Colour Specification & Measurement

Dr. Neha Mehra

1.0 What is Colour ?

The man has been fascinated by the colour surrounding him. So much so, that it would be
unimaginable to think of the world without colour.

Colour in scientific terms, is a physical sensation in the human eye producing stimulus in the form
of pulses by the photoreceptors and is analyzed by the human brain giving subjective results. It
remains in the mind of the observer for a short time, but cannot be expressed or described
explicitly. Colour means different sensation to different individual.

Colour means different to a colorist in a coloring industry. For him, colour is a part of science and
coloration is an art of producing it. He masters coloration skills over a period of time. However,
with new colorants and coloration processes pouring in everyday and added to that the shortage of
skilled colorists, the need is always felt to eliminate the subjective element in colour specification.
To express colour in objective terms scientists attempted to define colour in unambiguous terms,
i.e. in numerical terms so that colorist could express it in a language, which was understood and
interpreted uniformly by colorists all over the world.

1.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum

• There are many radiation around us and these vary from short wavelengths (cosmic rays,
gamma rays, X-rays, etc.) less than a millimeter to very long wavelengths (micro waves, radio
waves etc.) as long as in meters.
• All these radiation are part of the Electro-Magnetic Spectrum.
• The human eye is sensitive to only a very small part of Electro-Magnetic Spectrum- Visible
region, i.e. 360-780 nm. Even in this region, the sensitivity is not uniform
• For a colorist, part of UV radiation and IR radiation are also important. Optical brightening
agents exhibit absorption in UV region, while special military applications require studies in the
Near IR region. All other applications are related to visible region of the spectrum.

1.2 Perception of Colour

• Perception of colour requires basically 3 things, a light source, an object and human eye. It is
obvious that if any one of these things is absent, we can not see a colour.
• How eye sees a colour, is a very complex process.
• In a simple language, it involves multi-disciplinary sciences,
- a source of light is characterized by spectral power distribution, colour temperature etc.,
is part of Physics.
- an object, that is made from resin/polymer substrate, dyes/pigments etc., is capable of
absorb, transmit, scatter or reflect light due to its chemical constitution, is part of
chemistry.
- Reflected light falls on the retina of human eye where numerous optical receptors pass
on the stimuli to the brain, is part of Physiology

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 - The brain interprets the stimuli with the help of previous information, is part
Psychology.
• There are optical receptors on the retina – rods & cones. While rods perceive lightness, cones
perceive colour. Cones are red, green and blue sensitive, get stimulated and pass on the stimuli
to the brain.
• What we see colour is the result of mixture of red, green and blue stimuli. This is known as
Trichromatic Theory of Colour Vision which was put forward by Young & Helmholtz.
• The Trichromatic Theory was further supplemented by E.Herring who put forward his
Opponent Colour Theory. His theory states that the lightness from rods and red, green and blue
stimuli from cones get converted before reaching brain into opponent channels - light/dark,
red/green and yellow/blue. The Opponent Theory is based on simple hypothesis, that a colour
can be either light or dark, it can be either red or green, but can not be both at the same time and
same is with yellow and blue.
• Young & Helmholtz’s Trichromatic Colour Theory and Herring’s Opponent Colour Theory
explain the phenomenon colour vision and remain the basis for modern colour science.
• In a simplified form, perception of colour can be explained that red, green and blue sensitive
cones form initial stimuli, which are converted into red/green, yellow/blue and light/dark signals
before reaching the brain for interpretation.

1.3 Colour Blindness

• The Trichromatic Colour Theory and the Opponent Colour Theory also explain the colour
blindness or deficiencies in colour vision.
• An observer with normal vision is able to see the total range of spectrum colours from violet to
red and from very low to very high luminosity. He is able to discriminate light objects from
dark objects or red objects from green objects and so on.
• An observer with defective colour vision can not discriminate red/green or yellow/blue. Such an
observer is a Colour Blind.
• A red/green colour-blind observer sees all colours as shades of yellow and blue.
• A yellow/blue colour-blind observer sees all colours as shades of red and green.
• A totally colour-blind observer sees all colours as shades of greys.
• Red/green deficient colour-blind observers are more than yellow/blue deficient, there are totally
colour-blind observers also.
• It is therefore, necessary to examine colour vision of all colorists, before appointing them in
colour assessment tasks, particularly in QA applications.
• There are tests for examining defective colour vision, like Ishihara charts, Munsell-Farnsworth
Hue Test, which are commonly used.
• There are also tests for colour aptitude, like Munsell Test.
1.4 Colour Mixing Systems
Colour mixing is an old practice. Newton was the first one to attempt colour mixing using lights,
while mixing of natural dyes has been an ancient practice. Helmholtz was, however, the first to
recognize the difference between two types of mixing. Newton was doing mixing with the addition
of lights, hence it is known as Additive Colour Mixing. The mixing of dyes/pigments is Subtractive
Mixing.

1.4.1 Selection of Primaries

• In both the mixing systems, there are 3 primaries.
• The primaries are so selected that mixing the three primaries can produce any available colour.

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• The primaries must be such that mixing of two primaries will not yield the third primary.

1.4.2 Additive Colour Mixing

• Primaries for Additive Colour Mixing are Red, Green and Blue lights.
• The concept of additive mixing is not so simple and is much more than imagination.
• Red and green lights mixing will yield yellow light. Green and blue lights mixing will yield
Cyan light (green blue) and Red and blue lights will yield magenta light.
• When all three primaries are mixed in equal proportion, it will yield White
• The best practical example of Additive Mixing is Colour Television (or computer colour
monitor) where an image is reproduced by excitation of red, green and blue phosphors.
• The other example is Maxwell Disc. When the disc is spun, the primaries mix together and
produce different colours.

1.4.3 Subtractive Colour Mixing

• Primaries for Subtractive Mixing are Yellow, Cyan and Magenta.
• Yellow and cyan will yield green colour. Cyan and magenta will yield blue colour and magenta
and yellow will yield red colour.
• When all three primaries are mixed in equal proportion, will yield black colour.
• The best practical example of subtractive mixing is what colorist performs everyday.
• The three primaries-cyan, yellow and magenta, along with black (CYMK) are also best known
as printers’ primaries.

2.0 Colour Order Systems

Colour order systems were the initial attempts for specifying colour. Colour order systems are
different than colour atlas or shade card. Although both are collection of shades, colour order
systems provide a meaningful way to communicate colour, which can be specified. In shade atlas or
shade card, shades can not be specified. The most recognized colour order system is Munsell
Colour Order System.

Munsell Colour Order System

• Munsell was an artist. In 1905, he put forward his famous Munsell System
• Munsell was the first to realize that a colour can be specified only in 3 attributes and not in 2.
• He specified colour in 3 attributes-Hue, Value and Chroma
• Hue,Value and Chroma are called as Munsell Notations.
• Hue is an attribute by which we distinguish red from green or yellow from blue and so on.
• Value indicates lightness of colour. The scales of value range from 0 for black to 10 for white.
Value is neutral axis.
• Chroma is the distance from achromatic point (Value axis)
• Munsell arranged the coloured chips, Huewise, in such a way that the colour difference between
two adjacent chips always remained same.
• Munsell Notations are expressed as – H V/C. For a shade having Munsell Notations as 5R 4/12,
Hue is 5R, Value is 4 and Chroma is 12.
• Munsell Book of Colors is available in glossy and matte shades.

The CIE Colour Specifications

• The CIE is an international body setup in 1928 to set standards in colorimetry and photometry
which are followed all over the world in colour industries.

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• The CIE stands for its French name, Commission International de l’Eclairage meaning
International Commission on Illumination. It is popularly known as CIE.
• All colour applications like computer colour matching, colour difference, pass/fail are based on
the CIE system.
• The CIE system describes colour objectively, i.e. in terms of numbers-X Y Z tristimulus values,
the unreal primaries and also in terms of L a b C h

Computation of Tristimulus Values - X Y Z

• To describe colour in XYZ, the CIE standardized illuminants, observer, viewing conditions,
which are responsible for perception of colour.
• The CIE standardized number of illuminants based on their Spectral Power Distribution in
visible region and colour temperature.
• There are many illuminants. However the CIE illuminants are:
Illuminant Colour Temperature
A 2856 K is available by heating Tungsten filament
B 4800 K Noon Temperature
C 6770 K Average Natural Day Light
D55 5500 K Average Day Light, not so commonly used.
D65 6500 K Average Day Light, commonly used for
assessment, can be produced by filtering
tungsten light source
D75 7500 K Average Day Light, mostly used in parts of
USA and in many departmental stores.
F1 - F 12 3000-6500 K These are Fluorescent Lamps standardised
by the CIE. Of these, the following are
commonly used :
F2 - CWF 4230 K (now 4150 K) commonly used in the departmental stores (Cool
White Fluorescent)
F7 6500 K
F11 4000 K
TL84 4100 K commonly used in the departmental stores in
Europe and manufactured by Philips.
Ultralume 30 3000 K commonly used in the departmental stores in
USA.
• The CIE released Spectral Power Distribution of the above illuminants for 360-780 nm at the
interval of 5 and 10 nm. These are available in most books on colour science.

Standard Observer
• Standard Observer is not a single observer
• The Standard Observer means response of human eye to spectrum colours.
• Thus, it was based on the work carried out by Wright and Guild
• The spectrum colours were matched using red, green and blue lights. using an arrangement as
illustrated in the Figure ---
• The CIE used the same data, averaged it. It is the CIE standard observer.
• The Standard Observer is average response of 17 observers in matching spectrum colours with
standard Red, Green and Blue.

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• As the CIE observed that certain colours could not be produced by positive mixtures of the real
primaries, Red-Green-Blue, the CIE considered unreal primaries X, Y and Z instead of red,
green and blue respectively to eliminate negative values. X Y Z are the Tristimulus values.
• The Standard Observer is denoted by x, y, z
• The CIE standardized two Observer conditions, for 2 and 10 Degree Field of Vision. The Two
Degree Observer was released in 1931, it is also referred to as 1931 CIE Observer data Ten
Degree observer is referred to as 1964 CIE Observer data, as it was released in 1964 by The CIE.
• 10 degree observer means larger field of vision which is required for critical colour assessment.
• The CIE released 2 and 10 degree observer data in the visible region 360-780 nm at the interval
of 5 and 10 nm. Like spectral power distribution tables, Observer data is also available in colour
science books.
• 10 Degree Observer data is now commonly and widely used in all applications.
• 2 Degree data is used mostly for historical calculations and some equations for whiteness index
calculation.

The CIELAB Colour Specification

• The CIE in 1976 released two colour spaces CIEL*A*B* and CIEL*U*V*. Of the two,
CIEL*A*B* is used in most colour applications, while CIEL*U*V* is used in photographical
applications.
• The ‘*’ is used to distinguish CIE Lab from other systems, like ANLAB, HunterLAB etc.
However, ANLAB or HunterLAB are no longer used and hence * is not used for CIELAB in
most books on colour science. .
• The CIE released mathematical equations to calculate L a b C and h from XYZ.
L= 116(Y/Yn)1/3 -- 16
a = 500{(X/Xn)1/3 -- (Y/Yn)1/3 }
b = 200{(Y/Yn)1/3 -- (Z/Zn) 1/3 }
C = { a2 + b2 }½
h = Arctan (b/a)
• LabCh specify colour in three dimension space.
• L a b are based on E. Herrings Opponent Colour Theory which states that red, green and blue
signals get converted into three opponent channels-lightness/darkness, red/green and yellow/blue

L specifies lightness/darkness
a specifies redness/greenness
b specifies yellowness/blueness
C specifies chroma or saturation
h specifies hue angle
The CIELAB colour space is illustrated in Fig ----.

• L varies from 100 to 0. For perfect white, L is 100 and for Black, it is zero.
• When L is 70, colour is light; when L is 50, colour is medium; when L is 25 or less, colour is
dark
• When a is positive, colour is red; when a is negative, colour is green.
• When b is positive, colour is yellow. When b is negative, colour is blue.
• When a and b are both zero, that means the colour is neither red (or green) nor yellow (or blue).
In simple words, it does not have any tone (or chroma). In colorimetric language, it is known as
achromatic colour. Such colour may be neutral grey -light or dark- or black or white depending

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 on L value. When L is 100, colour is white; when L is 50, it is light grey; when it is 25, it is
medium grey. When it is 15, it is dark grey. And when L is near zero, it is black.
• When a = 50, b=0, and L=50, then the colour is medium red
• When a = 0, b = 50, and L=50, then the colour is medium yellow
• When a = -50, b=0, and L= 25, then the colour is dark green
• When a = 0, b =-50, and L=25, then the colour is dark blue
• When a = 75, b = 50 and L = 75, then the colour is bright orange. Similarly,
• When a = -30, b =- 30 and L = 40, then the colour is bluish green,

• When a is positive and b is positive - colour is in Quadrant I.

Reds, Oranges and Yellows fall in Quadrant I.
• When a is negative and b is positive - colour is in Quadrant II
Greenish yellows, Greens fall in Quadrant II
• When a is negative and b is negative - colour is in Quadrant III
Greens, Bluish Green and Blues fall in Quadrant III.
• When a is positive and b is negative - colour is in Quadrant IV
Blues, Violets and Reds fall in Quadrant IV.
• Thus, it is possible to visualise colour from Lab.
• L a b specified colour in much better way than XYZ.
• The Chroma or saturation `C' is the distance between achromatic point and colour and is
calculated from a & b using following equation ;
C = (a2 + b2 )
The point a=0 and b=0 lies at the center. Lower is the value of a and b, higher is the
achromaticity and lower is the purity. On the other hand, higher the values of a and b
(ignore the negative signs), purer or more saturated or brighter is the colour.

• Chroma can be explained from `ab' plot. Please refer Figure ----. Longer the distance of a colour
from achromatic point, higher is the chroma or brighter is the colour. All bright yellows,
oranges, reds, greens, blues, violets have higher chroma values. Shorter the distance of colour,
lower is the chroma or less saturated is the colour or duller is the colour . Browns, greys, olives,
coffees have low chroma values.
• Hue `h' is also computed from a & b using following equation:

h = Arctan ( b / a)

• Figure 3.5 illustrates various hues in ab plot. All real hues fall within definite angles expressed in
degrees, like
Red - 350 to 35
Orange - 35 to 70
Yellow - 70 to 105
Green - 105 to 195
Blue - 195 to 285
Violet - 285 to 350

When all colours are expressed in ab plot, it is called as Hue Circle. Figure ------.

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• If a and b are both positive, then the hue angle is between 0 and 90. All reds, yellows, oranges
shades including browns and yellowish khaki fall in quadrant I
• If a is negative and b is positive, then the hue angle is between 90 and 180. Most of the
yellowish greens, olive greens, greenish yellows and greenish khaki shades fall in quadrant II.
• If a and b are both negative then the hue angle is between 180 and 270. All greenish blue,
turquoise blue, blue - green and greenish navy shades fall in quadrant III
• If a is positive and b is negative, then the hue angle is between 270 and 360. The quadrant IV
accommodates all purple, violet, royal blue and reddish navy blue shades.

When L=65, C=45, h=25, colour is Pale bright red:

When L=45, C=55, h=125, colour is medium bright green:
When L=35, C=30, h=205, colour is Midtone dull greenish blue
When L=30, C=25, h=235, colour is dark royal blue

• L c h offers better description of a colour compared to L a b and certainly better than

XYZ.
• L a b C and h are called as the CIE colour specifications.

Reflectance Spectrophotometer
• A spectrophotometer is an instrument which measures colour of an object.
• To measure colour of a solution, we use a transmittance spectrophotometer.
• To measure surface colour of object, we use reflectance spectrophotometer.
• There is difference in the basic design of transmittance and reflectance spectrophotometer.
• In transmittance spectrophotometer, an object is illuminated by monochromatic illumination, i.e.
light containing single wavelength.
• In reflectance spectrophotometer, an object is illuminated by polychromatic illumination, i.e.
light containing all wavelengths (daylight), that is the way we look at the object
• There are transmittance spectrophotometers, which have reflectance attachment, while some
reflectance spectrophotometers have special transmission compartment.
• Optical design of transmittance and reflectance spectrophotometer is different.
• Surface colour of an object can also be measured using a tristimulus colorimeter. It comprises 3-
filters R, G, B, which have similar response of human exp. It directly gives X, Y, Z values.
• The main difference between the two spectrophotometers is, the positioning of monochromator.
In transmittance spectrophotometer, monochromator is placed before the sample, while in
reflectance spectrophotometer monochromator is after the sample. Transmittance
spectrophotometer provides monochromatic illumination of the sample, while in reflectance
spectrophotometer provides polychromatic illumination of the sample. It must be remembered
that monochromatic illumination is not suitable for fluorescent sample measurement.
• The other difference is the bandwidth. Transmittance spectrophotometer has very narrow
bandwidth of 1-2 nm, while reflectance spectrophotometer has 10-20 nm bandwidth. Narrower
bandwidth provides sharper peaks, while broader bandwidth flattens peaks.
• In addition, reflectance spectrophotometer requires special viewing conditions, while
transmittance spectrophotometer does not require any special viewing conditions.

Basic Components of Reflectance Spectrophotometer

• The basic components of transmittance and reflectance spectrophotometer are same. These are,
a. A light source

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b. Viewing Conditions
c. Monochromator
d. Detector

Light Source
• There are two types of light sources used in the reflectance spectrophotometer- Quartz Tungsten
Halogen and Pulsed Xenon Flash.

Quartz Tungsten Halogen (QTH)

• Quartz Tungsten Halogen is basically a tungsten filament to which a small quantity of halide,
normally an iodide, is added. It increases the life of tungsten filament as well as allows to use
higher voltages. The tungsten filament is encased in quartz because it does not absorb any light
radiation in UV and Visible region. In most instruments, QTH is filtered through D65 filter.

Pulsed Xenon Flash (PXF)

• Xenon arc emits light, which is similar to daylight. But it generates so much heat that it requires
auxiliary cooling. Hence, it is pulsed so that it gives a flash. Pulsed Xenon Flash is nearly same
as daylight.

Viewing Conditions
• Viewing conditions involve illumination of the object and viewing by the detector.
• There are four viewing conditions specified by the CIE - 45º/0º, 0º/45º, diffuse/0º, 0º/diffuse.
These are illustrated in Figure ------.
• 45º/0º means 45 illumination and 0 viewing and diffuse/0º means diffuse illumination and 0
viewing.
• D/0º or 0º/d requires integrating sphere. It is normally referred to as sphere geometry.
• Integrating sphere is a hollow spherical in nature and is painted with Barium Sulphate paint or
Halon, which are perfect diffuser.
• Diffuse/0º and 0º/diffuse viewing conditions are modified to d/8º and 8º/d, i.e. 8 viewing instead
of 0.
• This modification is recommended by the CIE to facilitate inclusion or exclusion of specular
(gloss) component.
• A sample can be measured by including specular component or excluding specular component.
• To exclude specular component, a small piece of sphere located at 8 opposite the viewing angle
is removed. Any specular reflection passes through the hole and is not included in reflectance.
• In some instruments a black trap is provided which absorbs specular reflection.
• To include specular reflection, the hole is closed and sphere portion replaces the hole.
• In most instruments, a motorised device for specular included or excluded is provided.
• Specular excluded reflectance is similar to 0º/45º geometry.
• Specular excluded should be used only in highly glossy samples. For paints & plastics samples,
measurements should be carried out under specular included mode.
• The Reflectance spectrophotometer manufacturers normally provide two types of viewing
conditions, 45/0 and diffuse/8.
• For coatin & plastics applications, sphere based spectrophotometer, i.e. with d/8º is the most
suitable with specular included mode, measurement.

Monochromator

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• The main function of monochromator is to disperse reflected light from sample.
• Diffraction Grating or filters are used as monochromator.
• Diffraction grating has uniform dispersion and has long life.
• Filters have short life and also has problem of reproducibility.
• In most spectrophotometers, diffraction grating is used as monochromator
• Diffraction grating has 600-3600 lines/mm, which are mechanically ruled.
• A holographic diffraction grating is ruled using laser technique.
• In some instruments, concave diffraction grating is used
• Diffraction grating and mirror system is enclosed in a dust-free sealed box, it is always referred
to as Black Box of spectrophotometer.

Detector
• There are two types of detectors used in spectrophotometer-photomultiplier tube (PMT) and
silicone photodiode (PSD).
• In most modern instruments, silicone photodiodes are used as detector. In analytical instruments,
photo multiplier tube is used.

Types of Spectrophotometers
• The spectrophotometers are classified into three broad categories
• Double Beam Spectrophotometer
• Dual Beam Spectrophotometer
• Single Beam Spectrophotometer
Double Beam Spectrophotometer
• It measures sample simultaneously with reference white, hence, there are two ports- one for
reference and the other for sample.
• It involves two beams - one reflected from reference and the other from sample
Dual Beam Spectrophotometer
• Dual beam spectrophotometer uses sphere coating as a reference. Hence, it does not require a
separate port for reference. There is a single port for sample.
• There are minimum or no moving parts
• Most commercial available instruments are dual beam type
Single Beam Spectrophotometer
• There is a single port for sample.
• Reference data is stored and compared or in some instruments a small fraction of light energy is
directly passed to the detector-bypassing sphere.

Metamerism
• When a pair of standard and sample match as under all illuminant and observer, then the pair is
called as isomeric pair and matching is called as Isomeric Matching.
• When a pair of standard and sample matches under one illuminant and observer conditions, say
under D65 illuminant and 10 degree observer, and not under other illuminants then the pair is
called as metameric pair and matching is called as metameric matching
• The phenomenon of metameric matching is called as Metamerism.
• In isomeric matching, the reflectance curves of standard and sample are similar. i.e. curves are
parallel and do not cross each other.
• In isomeric matching, the colorants used in standard and sample are same.

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• In metameric matching, the reflectance curves of standard and sample cross each other at least at
three points.
• In metameric matching, the colorants used in standard and samples are different.
• Colour difference between standard and sample under different illuminants gives the extent of
Metamerism. When color difference is θ under reference illuminants/ observers are much higher
under other illuminants it indicates the Metamerism.
• However, the colour difference is just a mathematical calculation. Reflectance curves give
correct measure of metamerism. Closer the reflectance curves of standard and sample, lower is
the metamerism.
• Metameric Index is calculated by colour difference in reference illuminant (D65) and other
illuminants.
• Metamerism is detected visually by examining standard and sample in Colour Viewing Booth.
• Colour viewing booth must have standard illuminants as stipulated by the CIE.

1. Kubelka – Munk Theory

The reflectance of pigmented film is result of scattering and absorption of incident light. Thus, the
diffuse reflectance of translucent or opaque film can be correlated with the scattering and
absorption properties of colorants, viz dyes and pigments. The mathematical description of this
phenomenon is known as Turbid Media Theory.

Like perception of colour by human eye, the physical process of passage of incident light through
pigmented film is quite complicated. P Kubelka and F Munk, the two Hungerian physicists
attempted to simplify turbid medium theory.

In 1931, they proposed that When light passes through a thin pigmented layer, then the changes
taking place in a downward and upward directions (Two fluxes-one in downward direction and the
other in upward direction) can be calculated using simple mathematical relation from their
absorption and scattering coefficients. The simplified versions of Kubelka-Munk equation are,
R= 1+K/S {(K/S) [ (K/S) + 2]} ½ and its inverse
(1-R)
K/S =---------
2R
These are the basic equations of Kubelka-Munk theory. The key assumption in K-M theory is that
the light flux within the pigmented layer travels either ‘up’ or ‘down’ perpendicular to be plane of
the sample. This has led to referring to Kubelka-Munk theory as a Two-Flux Theory. K-M theory
also assumed that the light flux in the pigmented layer is diffuse and there is no change in refractive
index at the samples boundaries.

Features of Kubelka- Munk Function

K/S is Additive
The most important feature of K-M function is that it is Additive, i.e the absorption and scattering
coefficients of a mixture can be calculated from the corresponding function of individual colorants
used in the mixture.
Mathematically,
K c1.K1 + c2.K2 + c3.K3 + ----------- + K sub
--- mix= ----------------------------------------------------- or

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S c1.S1 + c2.S2 + c3.S3 + ----------- + S sub

K mix = C1 K1 + C2K2 + C3 K3 +------------ + K sub

S mix = C1 S1 + C2 S2 + C3 S3 +------------ + S sub

Where K = Absorption coefficient at unit concentration.

S = Scattering coefficient at unit concentration.
c = Concentrations of colorants.
K sub & Ssub are absorption & scattering coefficients of substrate.
Subscripts 1,2,3 inducate individual colorants,
Subscript sub indicate substrate.

The additive feature of K/S function is illustrated in Figure 5.1

Thus, K/S is additive, while reflectance is not additive.

Relation between K-S and Concentration of Colorant

Kubelka –Munk function ‘K/S’ is commonly referred to as function of reflectance f(R). however,
we will use K/S function in the Text.
(1-R)²
K/S = ----------
2R

K/S function is linearly proportional to concentration of colorant (dye or pigment) on opaque

substrate. That is, When K/S is plotted against concentration at a wavelength of minimum
reflectance (or maximum absorption), then one obtains a plot as illustrated in Fig. 5.2. When
percent reflectance at the same wavelength is plotted, then we get a plot which is non-linear as
illustrated in Fig. 5.3.

Thus, K/S function and not reflectance is directly proportional or linear to the concentration. This
feature and its additive nature forms the basis for computer colour matching.

In simple mathematics,
K (1-R ) ²
--- = ------------ α c or
S 2R

= A. c (5.4)
Where A is proportionality constant

Computer Colour Matching System

A Computer colour matching system comprises:
• A spectrophotometer
• A personal computer and

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• Computer software

Personal Computer
• With advances in the software, most commercial colour systems are Windows based application
software, which also comprise utility like true colour on screen. All these kind of software
requires high performance processor, sufficient disk storage and high-resolution colour monitor.
However due to advances in the computer and their low prices, high performance computers are
easily available. Following computer configuration should be ideal for colour matching system:
• Pentium Processor 133 or 166 Mhz
• 16 MB Main Memory
• Super VGA colour monitor with 1-2 MB VRAM
• 1.2 or 2.7 GB Hard Disk
• 1.44 MB Floppy Disk Drive
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Inkjet Printer

Colour Matching Software

Colour matching software in a colour system can be classified into three main groups
- Quality Assurance programs
- Recipe Prediction programs
- Utility programs

Quality Assurance Programs

• In most QA applications, a sample or a batch is compared against a standard. Hence, the QA
results are Relative and never Absolute.

Colour Difference Program

• Colour difference program calculates colour difference between standard and sample/s
• It calculates in terms of dE, dL, da, db, dC and dH
• Colour difference assessment is required by colorist in many applications,
- in assessing production sample against standard
- in assessing finished sample against approved standard
- in testing incoming dye/pigment supply
- in testing new dye/pigment against existing dye/pigment
- in assessing fastness rating
- in assessing effect of chemicals and auxiliaries
- for arriving at optimum process conditions

Colour Difference Calculation

• Colour difference calculations are carried out to assess tonal difference between a standard and a
sample.
• It is denoted by dE - Delta E - Delta means Difference and E means Empfindung - that is
sensation in German.
• dE is calculated by a colour difference equation.
• There are many colour difference equations.
• These are CIELAB 76, CMC (2:1), CMC (1:1), CIE 94, BFD (1:1.5).

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• There are other equations, ANLAB, FMC-II, HunterLAB, JPC 79. These are older equations and
are not so commonly used.
• There is special equation released by the Society of Automotive Engineers – SAE 1545 which
issued in Automotive applications.
• The equation M & S 89 is released by Marks & Spencers, leading departmental stores in the
world. This equation is not published and it is available to only the suppliers of Mark &
Spencers. This equation is used in Textile-applications.
• dE calculated by different equations is different.
• dE is therefore expressed in terms of colour difference equation, for example dE-CIELAB or dE-
CMC(2:1) units.
• dE calculated by any equation can not be converted to the other equation.
• dE calculated by different equations for the same pair of standard and sample are given in Table
----.
• It is necessary to record the components of dE, dL. da, db, dC and dH for interpretation.
• It is useful to take a print out of Lab plot. It is illustrative and easy to understand.

Strength Analysis Program

• The program calculates relative strength of sample against standard.
• It uses Kubelka-Munk relation to calculate strength.
• Relative strength is useful in all applications where colour yield. The typical applications are –
estimating the tinting strength of new supply or new colorant.
- estimating the reducing strength of new supply of Ti O2
- estimating the dispersion.
- