated
according to annual rituals or festivals. Paintings like this traveled easily with traders, itinerant
monks, and nomads.

The Ratu Boko remains lie on a high hilltop protected by steep slopes. The site com-prises the
western, eastern and southeastern compounds (Fig. 1).The western compoundhas three terraces.
The first and westernmost terraceis a wide area, roughly 100 metres long, sloping down to the
west. Itssoil is natural rock covered by dust. The only visible remains are locatedat the eastern
end of the terrace and are those of a ramp leading to the secondterrace.The second terrace is
bounded by a high retaining wall in a north-south direc-tion. Another retaining wall going from
east to west, extends it and links thewestern compound with the southeastern compound. In its
northern part, thesecond terrace is divided into two elongated courtyards. The wall
demarcatingthe western and eastern courtyard is interrupted by an impressive 3-doorgopura.This
gateway is linked to thegopuraof the third terrace via a stone path. Apartfrom thegopurathe only
remains on this terrace are those of a high stone basewithout an entrance staircase.The third
terrace is sustained on its western, southern and eastern sides by a wallwhile the northern side
has been carved from the cliff. This terrace houses numerousremains: a double stone base
(calledcandiPembakaran), several pools, apendopoandtwo stone podiums.The eastern
compoundlies higher on the hill (Fig. 1). To the north, are remains ofan enclosure wall. The
centre of the eastern compound consists of two artificialcaves. Nearby are ruins of a stone
structure and a small water tank.The southeastern compoundis certainly the widest and the most
complex. Itis composed of at least nine courtyards scattered on various levels andhousing
numerous remains of pendopo, enclosure walls, gates, bases and watertanks.Fig Below
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The Archaeological Remains of Ratu Boko: From Sri Lankan Buddhism to Hinduism. Available.from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233256174_The_Archaeological_Remains_of_Ratu_Boko_F

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rom_Sri_Lankan_Buddhism_to_Hinduism

Dutch visitors in the 19th century accepted unquestioningly the locallegend and identified the
site as the palace of former Hindu-Buddhist kings. The absence of any temple structure and the
presence of various features unusualamong central Javanesecandi6led the first visitors of the
place to the hypothesisthat Ratu Boko was a form of royal palace. This presumption was
strengthened bya tale reported by villagers.Ratu Boko was believed to be the palace of King
Boko, an ogre enjoying humanflesh. Each day Boko sent a soldier to find a new victim. If the
soldier failed, the kingwould devour him. Terrorised, the people of the country fled and searched
for pro-tection in a neighbouring kingdom. The benevolent ruler of that land sent his own son,

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Bandung Bondowoso, to fight the ogre. After a battle of ten days he defeated Ratu Boko.

That there was tensions between the Buddhists and the Saivites is apparent on a translation and
examining of the circumstancial evidence by ( J. Sundberg in a paper titled: A Buddhist mantra
recovered from the Ratu Baka plateau; A preliminary study of its implications for Sailendra-era
Java ( Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 159 (2003), no: 1, Leiden, 163-188Third )
Sundberg states and I quote” implicit in the choice of mantra used by Panarabwan is a story of
some degree of tension between the Buddhist yoga tantrists and the Saivites whose god was
mythically subdued, murdered, resurrected, and converted.”
The Abhaygiri Vihara Buddhists of Sri Lanks travelled to Java and had an influence on certain
architectural elements there- be it Stupas or Buildings or Statutes.

Vairochana, (Sanskrit: “Illuminator”) also called Mahavairochana (“Great Illuminator”), the

supreme Buddha, as regarded by many Mahayana Buddhists of East Asia and of Tibet, Nepal,
and Java. Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka during the 3rd century BCE with the arrival of
King Aśoka’s son, the Arahant Mahinda, from India. According to the Sri Lankan chronicles, the
king of Sri Lanka at the time, Devanāṃpiya Tissa, converted to Buddhism shortly after
Mahinda’s arrival. The king’s patronage of Buddhism resulted in the construction of numerous
Buddhist sites and centers of learning around the ancient capital of Anurādhapura, as well as in
the formation of a very important relationship between Buddhism and the state.
Bronze figure of Buddha Vairocana, from eastern
Java, Indonesia, 10th century C.E., 29 cm high
Buddhism reached Indonesia by about the fifth
century C.E., when the Mahayana and Vajrayana or
Tantric schools of Buddhism were predominant. In
the eighth and ninth centuries the main centres of
activity were in central Java.

