ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL HISTORY

HISTORY
● Prehistory: Early human beings, no written record. Eg- stone age
● Proto-history: Written record but not deciphered
● History
Ancient History
Pre-historic period
● Divided into 3 phases: Paleolithic phase, Mesolithic phase, and Neolithic phase
● Paleolithic phase( 5lakh BC-10,000 BC)
● Mesolithic (10,000 BC-6,000BC)
● Neolithic phase(6000BC-3000BC)
Proto-History
● Indus valley/Harappan civilization
● Time period: 2600 BC -1800 BC
● Chalcolithic period
Advent of Aryans
● Around 1500 BC
● Early Vedic age(1500 BC- 1000 BC)
● Later Vedic age(100BC-600 BC)
6th century BC
● Rise of religious movements in India: Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivika, etc
● Rise of 16 Mahajanpads: Kosala, Gandhara, Magadha, etc.,
History of Magadha
● Haryanka dynasty(554 BC- 412 BC)
● Shishunaga dynasty(412 BC – 344 BC)
● Nanda dynasty(344 BC- 321 BC)
● Mauryan dynasty(321 BC- 185 BC)
Post-Mauryan age
● Outsiders: Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, Kushana
● Indigenous: Shungas(185 BC), Kanva(75 Bc), Satvahanas
Gupta age(319 AD-550 AD)
● Chandragupta
● Samudragupta
● Chandragupta 2
● Kumar Gupta
● Skandagupta
Sangam age( 3 BC-6 AD)
● Cheras
● Cholas
● Pandyas

Post-Gupta age
● Pushyabhutti dynasty( early 7 century AD)-Harsha is the most important ruler
After the demise of Harshavardhan rise of 3 dynasty
 ● Pala dynasty
● Prathiara – Gujhara dynasty
● Rashtrakuta dynasty
Post-Sangam dynasty
● Chalukyas(6th century AD)
● Pallavas(7th century)
By end of the 9th century
● Imperial/Mainland Chola

Medieval History
Delhi sultanate(1206-1526 Ad)
● Slave dynasty(1206-90)
● Khilji Dynasty((1290-1320)
● Tuglaq dynasty(1320-1414): Vijaynagar empire and Bahmani kingdom emerged
during this time
● Sayyid dynasty(1414-51)
● Lodhi Dynasty(1451-1526)
Mughal
● Babur(1526-30)
● Humayun(1530-40), sur empire(1540-45), (1555-56)
● Akhbar(1556-1605)
● Jahangir(1605-27)
● Shah Jahan(1627-58)
● Aurangzeb(1658-1707)

Ancient history
Stone Age
● Human beings appeared on Planet Earth in the middle Pleistocene epoch
● The recent evolutionary phase of human beings happened in the Holocene
period, which led to the emergence of homosapiens
● The early humans were dependent on animals for their survival. These early
humans started to use stone tools for hunting animals.
● Over the period they sharpened their skill of creating effective stone tools.
● The pre-history of early humans can only be traced with stone tools used by
them, artifacts used by them, and their rock engravings.
● On the basis of stone tools used by early humans, the early history is classified
into 3 stone ages
 #CLASS 2

Paleolithic Period
● Divided into 3 phases: Lower paleolithic phase, Middle and Upper Paleolithic
phase
● Lower Paleolithic( 5 lakh BC-1 Lakh Bc): Rough, big tools, irregular in
shape.Tools-cleavers, Hand axes, choppers.
● Middle Paleolithic( 1lakh -40000 BC): Rectangular shaped tools. Tools- Borers,
Burines, blades.
● Upper Paleolithic phase (4000- 10000BC): triangular-shaped tools.
● Paleolithic tools found from Bhimbetka, soan valley(Pakistan), Belan valley(UP),
Narmada valley, Brahmagiri, Kurnool.

MESOLITHIC PERIOD(10000 BC-6000 BC)

● This phase was a transition from a very cold climate to a warm phase- hence
was conducive to the development of flora and fauna.
● Moreover, human beings started to move to different places in this phase;
● This phase saw the beginning of domestication of animals-evidences were
found in Azamgarh (MP) and Bagor(Rajasthan);
● Stone tools used by the mesolithic people are small and sharp known as
'Microliths'.
● These microliths were not only effective for hunting but also it facilitated rock
engravings/mesolithic painting/Petroglyph;

Mesolithic Paintings:
● These paintings provide important insights into the socio-cultural practises of the
Mesolithic community.
● They used naturally obtained and mineral colours-red is the dominant colour(red
is sourced from animal blood too);
● Themes: Hunting and gathering, animal riding, group dance, celebration,
fighting, sexual union, household chores, phallus worship and Yoni worship etc.
Inferences from the themes in the paintings:
● Group dancing indicates their community sense;
● Women were depicted with household chores and men with fighting indicate
there is a division of labour;
● Sexual union -indicates their understanding of the significance of it, might be a
primitive concept of marriage;
● Phallus and Yoni worship-indicate they might be thinking sexual organs as a
vehicle for the act of God etc.
NEOLITHIC PHASE(6000 BC-3000 BC)
● Human beings started to live in larger communities in thatched houses.
● Stone tools used were not only small and sharp-but also were polished.
 ● There were instances of usage of bone implements and usage of bone and
arrow.
● The most important development in this phase was the start of agricultural
practices;
● The first evidence of agriculture is found from Mehrgarh in the Balochistan area
of Pakistan;
● Wheels were created and Wheel-made pottery was developed;
● Humans mastered controlled use of fire;
● Important sites of this phase : Gufkral; Burzhom, Chirand, Sarai Nahraya etc.

INDUS VALLEY/HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION(2600-1800 BC)

● The information about IVC was available from the 1870s when the railway line
was laid between Lahore and Karachi.
● In 1920, when J H Marshall became head of ASI, he gave the task of excavation
to Indians;
● As such in 1921, Dayaram Sahni excavated the site of Harappa; In 1922, R D
Banerjee excavated the site of Mohenjo Daro.
● By this time, it was firmly established that IVC was the most advanced civilization
of the world.
● As compared to Egyptian civilization, it did not have any monumental buildings
like Pyramids;
● But IVC was unique in the sense of its urban planning and usage of burnt brick of
same shape and size;
Important sites of IVC:
Mohenjo Daro, Harappa, Manda, Daimabad, Alamgirpur, Sutkagendor, Amri, Kotdiji,
Chanudaro, Suttkoh, Balakot, Dholavira, Allahdino, Desalpur, Lothal, Rangpur,
Surkatoda, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Banawali,Ropar etc.
● Harappa and Mohenjo Daro: known for textiles;
● Kalibangan: Bangle industry;
● Chanhudaro: Bead industry;
● Lothal and Rangpur: Rice cultivation;
● Rakhigarhi: largest site of IVC;
● Dholavira: Three-layer of urban planning;
Town/Urban Planning of IVC:
Town area was divided into Upper Town and Lower Town.
Upper Town:
● known as a citadel and created on an apprised platform, administrative buildings
were created
● Granary (for storage of grains) in a scientific manner and Common bath(stepped
water tank meant for ritual bathing )was created;
● The best example of a common bath is the Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro etc.
Lower Town:
● As compared to the upper town, lower town was quite big in size and meant for
the habitation of commoners;
● The lower town was based on sectoral planning-it is divided into many sectors;
● There was a very good network of roads in the lower town and roads used to cut
each other at right angles;
● On both the sides of roads, drains were created in the scientific pattern;
● These drains were covered with stone slabs or brick slabs ;
● Inside the drains, manholes were created which was plastered with gypsum;
● There were instances of the single, double and triple storey houses;
● All the houses were made from a burnt brick of the same shape and size;
● Inside the houses, bedrooms, courtyards, separate kitchens and separate
washrooms were created;
● All the houses were connected with the main drain for waste disposal;
● IVC people were concerned about their privacy -hence the main gates of their
houses were not facing main roads;
● Measurement system in IVC indicates their usage of the decimal system etc.
 #CLASS 3

Political Organization
● Looking at the Town Planning of IVC, it can be inferred that Indus valley had a
central authority.
● According to the majority of Historians, it is believed that Indus towns were
administered by rich traders & merchants instead of a monarchy.
● We have not come across any instance of standing armies in IVC.
Economic activity
● Agriculture was the most important economic activity during IVC. They cultivated
crops like wheat, cotton, Barley, mustard, rai, etc. Rice cultivated only in Lothal
and Rangpur.
● Outsiders often referred to cotton as Sindon, which means the plant which
originated in Sindhu valley.
● The economic activity also included the Textile industry(Harappa, Mohenjo Daro).
Bead industry(Chanodharo), Bangle Industry(Kalibangan) and shipbuilding
(Lothal).
● The artisanal industry was also well established, whereby, Pottery, sculptures,
seals, etc were created.
● The Indus valley established Trade relations with the following areas:
Afghanistan, Mesopotamia, Dilman(Bahrain), Sumer, Oman, Magan(Persian gulf
coast).
● Indus valley people had the knowledge of metals like Copper, Tin, Bronze, Gold,
silver, and they were also using some semi-precious stones like Amethyst,
Carnelian, lapis Lazuli.
Society
● As far as Indus society is concerned, the majority of Historians believe that it was
a matriarchal society. These historians have sighted examples of Mother
Goddess, which is the most abundant image found from all the Indus towns.
● Looking at the Towns of IVC, it seems that though income inequality was their
society was not discriminatory in nature.
● It seems that society was open and there was a mobilization in society.
● Indus valley people were quite aware of their aesthetic look and they used a
variety of ornaments like Necklace, waistband, Bangles, Finger rings, etc.
● They were also aware of soaps, Lipsticks, and Kajal.

Religious practises
● Seals-Geometrical shape and was pictographic in nature. One of the famous
examples is the Pashupati Seal in which a deity(Proto-Shiva) has been depicted
along with many animals. In one other seal Pipal tree was depicted which
indicated nature worship.
● The most abundant religious image was a sculpture of Mother Goddess
● Moreover, Shamanism was also practised, whereby, Indus valley people were
using amulets to ward off evil.
 ● Burial practises: There was no uniformity in the burial practises of IVC. They
followed fractional burial, Pot burial, Full cremation, etc
● Articles were buried along with the dead person. It seems that Indus valley
people have believed in otherworldly things and they must have thought that the
dead person will be using articles at the other place.

The decline of Indus Valley Civilization

● There was a divisionary debate among the historians regarding the decline of
IVC. Some historians claimed that Aryan invasion was the possible reason but
was rejected.
● As per scientific evidence, it is confirmed that the decline of the Indus valley
happened due to inundation and frequent flooding.
● By 1800 BC, IVC completely disappeared from the Indian subcontinent.

Chalcolithic culture
● It signifies the usage of copper and stone tools simultaneously.
● Though this practice began in the Neolithic age and only its dominant phase was
between 1800-1500 BC.
● In between 1800-1500 BC, the livelihood of chalcolithic people was dependent on
agricultural activity, animal husbandry, stock raising, fishing, etc. They also
produced textiles and some metal crafts.
● An important development was uniform practise of dead burial and moreover,
they also followed direction while burying their dead.
● Copper was the most widely used metal in this phase which was obtained from
ahar, Khetri mines.
● Important Pockets of Chalcolithic culture- Ahar- Banas, Kayastha, Malwa,
Savalda.

Advent of Aryans

● From Steppes grassland of Central Asia. They were nomadic and pastoralist.
Cattle was their most important wealth.
● They were always in search of good pasture land. The term Aryans stand for the
linguistic community who spoke the Aryan group of languages.
● Aryans were able to defeat the indigenous population of India by their usage of
superior bronze tools which included even male coats and helmets. Moreover,
they were using horses and horse-driven chariots which provided swiftness to
their army.
● Geographical location: Initially Aryans were concentrated in North-west part of
Indian sub-continent- Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal, etc
 ● Started to compose Veda in the Sanskrit language. The first Veda to be
composed was rig Veda which was the most important source of information
about early Aryans.
● Initially, the Veda was oral composition i.e Shruti. It also mentions Sapta Sindhu
rivers which were as follows: Indus(Sindhu), Jhelum(Vitasta), Chenab(Askini),
Ravi(Parushni), Beas(Vipasha), Sutlej(Shutudri), Saraswati(Nandita Rana).

Present Day Name Original Name

Indus Sindhu

Jhelum Vitasta

Chenab Askini

Ravi Parushni

Beas Vipasha

Sutlej Shutudri

Saraswati NanditaRana
Markawati

EARLY VEDIC PERIOD[1500-1000 BC]

ECONOMY DURING EARLY VEDIC PERIOD :-

● Cattle were the most important economic wealth of early Aryans. Its
importance is highlighted through many words associated with cattle
mentioned in Rig Veda.
● Gopa(Cow), Master of a cow(Gopajanya), Duhitri (Milcher of the cow),
Godhuma, Gavisthi (Search for cows).
● Even battles were fought for securing a large number of cattle. The other
important economic commodity in this period was Barley known as Yava and
wheat(Godhuma).
● There was no formal system of Taxation but people contribute voluntarily to
the chief of the community which was known as Bali or bhag.
 #CLASS 4

Political Organisation During Early vedic Period

Rajan:-
● He was the chief/head of the Aryan tribal community;
● His important work was to organize battles for securing a large number of cattle.
Rajan was assisted by the following political communities
● Sabha: Most decisive assembly; elders(both male and female) of the community
were members;
● Samiti: Larger assembly; it is not as decisive as Sabha; only males were
members;
● Vidhata: The exact function was not clear; in Rigveda, it has been mentioned
that it was involved with religious ritual decisions;
The most important and powerful Aryan tribe of this time was Bharat
● Sudas, the ruler of Bharat tribe, had to take a policy decision in which head
priest of Bharat clan was to be appointed;
● Sudas gave the coveted position of the head priest to Vashisht Rishi instead of
Viswamitr;
● Humiliated Viswamitr persuaded 5 Aryan Rajans and 5 non-Aryan Rajans to
fight with Sudas;
● as such Dasarajna battle was fought on the banks of Parushini in which Sudas
defeated Dasrajans;
● After this battle, the entire territory was named after his clan-Bharat Varsh.
Society of Early Vedic Period
● Society was divided into the lines of Kul(family), Vis(clan), and Gram(community);
● Kul was the important unit headed by Kulapa(the eldest male member of the
family);
● Women were highly respected in society ;
● Women were allowed to be members of Sabha and Vidhata and allowed to
participate in educational debates and discussions like Lopamudra;
● Love marriage under the Gandharv vivah was allowed; Both men Women were
allowed to choose their spouses but from their own community;
● Widow remarriage was allowed under Niyoga Vivah whereby the widow was
allowed to get married to the younger brother of a deceased husband;
● Moreover, if the widow has a son out of the first marriage, she was suggested not
to get married again;
● Slavery was rampant-there were two types of slaves-Dasa(defeated Aryans)and
Dasyu(defeated non-Aryans);
● Many times, Dasa was given favorable treatment but Dasyu was heavily
discriminated against; In Rigveda, Dasyu Sathya was mentioned.
● Polygamy was followed and also there were instances of Polyandry.
Religion During Early Vedic Period
● They personified elements of nature as Gods like Indra/Purandhar (Rain and
Thunderstorm), Agni, Varun, Mitra, etc.
 ● Indrạ was the most important divinity and was mentioned more than 250 times in
Rig Veda;
● Agni was the second important and was considered as intermediary
God-mentioned more than 200 times in Rig Veda;
● Varun(God of water) was worshipped for maintaining equilibrium or cosmic order;
● Mitr(later called as Mitra) was the god of wind; Sun-god was also worshipped,
Pushan(god of animals);
● Female divinities: Aditi(Goddess of the day), Usha(Goddess of dawn),
Nisha(Goddess of dusk); Savitri(Goddess of sunlight);
● Gayatri Mantra composed by Viswamitr was dedicated to Sun God and Goddess
Savitri;
● The mode of worship was the performance of Yajna and offering sacrifices along
with the recitation of prayers and Mantra;
● The objective of worship was material gain and not for a spiritual purpose.

LATER VEDIC PERIOD

● Iron was discovered during this period in the Western part of present-day UP at
Atranjikhera and Jakhera.
● Sharp tools were created with iron which in turn facilitated in clearing the dense
forests of Gangetic plains.
● Moreover, fertile soils in this region were suitable for agriculture;
● With this Aryans penetrated the eastern part of the country and Central
India-Brahmavart, Aryavart, Purvkhand, Madhyadesh were mentioned;
● In the later Vedic texts-Ganga and Yamuna rivers were mentioned, the most
mentioned river is Sadanira(Gandak).
Political Organisation During Later Vedic Period
● The position of Aryan became much more important; The early political assembly
Vidhata disappeared completely;
● Sabha and Samiti lost their former relevance-moreover women were evicted from
Sabha;
● Priestly class assumed a very important role of aiding and advising Rajan;
To confer supreme power on Rajan, the priestly class devised the following ritual
sacrifices:
● Rajasuya: A consecration ceremony; accession of Rajan to the throne with the
blessings of priestly class;
● Vajapeya: Chariot racing followed by a grand feast;
● Aswamedha: Associated with territory expansion in which a bruised horse was
let loose with the flag of kingdom etc.,
 #CLASS 5

The economy during the Later Vedic Period

● At this point in time, land became the most important economic wealth
● Battles at this time were fought to secure large tracts of land
● The importance of land is highlighted in later Vedic texts, with the term
"Rashtra"
● There was no formal system of taxation
● People voluntarily contributed in the form of "Bhaag" and "Bali".
The society during the Later Vedic Period
● Women did not enjoy any political rights at this point in time as there were no
more members from Sabha
● Vidhata disappeared completely
● The educational discourse was still open to women
● Gandharva Vivaah was not encouraged at this point in time
● Anulom Vivah-Higher caste men getting married to lower class women
● Pratiloma Vivaah-Higher caste women married to the lower caste men
● There were instances of Anuloma and Pratiloma marriages
● None of the marriages were encouraged but Anuloma was accommodated
● In the later Vedic period, no instance of child marriage came to light
● Widow remarriage continued under Niyoga Vivah
● Under Mandala No. 10 of Rigveda under Purusha Sukta, it was mentioned to
divide society into four Varnas on the basis of birth
● Brahaman emerged from the mouth of Primeval man(Adi Brahma)
● Kshatriya emerged from the shoulder and chest of Adi Brahma
● Vaishya emerged from the thigh of Adi Brahma
● Shudra emerged from the feet of the Adi Brahma
● Gotra refers to the lineage from a common ancestor was further consolidated at
this point in time
● Brahmins advised exogamy of Gotra in the matters of matrimonial alliances
● They consolidated the concept of 16 samskaras, like Upanayana samskara,
Vivah samskara, Annaprashan samskara, Namakarana samskara
● The first three stages of the Ashram system came to reality at this point in time
● Brahmacharya-Celibacy and study period
● Grihastha-Married life and its responsibility
● Vanaprastha-Partial retirement from householders life to attain wisdom
● Sanyas-Complete retirement from householders life to attain enlightenment
(Came to reality at the time of Buddha and Mahavir)

Religious practices during the Later Vedic Period

● The early Vedic gods like Indra, Agni, Varun lost their former importance
● At this point in time Prajapati or Brahma(Creator of the universe), emerged as the
most important god
● Moreover, Rudra and Vishnu also emerged as important gods
 ● The mode of worship at this point in time was through prayers, recitation of
mantras, the performance of Yajna, and offering sacrifices
● The objective of the worship was to seek material gain but it was not for
spiritualism
● In the rear end of the later Vedic period, the progressive section of society started
reform movements
● Whereby they emphasized spiritualism to be the most important objective of the
worship.

` Rise of the sixteen Mahajanapadas

● By the 6th century BC, sixteen Mahajanapadas emerged in India
● Mahajanapadas were big territorial states, with a well-established system of
administration
● Moreover, they were also known for having a large standing army
● Some of them were Kamboj, Malla, Chedi, Avanti, Matsya, Panchala,
Magadha
● Initial Mahajanapada history can be traced from Buddhist and Jain books like
Anguttar Nikaya and Mahvastu of Buddhism and Bhagwati Sutra of Jainism.
Rise of Magadha as most powerful Mahajanapada:-
● Initially, Kashi and Kosal were the most powerful and rich Mahajanapada but
over the period Magadha emerged as the most powerful Mahajanapada.
Reasons:-
● Magadha capital, Rajagriha was strategically located, surrounded by five
mountains which in turn safeguarded the capital
● Magadha rulers used the abundant river channels for trade and commerce
● Magadha was densely forested which provided good quality timber
● Magadha had huge reservoirs of iron with which they created good quality
tools and maintained a very strong army
● Magadha rulers were unorthodox and enterprising in nature.

Haryanka Dynasty ( 559 BC-412 BC)

Founder-Bimbisara ( 559 BC-492 BC)
● To increase the power through matrimonial alliances into the kingdoms of
Kashi(Mahakoshal Devi), Lichchavi(Chellana), and Madara(Khema)
● Following the policy of military annexation, he annexed Mahajanapada of
Anga and placed it under his son Ajatshatru
● He sent his famous physician Jivaka to Avanti go treat Chanda Pradyota as
such friendly relations developed between Magadha and Avanti
● Bimbisara was a contemporary of Buddha and respected Buddha a lot.
Ajatshatru (492 BC-460 BC)
● He came to power after assassinating Bimbisara
● After which his authority was challenged by Kashi and Lichchavi rulers
● Waged war with Kashi and Lichchavi
● In the course of the war, there was an agreement between Kashi ruler Prasenjit
but not with Lichchavi
● Ajatshatru completely destroyed the capital of Lichchavi i.e Vaishali
 ● In this war against Lichchavi, Ajatshatru used two innovative war
engines-Redhamusla and Mahashila Kantak
● Ajatshatru was also contemporary Buddha and had huge respect for Buddha
● In 483 BC after the death of Buddha, Ajatshatru convened the first Buddhist
council at Rajagriha 483 BC
● Ajatshatru before his death decided to shift the capital of Magadha from
Rajagriha to Pataliputra
● He died in 460 BC.
Udayin (460 BC-440 BC)
● He constructed the beautiful city of Patliputra
● The last ruler of Harayanka Nagadasaka was assassinated by one of his
minister Shishunaga
● Shishunaga established, Shishunaga dynasty in Magadha.
Shishunaga Dynasty (412 BC- 344 BC)
● Shishunaga completely annexed the Mahajanapada of Avanti
● He also decided to shift capital from Vaishali to Patliputra
● After his death, Kalasoka became the next emperor
● During the tenure of Kalasoka, 2nd Buddhist council convened in 383 BC at
Vaishali, the informal division of Buddhism happened
● Kalasoka was assassinated by Mahapadmananda, who established the Nanda
dynasty in Magadha in 344 BC
● The Nanda dynasty was the first non-Kshatriya dynasty of Magadha.
 #CLASS 6

NANDA DYNASTY

● Founded by Mahapadma Nanda in 344 BC.

● After coming to power, he resolved to eliminate all Kshatriyas from Magadh.
● Due to his aggressive attitude, he came to be known as Ekrath or Ugrasen.
● He annexed Kalinga during his tenure.
● In quick succession, after the death of Mahapadmananda, many rulers were
appointed.
● The last ruler of the dynasty was Dhananand who was also the most powerful
Nanda ruler.
At this time, the ruler of Macedonia Alexander started his eastern campaign.
● In 326 BC, he fought with the Indian ruler Porus in the battle of Hydaspes.
● Though Alexander defeated Porus but impressed by his bravery, he reinstated
Porus and made him his ally.
● Alexander planned to attack Magadh, but his army was exhausted because of
continuous wars.
● And, he wanted time to recuperate. As such Alexander decided not to attack
Magadh.
● Very soon, when Alexander was returning to Macedonia, he was attacked and
died of the injury.

MAURYAN DYNASTY(321-185 BC)

● Dhananand was defeated and killed by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BC.
● The defeat of Nanda ruler was possible due to the active support of
Chanakya/Kautilya/Vishnugupta;
● The political mechanization devised by Kautilya against the Nanda ruler is
mentioned in Visakadhatta's Mudrarakshasa;
● In 305 BC, Chandragupta fought with Seleucus Nikator(Greek governor of
Alexander);
● With the active support of Kautilya, Chandragupta defeated Nikator.
● After the battle, a friendship treaty was signed whereby Nikator gave the area
lying west of River Indus to Maurya-he also married his daughter Helena with
Maurya.
● As per the treaty, one Greek Ambassador Magasthanes was appointed in the
Mauryan court.
● Magasthanes wrote a very famous book 'Indica' which provides details about
socio-political conditions during the Mauryan period.
● Under the influence of Jain monk Badrabahu, Chandragupta Maurya professed
Jainism and decided to shift to a place called Shravanabelagola in Karnataka.
● At this place, Chandragupta followed extreme Jain penance 'Sallekhana' and
died in typical Jain fashion etc.
Ashoka(269 BC-232 BC)

Three phases of Ashoka: Kamashoka-He was involved with physical pleasures;

Chandashoka: Extreme and brutal phase of Ashoka etc.
● In his 9th regnal year( 261 BC) he decided to attack Kalinga and won the
battle, but there was a large scale of human deaths;
● In 215 BC, Ashoka convened the 3rd Buddhist council at Pataliputra.
● Composition of Abhidhamma Pitaka; Buddhist missionaries' activity was
started.
● Ashoka's son and daughter were sent to Srilanka for the propagation of
Buddhism.
● He also sent various Buddhist missions to East Asia and Central Asia.
● After Ashoka's death, Mauryan territory started to disintegrate under the weak
successors.
● The last Maurya ruler Brihadrad was assassinated by one of the ministers
Pushyamitra Sunga in 185 BC.

Mauryan Administration:-
Saptanga(Seven organs of Mauryan administration):
● Swami(King), Ammatya(Ministers), Kosha(Treasury), Bala(Army), Durg(Fort),
Mitra(Ally), Shatru(Enemy);
Important Officers:-
● Dhamma Mahamatya -Ministers associated with the propagation of
Dhamma(Doctrine of Buddhism-Moral Ethical code of conduct);
● Shulk Adhyaksh-Tax collector; Sitadyaksha-Minister responsible to look after
royal land;
● Sagarika-Superdinant of city administration; Bhesaj-Doctors /Physicians;;
Mauryas also established a very good network of espionage etc.
 #CLASS 7

POST-MAURYAN PERIOD
Indo-Greeks
● They started arriving in the Indian subcontinent by 165 BC.
● These were the first people to issue Gold coins.
● Their most important ruler was Menander who established his capital at
Sakala(Sialkot).
● He was persuaded by a Buddhist monk Nagasena.As such Meander asked many
questions to NagaSen and Nagseen gave a satisfactory reply to each of the
questions. As such Menander accepted Buddhism and also took the new name
Milind, The historical conversation between Menander and Nagasenais
mentioned in 'MilindaPanho'.
● They introduced Curtains to the Indian subcontinent.
Shakas
● Started to arrive in India by 90 BC in many branches-the most important was the
western branch of Shakas.
● The most important ruler of this branch was Rudradaman.
● Rudradaman is known for the Junagarh inscription which was the first Sanskrit
inscription.
● In this, he mentions Sudarsan lake of Kathiawar which was constructed by one of
the Chandragupta Maurya governors Pushya Gupta Maurya.
● He further mentions that he himself repaired Sudarshan Lake.
● In the next part of the inscription, it is mentioned that he defeated Satavahana
ruler Vasista Putra Satakarni twice.
Parthians
● They started arriving by 25 AD
● The most important Parthian ruler in India was Gondophernus. During his tenure,
a Christian missionary St.Thomas came into India from Israel to propagate
Christianity.
Kushans
● Belong to the Yuchi tribe of Central Asia.; They arrived in two branches:
Kadphise(65 AD) and Kanishka (78 AD).
Kadphise branch
● First ruler was Kujula Kadphises and the Second ruler Vima Kadphises,
● Kadphise rulers released their coins in India. On the obverse side of the coin ,
an image of the king was created and on the reverse side, an image of a free
standing person holding a trident along with a bull was depicted.
● This indicates that Kushanas was a devotee of Shiva.
Kanishka Branch
● This branch arrived in India by 78 AD, h defeated Northern branch of Saka;
● To commemorate the victory, he started the Shaka era.;
● With the arrival of Kanishka, there was a new wave of urbanization-he founded 2
new cities Kanishkpur and Purushpur; he also further urbanized Mathura.
 ● Kanishka's tenure is also known for very high level of monetization -he released a
large number of gold coins which were purest of the pure quality;
● He utilized the silk route for establishing trade with China and western world.
● In 78 AD, Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalvan in
Kashmir. Under the influence of Asvaghosa, he accepted Mahayana Buddhism.
● He also patronized Gandhara and Mathura style of sculpture.
● Kushanas introduced long coats, boots, and kurta pyjamas into the Indian
subcontinent.
INDIGENOUS DYNASTIES
Shunga Dynasty
Pushyamitra Sunga
● Tried to revive Vedic rituals; performed an Aswamedha yagna which is
mentioned in Ayodhya inscription;
● He also destroyed many Buddhist stupas; Patanjali was his contemporary who
propounded the philosophy of Yoga and wrote Yogasutra.
● Agnimitra Sunga: His love affair with Malavika is mentioned in Kalidas'
Malavikagnimitra;
● Vasumitra Sunga: During his reign, the stupas which were destroyed by
Pushyamitrasunga were restored.
● During the reign of Bhagabadra, a Greek ambassador Heliodorus accepted
Hinduism and enacted a pillar at Vidisha to mark the worship of Lord Vishnu.
This pillar was popularly known as Garudadhwaj-it is the first archaeological
evidence of Vishnu worship.
Kanva Dynasty
● It replaced the Sunga dynasty in 75 BC.; founded by Vasudev Kanva who also
promoted Vedic Hinduism.
● In 1st C AD, Kanvas were defeated by Satavahans, rulers of Deccan, and
annexed Magadh into their Deccan kingdom.
Satavahana Dynasty
● Puranas are the most important source of information on Satavahana history.
● In the 1stC AD, the Satavahana kingdom was established by Simukha.
● Hala: This ruler wrote a famous erotic love poetry 'Gathasaptasati'.
● Gautamiputra Satakarni: His mother Gauthami Balasri proclaimed in Nasik
inscription that Satakarni is the only protector of Brahmins.
● Initiatives: Issued lead coins for commercial transactions; first rulers to start the
practice of granting land to Brahmins and monks etc.

Gupta Dynasty

● It emerged around 230 AD; the initial ruler was Shrigupta but they were not
powerful in 3rd C AD;
● By 4th C AD, Chandragupta-1 filled the void created due to the demise of
Kushanas in North India;
● Chandragupta-1 brought North and Central India under one authority; he married
Kumaradevi of Lichhavi etc.,
Samudragupta(335-375 AD)
● Harisen wrote Prayag Prashasti which was the eulogization of
Samudragupta-it has been mentioned that he won more than 100 battles and
never faced a single defeat etc.
● He was a believer of Hinduism and performed Ashwamedha Yagna; He gave
permission to Srilankan ruler Meghaverman to create a Buddhist monastery at
Bodh Gaya etc.
Chandragupta-II
● He is the most enlightened ruler of Guptas; his period was golden period of art
and culture;
● He took the title of Vikramaditya; He created Ujjain as the second capital of
Guptas;
● Famous literaries in his court are Kalidas, Amarsimha, Varaha Mihir, Dhanvantari,
etc.
 #CLASS 8

Kumaragupta
● He founded Nalanda university under the influence of Fa Hien;
● The university had dedicated physical infrastructure like classrooms, hostels,
library, etc.
● In fact, it is said that the Nalanda library was the largest in the world during the
period.
● It regularly conducted the exam on the basis of a pre-defined syllabus and
promotion to the next grade was based on the outcome of the exam.
● On the other hand, Takshashila university did not have dedicated physical
infrastructure like Nalanda, and education was imparted in Guru-Shishya
Parampara.
● Regular exams were not conducted but students were tested by Guru on the
basis of their knowledge in an informal setup.
● The learning in Nalanda was concentrated around Buddhism but Takshasila was
multidisciplinary in nature.
Skandagupta
● Last important ruler of Gupta dynasty.
● He also repaired Sudharshan lake which he mentioned in the Junagarh
inscription.
● During his tenure, a barbaric tribe from Central Asia 'Hunas' started to invade
Guptan territory.
● Skandagupta effectively repelled them, but after his death, Hunas reorganized
themselves under the leadership of Toramana and Mihirkula and completely
looted the Gupta territory.
● It marked the decline and disintegration of Guptas who disappeared from India by
550 AD.
Economy During Gupta Period
● Land tax was the important source of revenue-1/6 of the product during normal
times and varied during emergencies;
● Major ports: Tamralipti, Bharuch, etc.; Guptans gave land grants to Brahmins,
officers, and Nobles.
● Agrahara and Brahmadeyas-special land grants to Brahmins; Vishti is the tax
paid in the form of physical/forced labour.
● Administrative units: Bhukti and Bhuktipati, Vishaya and Vishayapathi, Grama as
village, etc.

Religious Practises During Gupta Period

● By the Post-Mauryan period, the concept of Tridev(Saraswati, Laxmi, and
Parvati) was already consolidated and it was formalized in the Guptan period.
● Moreover, the concept of Bhakti/Devotion superseded the practice of sacrifice;
● A majority of Hindi literature was written down during the Guptan period which
includes Puranas.
 ● Another major development was the beginning of the construction of temples
which gave rise to the Nagara style of temples.
Society During Gupta Period
● Though Gupta tried to uplift the position of women in society, they were not
successful.
● Many restrictions were imposed on them regarding the movement of women.
● Higher class women were not allowed to secure independent sources of living but
lower-class women were allowed to do so.
● Women were allowed to participate in religious discourse and were allowed to
listen to religious literature.
● The first archeological evidence of Sati has been found in the Gupta period-Eran
inscription dated 510 AD mentions Satipratha
● Lawgiver Katyayana clarified the concept of Streedhan;
● Two types of Sudras emerged during the post-Mauryan period: Nirvasita and
Anirvasita.
● During the Gupta period, a large number of Chandalas, who were a category of
Nirwasita sudra, emerged.

SANGAM AGE

➔ Around 4th C BC, three dynasties emerged in South India-Cheras, Cholas and
Pandyas.
➔ Cheras: mentioned as Keralaputra in the Mauryan inscriptions;
◆ Initial ruler-Uday Injeral;
◆ Important ruler-Senguttavan;
◆ Capital- Karur;
◆ Important port-Muziri etc.
➔ Cholas: Initial ruler-Elara;
◆ Capital-Puhar and Kaveripattinam;
◆ Important ruler-Karikala;
◆ Karikala was the first ruler to create the Kalanai dam on Cauvery river.
◆ Important port-Kaveripattinam and Arikamedu etc.

➔ Pandyas: Initial ruler-Mudukumudi;

◆ Capital-Madurai;
◆ Important ruler-Nedunjeliyan;
◆ 3 Sangam assemblies were held during Pandyas which gave rise to Tamil
literature;
◆ Important port-Korkai and Thoothukudi.
➔ All these 3 dynasties were prosperous and had powerful navies.
➔ They traded spices, ivories, pulses and cotton textiles with Arab traders and
further to the Roman areas.
PUSHYABHUTI DYNASTY
● Based in Thaneswar by 600 AD; Prabhakarvardhan was the founder; He married
his daughter Rajashri to Grihavarman of Maukhari rulers at Kannauj etc.
● Harshavardhan was the prominent leader-fought with Pulakeshan-2 and
Hrshvardhan was defeated,
● The resulting peace treaty can be in Aihole inscription.
● Hiuen Tsang came to India during his tenure and wrote his experiences in
Harshvardan's court in his book Si-yu-ki.
● Harshavardhan was a devotee of Lord Shiva and the Sun-also accepted
Mahayana Buddhism under the influence of Hiuen Tsang etc.
 #CLASS 9

Chalukyas and Pallavas

● By the end of the 6th century AD, two important dynasties emerged in South
India
● Chalukyas of Badami and Pallavas of Kanchi
● From the very beginning, both the dynasties started to fight with each other on
the question of controlling the fertile Tungabhadra doab
● Initially, Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin II defeated Pallava ruler Mahendravarman
and captured the area of Vengi
● Vengi was handed over to Vishnuvardhan, who later founded the eastern
branch of Chalukya, situated in Vengi
● Mahendravarman's son Narsimhavarman decided to take revenge and
capture the fertile area
● Narsimhavarman as such he attacked Chalukya capital Badami and defeated
Pulakeshin II
● He also captured Chalukya capital Badami/Vatapi to celebrate this victory he
took the title of Vatapikonda
● Both the dynasties are known for their contribution to temple art in South India
● Pallavas initiated rock-cut architecture, which later transformed itself into the
Dravidian style of temple architecture
● Chalukyas initiated the Vesara style of temple art
● After the demise of the Pushyabhuti dynasty and the defeat of Pulakeshin II, a
vacuum was created in north and central India
● By 750 AD, three dynasties emerged, Palas
Pala dynasty of the East
● The founder of this dynasty was Gopala
● The most important ruler was Dharmapala
● Dharmapala granted 200 villages for the upkeep and maintenance of Nalanda
university
● He was also the founder of the universities of Vikramshila, Oddantapura, and
Somapura
● Pala rulers were the followers of Buddhism
● During their tenure, miniature paintings started in India.
Pratihara-Gurjara dynasty of the west
● The initial ruler of the dynasty was Nagabhatta
● It is said about them, that he repelled one Arab invader from the western side
● The most important ruler was Mihira Bhoja
● Mihirbhoja was a devotee of the Lord Vishnu took the title of Adivaraha
● He also initiated the construction of the Gurjara style of the temple in west
● During this time, Gurjaras created the strongest cavalry, they procured very good
quality horses from Central Asia
Rashtrakuta dynasty of Central India
● Dantidurga founded the Rashtrakuta dynasty in 757 AD
● 2nd ruler was Krishna I created the Kailashnath temple of the Ellora
● Kailasnath temple of the Ellora is a monolith temple
● Amoghvarsha patronized the Kannada language and he wrote the first poetics in
Kannada, i.e Kavirajmarg
● He is perhaps the 2nd monarch from ancient India who performed Salekhna
● There was a tripartite struggle between the three dynasties to control Kannauj in
which finally Pratiharas were successful

Imperial Cholas/ Mainline Cholas

● They were feudatories of Pallavas
● By the end of the 9th century AD, Vijayalaya usurped the power of Pallavas
● Raja Raja Chola defeated Cheras at Trivandrum and Pandyas at Madurai
● He also annexed the northern part of SriLanka and a considerable part of Cheras
and Pandyas
● In 1100 AD he lead the foundation of Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore
● Rajendra I Chola was the most powerful Chola ruler
● He completely annexed Chera kingdom, Pandyas, and Sri Lanka
● Rajendra I marched towards Gangetic plain and defeated Mahipal of Gangetic
delta
● To celebrate this victory he created a city on the banks of the river Cauvery
known as Gangaikondacholapuram
● Rajendra I was the first Indian ruler of the Bay of Bengal and conquered cities of
Sri Vijaya in the Malaya peninsula
● After this invasion, cultural exchange between India and the Malaya peninsula
started
● Administration of the Cholas-:
● Cholas were the first ruler who initiated the process of decentralization
● They created many subdivisions in their area
● Officials were appointed with sufficient autonomy and power
● Subdivision are-:Cholamandalam(Entire
territory)>Manadalam(Province)>Valanadu(Block)>Nadu(Town or big
village)>Kottam(Village)
● Chola rulers also acted as bankers and financial institutions and provided loan to
the people and charged interest
● Cholas were one of the finest temple builders of the time
● Temple was not just a place of worship but it was also a center of education and
area of market activity
● Perhaps they were the first ruler who emphasized the importance of rainwater
harvesting
● Moreover, they also wrote inscriptions regarding water conservation
Islamic invasion in India

● Invasion of Mohammad-bin Qasim of Umayyad dynasty in the Sindh area

in712 AD
● He had a grievance against Sindh ruler Dahir, whose people looted ships of
Mohammad-bin-Qasim at the port of Dewal
● Qasim after defeating Dahir established his rule in Sindh but was very soon was
eliminated by Caliphate
● With the arrival of Qasim, Islam arrived in the Indian subcontinent and it also
promoted more trade contact between Indians and Arabs
● By the end of the 10th century AD, a volatile situation arose in West Asia
● The Samanid dynasty of this area was constantly under the attack of Central
Asians, who were the followers of nature
● In this situation, Mahmud of Ghazni emerged who had two tasks before him-:
● 1) Protect the Samanid area from Central Asians
● 2) Spread Islam in the world, Ghazni was supported by his court poet Firdausi
who wrote Shahnama
● Shahanam created an indelible impact n the mind of central Asians, the majority
of them accepted Islam and became the strongest defenders of Islam
● Mahmud of Ghazni decide to loot rich temples of India, as such, he invaded
India, seventeen times
● His last invasion was on, the temple of Somnath in 1025 AD
● Though the temple of Ghazni is of cultural regenerator in West Asia but he was a
plunderer in India
● By the end of the 11th century, Seljuks started to rule in West Asia
● On the question of Syria, Seljuks were divided into two branches, i.e, Khwarizmi
Seljuk and Ghurid Seljuk
● Kwarizimi Seljuks were successful in controlling Syria as such Mohd. Ghori of
Ghurid diverted his attention towards Indian sub-continent
● From the 1170s Mohd. Ghori started invading Indian territory, though he was
defeated by Raja Bhim Solanki of Gujarat but was successful in annexing Ucch
and Multan
● On the question of Tabar-i-hind(Bhatinda) and fought the first battle of Tarain in
1191 AD, where Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Ghori
● In the second battle of Tarain in 1192 AD, Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated by
Ghori
● In 1194 AD, the slave of Mohd. Ghori, Qutubudin Aibak defeated and killed
Jayachand in the battle of Chandawar
● In 1206 AD, when Mohd. Ghori was killed by Khokhkhars, Aibak declared the
establishment in 1206 AD
 #CLASS 10

DELHI SULTANATE
Md.Ghori and Qutubuddin Aibak declared the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in
1206 AD.
SLAVE DYNASTY(1206-1290)
Qutubuddhin Aibak(1206-1210):
● He was a follower of famous Sufi saint ' Qutubuddhin Bhaktiyar Kaki-Qutub minar
construction was started in his memory;
● Died during playing the game of Chaugan as he fell from the horse
Iltutmish(1210-1236 AD):
He is considered as the real founder of the Delhi-Sultanate. He took the following
initiatives during his tenure:
● Transferred capital from Lahore to Delhi; Released official currency of
Sultanate on the lines of Arabic coinage system;
● Created a group of 40 nobles known as Turkani Chahalgani/Chalisa to assist
the Sultan in the discharge of his official duty.
● He started the Iqta system; the land was granted to Iqta holders, military
officials, nobles, etc.
● The revenue collected from this land was used for meeting the expense of Iqta
holders and paying the salaries for the people working under them.
● The surplus amount was submitted to the royal treasury etc.
Raziaya Sultan(1236-1240 AD):
● The chahalgani created many roadblocks in the elevation of Raziah as Sultan.
● Raziah was bold and capable personality; she wore the attire of Sultan and
discarded the Purdah system;
● She elevated a person of Abyssinian origin Yakut to a high official position which
was not liked by many nobles;
● As governor of Punjab Altunia imprisoned Razia; She married Altunia and thus
solved the problem.
● Many of the nobles want to get rid of Raziah-as such Raziah was killed by dacoits
at Kaithal.
● Many rulers like Bahram Shah, Marud Shah, Naseeruddin Mohammed, etc. were
appointed in succession after the death of Razaiya.
● During the tenure of Naseeruddin Mohammed, a post of deputy Sultan
Naib-i-Mamalkat was created. One of the occupants of this post was
Ghiyasuddhin Balban
Ghiyasuddhin Balban (1265-1286):
● Most powerful ruler of Slave dynasty; After coming to power, he propounded
'Divine theory of Kingship';
● He claimed that Sultan is shadow/form of God on the planet earth 'Zille -Allahi';
● He introduced some Iranian traditions in Sultanate court like Sizada and
Paibosa; also introduced the festival of Nauroz;
● He created a separate department of the military known as Diwan-i-Ariz;
 ● To stop the plunder of Mewati Rajputs he cleared dense forests in and around
Delhi;
● Mongols reached till the banks of Indus during his tenure where they were
defeated by Balbn's general Jalaluddin Khilji;
● Under the influence of Jalaluddin, many of the Mongols joined Islam and Delhi
Sultanate army;
● In the court of Balban, there was a famous Sufi poet Amir Khusrau;
● After Balban's death, Kaiqabahd became the ruler -the last slave ruler was killed
by Jalaluddin Khilji.

KHILJI DYNASTY (1290-1320 AD)

● The biggest challenge for Jalaluddin Khilji was his nephew Alauddin Khilji;
Alauddin raided Devgiri without the permission of the Sultan.
● He also did not share the looted wealth with Sultan; when Jalaluddin was
returning from the Bengal expedition where he was assassinated-Alauddin
became the next ruler.
Alauddin Khilji
● After coming to power, he captured Gujarat. He brought a very able person
Malik Kafur from Gujarat who later became General of Alauddin's army.
● After Gujarat, he led the siege of Ranthambore fort-inside the fort, Alauddin's
army started to kill the men selectively.
● In this situation, women of the fort decided to perform enmass Jauhar to
safeguard their honor and dignity; he annexed Chittorgarh from Ratansen etc.
Alauddin was considered as the master of Market reforms:
● He fixed the prices of all basic commodities centrally; He created three types
of markets for food grains, apparels and ; slave and animal trade;
● He tried to curb corruption and standardized weights and measures; He
utilized the services of the Banjara community for doing trade;
● He also started the practice of measuring land and imposing taxes; He started
the Dagh system and Huliya system etc.
 #CLASS 11

TUGHLAQ DYNASTY
● Giyasuddhin Tughlaq was the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty in 1320.
● One of his contemporaries in Delhi was Sufi saint-Nizamuddin Auliya with whom
Giyasuddhin had better relations.
● He led an expedition to Bengal where he received a large number of elephants
as war booty.
● One of his sons, Md.-bin -Tughlaq constructed a large wooden platform just
before Delhi.
● When elephants mounted on this wooden platform, it collapsed, and as such
Giyasuddhin died which led to the elevation of Md.-bin-Tughlaq as the next
Sultan of Delhi.
Md.-Bin-Tughlaq:
● He is a controversial personality; On one hand, he was a learned scholar but on
the other, he was notorious for awarding extreme capital punishments.
● He was also known as a man of innovation-during his lifetime he initiated many
innovative projects, but unfortunately failed in many of them:
● To increase the revenue, he decided to increase the taxes in Ganga and Yamuna
Doab. But, due to famine, peasants refused to make the payment -as such it was
withdrawn.
● He decided to shift the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad-but this experiment failed
due to lack of water resources in Daulatabad, also nobles felt nostalgic about
Delhi, etc.
● He wanted to expand his kingdom to the Khorasan area, but the war did not
happen even after so much preparation -Md. bin incurred heavy losses.
● Qarachil expedition-To capture and punish those people who revolted against
him, this expedition was initiated -but failed in this.
● Issue of token currency-There was a scarcity of silver all over the world. In this
situation, he decided to issue token currency of other metals like copper, bronze,
etc. on the face value of silver. This failed due to the forging of currency by many
officers in his court.
● His successful initiatives include:
● Established a separate department of agriculture Diwan-i-Kohi. Under this
department, he started a credit facility that gave cheap agricultural loan Taccavi
to the people.
● During his tenure, famous Morocco Arab traveler Ibn Batuta came to India. He
wrote about his experience at Tughlaq's court in his book Rehala. Also, many
revolts happened in his tenure and two bigger kingdoms were established in
India-Vijayanagar kingdom(1336) and the Bahamani kingdom(1347). After his
death, Feroz shah Tughlaq became the ruler.
Feroz Shah Tughlaq:
● During Md.'In Tughlaq's regime, the glory of Delhi Sultanate was hit and it was a
challenge before Feroz to revive the lost glory.
Initiatives:
● Abolished all the extreme types of capital punishment; He started to support an
orthodox version of Islam;
● To win the support of the nobles, he made the Iqta system hereditary; He
abolished many taxes but continued taxes like Jizya, Kharaj, Khumsa, etc.
● He established a department of Charity known as Diwan-i-kharat.
● After his death, the weak successors were not able to administer properly. As
such in 1398, when a Turkish invader Amir Timur invaded Delhi, then the
weakness of Tughlaqs was exposed. In 1414, one of the Generals of Amir Timur
Khizra khan uprooted Tughlaqs from Delhi and established the Sayyid dynasty in
Delhi.
SAYYID DYNASTY(1414-51)
● Khizra khan was the important ruler and the founder of the Sayyid dynasty- He
declared himself to be 'Caretaker of Timur's son Shahrukh'.
● In 1451, the Sayyid dynasty was replaced by Afghan origin Lodi dynasty.

LODI DYNASTY(1451-1526)
● Bahlul Lodi, the founder, laid out the rule that all important positions must be
shared with friends and family.
● The particular policy was diluted by the next ruler Sikander Lodi; Sikander
founded the city of Agra and started a new unit of measurement Gaj-i-Sikandari.
● Ibrahim Lodi was the last and most powerful ruler.
● He was an arrogant personality and completely diluted the friends and family
policy.
● He humiliated his uncle Daulat khan Lodi who invited Babur from Kabul to fight
Ibrahim Lodi.
● Initially, Babur was hesitant but on the assurance of Rana Sanga of Mewar
support, Babur decided to fight Lodi.
● As such the first battle of Panipat was fought in 1526 between Babur and
Ibrahim Lodi.
● Lodi was defeated by Babur due to the intelligence strategy of Tulughma and for
the first time Canon was used in India by Babur-as such Babur founded the
Mughal dynasty in India.

DIFFERENT ADMINISTRATIVE DEPARTMENTS OF DELHI SULTANATE

● Diwan-i-Wizarat: Finance;
● Diwan-i-Ariz: Agriculture;
● Diwan-i-Bandagan: Slaves;
● Diwan-i-Insha: Foreign affairs;
● Diwan-i-Muniha: Intelligence;
● Diwan-i-Mustakharaz: Collection of revenue and arrears;
● Diwan-i-Kohi: Agriculture;
● Diwan-i-Risalat: Ecclesiastical affairs;
● Diwan-i-Khairat: Charity.
 MUGHAL EMPIRE(1526-1707)

Lineage: Mongols from the maternal side and Amir Timur from the paternal side.
Babur(1526-1530)
● After coming to power, he fought the battle of Kanwa in 1527 with Rana Sanga of
Mewar.
● He died in 1530 and his son Humayun became the ruler.
 #CLASS 12

HUMAYUN
First Phase(1530-40)
● Humayun had to face many challenges externally and internally after coming
to power.
● To solve the internal problem, he gave the regions of Afghanistan like Kabul,
Kandahar, and Sindh to his brothers Kamran, Askari, and Hindal.
● In 1534, he had to face challenges from the ruler of Gujarat Bahadur shah, but
this issue was over as the Portuguese killed Bahadur Shah.
● Humayun was not able to defeat the Afghan ruler of Bihar and Bengal, Sher
Shah Suri who defeated Humayun in two successive battles in 1539(Battle of
Kanauj) and 1540 (battle of Chausa).
● Humayun had to flee from India-he received refuge in Iran. In India(Delhi),
Sher Shah Suri established the Sur Empire.
SUR EMPIRE(1540-1555):
● Sher Shah Suri was the founder as well as an important ruler of the Sur
Empire. He died in 1545 due to an unfortunate event at Kalinjar.
Sher Shah Suri's initiatives:
● He created the base of provincial administration which was elaborated by
Akbar.
● He started the codification of Sharia law for adjudication purposes.
● He created many grand highways in India which included the most important
Badshah/ Grand Trunk road running from Calcutta to Peshawar. He created
resting places for the travelers' Sarai' on both sides of the road.
● He is also considered as the initiator of the Postal system whereby he created
Dak Khana in far-flung areas.
● He released the official currency of the Sur empire i.e., Rupiya(silver currency)
and Dham (copper currency).
In 1545, Humayun came back from Iran with the support of Iranian ruler Shah Tamashp.
● Humayun eliminated Suris from Delhi and re-established Mughal rule in India.
● In an unfortunate incident, Humayun died when he fell from Observatory cum
Library 'Sher Mandal'.
● Delhi was captured by an associate of Afghan 'Hemu' after Humayun's death.
● On this question, Mughal General Bairam Khan fought with Hemu in the
Second battle of Panipat in 1556.
● Bairam Khan thoroughly defeated Hemu and beheaded him-this led to the
elevation of Akbar, the minor of Humayun, as the next Mughal emperor.

AKBAR(1556-1605)
● Initially, Akbar was ruling under the regency of Bairam Khan. In 1560, Bairam
Khan died.
● Between 1560-1562, Maham Anga had influence in the Mughal administration.
 ● From 1562, Akbar started his campaign of territorial expansion-he annexed
Bengal, Bihar, Kabul, Kashmir, Malwa, Gujarat, Khandesh, and parts of
Ahmednagar.
● With Rajput rulers, Akbar followed the policy of negotiation whereby he
declared that if Rajputs accept the supremacy of Akbar, then they would be
given full autonomy and independent status in their own area.
● As such, the majority of Rajput rulers accepted Akbar's supremacy except for
Maharana Pratap of Mewar.
● On the question of Mewar, Akbar's close associate Mansingh fought with
Maharana in the battle of Haldighati in 1576 -the war was inconclusive and
Mewar could not be annexed.
● After establishing a very large Mughal empire, Akbar took his last breath in
1605 after which his son Jahangir became the next ruler.
For ease of administration, Akbar divided into 16 provinces known as 'Suba' which is
further subdivided as follows: Sarkar->Pargana->Mahal->Gram(Village).
MANSABDARI SYSTEM
● Zat: It was the personal rank of a Mansabdar in the official hierarchy and
according to rank, he received payment.
● Naqdi Mansabdar: paid in cash; Jagirdari Mansabar: paid in Jagir(a piece of
land).
● The Jagir was granted for a temporary period, it was not hereditary and
transferable.
● Sawar: It indicates the number of horses and soldiers maintained by a
Mansabdar according to his Jat rank.
Economy during Akbar:
● When Akbar assumed full-fledged power, Mughal India became the
second-largest GDP in the world.
● By the death of Akbar, it became the largest GDP of the world.
● Raja Todarmal came up with the policy of progressive taxation-land was
surveyed and classified according to fertility.
Four categories of land:
● POLAJ: most fertile; attracted maximum tax annually.
● PARATI: left fallow for one year to regain fertility; taxes imposed in alternate
years only.
● CACHAR: left fallow for two years to regain fertility and taxes were imposed in
the year of cultivation; and
● BANJAR: least fertile land; left fallow for 5 or more years to regain fertility,
least amount of taxes in the year of cultivation.
Socio-religious initiatives of Akbar:
● Akbar abolished the Jizya tax and stopped converting prisoners of war into the
Islamic faith.
● Akbar stopped converting prisoners of war into the Islamic faith.
● Akbar opened Ibadat Khana in Fatehpur Sikri for discussion and deliberation
with the representatives of different religions.
● Akbar propounded his new theology Din-i-Ilahi or Taud-i-Ilahi to spread the
message of Suhl-i-Kuhl (universal peace and brotherhood).
● Akbar released the document of Mazhar(Decree of Infallibility) whereby he
declared that in case of any dispute the decision of the Mughal emperor would
be final.
● Akbar gave huge funds to the construction of Govind Dev temple in
Mathura-Vrindavan.
 #CLASS 13

JAHANGIR(105-1627)
● After the death of Akbar in 1605, Jahangir ascended to the throne.
● During his tenure, the British envoy led by Sir Hawkins and later led by Sir
Thomas Roe came to Jahangir's court and received further concessions to
create trading centers and warehouses in India.
● In 1611, Jahangir got married to Nur Jahan who later acquired a very strong
position in the Mughal polity. She was instrumental in the appointment of her
father Mirza Ghiyas Baig as Mughal Wazir and her brother Asaf daulah as
Khan-i-Saman. Nur Jahan also ran a small kitchen cabinet Junta with her own
favorite people.
● After the death of Jahangir in 1627, Prince Khurram became the next ruler
with the title of Shah Jahan.
SHAH JAHAN(1627-58)
● Shah Jahan annexed the area of Ahmednagar completely.He was also
instrumental in the annexation of Mewar.
● His tenure was remembered for his patronage to architecture. In the memory
of Mumtaz Mahal he has built Taj Mahal.
● During his tenure, there was a war of succession between the sons of Shah
Jahan in which Alamgir Aurangazeb defeated and killed Dara Sikoh. He also
house arrested Shah Jahan in Red Fort of Agra and became the next ruler.
ALAMGIR AURANGAZEB(1657-1707)
● After coming to power, Aurangazeb started to patronize the orthodox version
of Islam.
● He reimposed the Jizya tax and banned many Hindu festivals including Diwali
and Holi.
● He destroyed many famous temples of India like Govind dev temple, Somnath
temple, Keshav rai temple, and Kasi Viswanath temple.
● The biggest challenge to Aurangazeb was the ruler of Marathwada Chatrapati
Shivaji.
● Shivaji was the son of Konkan ruler Shahji and raised by mother Jijabai and
his Guru Dadaji Kondadev.
● Shivaji learned the art of guerilla warfare from his guru Ramdas which he
started to use very effectively.
● In 1659, Shivaji killed Bjiapur General Afzal Khan using guerilla warfare
tactics.
● Alarmed by this situation, Aurangazeb sent his General Sahista khan to fight
with Shivaji. As such Shivaji seriously injured Sahista khan.
● In this situation, Aurangzeb persuaded Rajput ruler Jai Singh of Amber to fight
with Shivaji.
● Jai Singh, with careful preparation, defeated Shivaji in the battle of Purandar in
1665.
● As per the Treaty, Shivaji submitted 23 out of 35 forts. He also appeared at
Agra court where he was treacherously imprisoned.
 ● After some point in time, Shivaji escaped from Agra and restarted his
campaign-conducted coronation ceremony in 1674.
● With his death in 1680, the formidable challenge to Mughal emperor
Aurangazeb came to an end.
● Aurangazeb annexed Bijapur in 1686 and Golconda in 1687 etc.
BAHAMANI KINGDOM
● Founded by Alauddin Shah Bahman in 1647, who was one of the nobles of
MD-bin-Tughlaq's court.
● Firuz shah Bahman was one of the prominent rulers of the Bahmani kingdom
who expanded the rule by defeating Vijayanagara ruler Devaraya-2.
● The most outstanding personality was Mahmud Gawan, the wazir of the
kingdom. During his tenure, the Bahmani kingdom progressed in leaps and
bounds.
● Weak ruler Md. Shah-III executed Md.Gawan on false charges. As such a
decline of the Bahmani kingdom started.
● It soon got divided into houses namely Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, Bidar,
and Berar.
VIJAYANAGAR KINGDOM
● Founded in 1336 by brothers Hari Hara and Bukka Raya with the help of their
guru Madhava Devaranya.
● Between 1336-1646, four dynasties ruled in Vijayanagar: Sangama, Suluva,
Tuluva, and Aravidu dynasty.
The following travelers visited Vijayanagar kingdom over the period:
● Abdur Razzak : Samarkand(Persia); Nicolo Conti: Italian;Nikitin: Russian
● Ferna Nuniz, Domongo Paes and Duerte Barbossa: Portugese
The most important ruler of the Vijayanagar kingdom was Krishnadevaraya of the
Tuluva dynasty.
● He was a contemporary of Mughal ruler Babur.
● Babur in his biography Tuzk-i-Babari wrote that Krishnadevaraya was the most
powerful and respected ruler of India.
● Perhaps, he was the most enlightened ruler in the entire Indian medieval
history.
● He reinstated a rightful heir to the Bijapur throne, even when he had the
opportunity of annexing it.
● After this incident, he came to be known as Yavana Samrat Sthapanacharya.
● He was deeply religious but secular in orientation-he employed a large number
of Muslims in his court and army.
● He also patronized the Vijayanagar style of temple art. He constructed the
Veerabhadra temple and Hazar Ramaswamy temple.
● He was also one of the finest patrons of literature-he himself was a great
scholar of Sanskrit and Telugu. He wrote a famous poem 'Amuktamalyada' in
Telugu. In fact, his period is considered the golden age of Telugu literature.
● He maintained 8 luminaries of Telugu known as 'Asthadiggajas' in his court
which included the very famous Tenali Raman and Peddana.
● Maucharitam is the famous composition of Peddana; Battle of Talikota-1565,
etc.