The great Buddhist monument at Borobudur was

Vairocana sits on a high throne and a double lotus.
His hands are in the gesture of teaching. Behind
him is an elaborate throne-back with a halo of
flames and a royal parasol. This image is similar
to many of the Buddhist bronzes of eastern India.
Buddhists travelled between the monasteries of
eastern India and the countries of South-east Asia.
Many bronzes of eastern Indian manufacture were
taken to Indonesia but this image was locally
made.
built around 800, both a huge stupa and a mandala.
In Vajrayana Buddhism, the five Cosmic Buddhas
are identified by a particular gesture (mudra) and
preside over one of the directions of space. The
Buddha Vairocana is the guardian of the centre and
is identified by the gesture of teaching or the
"Turning of the Wheel of
Law" (dharmacakramudra). In many Vajrayana
Buddhist temples in Java the five Buddhas are
arranged in a mandala with Vairocana at the centre.

In 7 th Century, Indian Buddhist monks such as Amogavajra,Vajrabodhi,and Subhakarsimha

took the tantric Buddhist texts to Abhaygiri in Sri Lanks and then to java and China. Another

22
source of this Indonesian Tantric tradition was from Sri Lanka's Abhayagiri vihāra, a well known
center of Vajrayana study and practice, which even established a branch monastery in Central
Java in the 8th century with Sailendra patronage.
A stronghold of Esoteric Buddhism, the empire of Srivijaya (650 CE–1377 CE) patronized
Buddhist monks and institutions and thus attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of
Asia. These included the Chinese monk Yijing, who made several lengthy visits to Sumatra on
his way to study at Nalanda University in India in 671 and 695, and the Bengali Buddhist
scholar Atisha (982-1054 CE) who played a major role in the development of Vajrayana
Buddhism in Tibet. Yijing praised the high level of Buddhist scholarship in Srivijaya and
advised Chinese monks to study there prior to making the journey to the great institution of
learning, Nalanda Vihara, India.
The first major Hindu reference to Sri Lanka is found in the epic Ramayana. Sri Lanka was ruled
by the Yaksha King Kubera. The throne of Lanka was usurped by Kubera's half-brother Ravana,
the epic's chief antagonist, who was killed by Rama (the seventh avatar of Vishnu).
[11]
 The Ramayana also mentions Rama's Bridge, between India and Sri Lanka, which was built
with rocks by Rama with the aid of Hanuman and others. Many believers see the chain
of sandbar, connecting Sri Lanka to India in satellite images, as remnants of the bridge.
Archaeological evidence supports the worship of Siva in parts of Sri Lanka since prehistoric
times, before the arrival of Prince Vijaya. Ravana was also a devotee of Siva.
Many scholars believes that the island's earliest inhabitants were tribal people often referd by the
names of "Yakkha, Naga, Deva, and Rakkha".
Buddhism was introduced by Mahinda, the eldest son of Ashoka, during the reign
of Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura the Sinhalese embraced Buddhism, and the Tamils
remained Hindus. Activity from across the Palk Strait in Tamil Nadu set the stage for Hinduism's
survival in Sri Lanka. Shaivism (worship of Shiva) was dominant among the Tamils, and most of
Sri Lanka's Hindu temple architecture and philosophy of Sri Lanka drew from that
tradition. Thirugnana Sambanthar noted a number of Sri Lankan Hindu temples in his work
There has been a historic conflict between the Buddhists and hindus in Sri Lanka and not
unusual that the same friction was brought forward to Java and resulted in denigration of
Hinduism in the now discovered inscriptions and archeological excavations with ancient
script.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mishra, U. (2015). ABHAYAGIRI IN ANURADHAPURA, BUDDHIST DIAMOND TRIANGLE OF ODISHA AND
JAVA: ART AND EPIGRAPHIC EVIDENCE OF TRIADIC LINKAGE OF ESOTERIC BUDDHISM IN MARITIME
ASIA. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 76, 741–747. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44156642

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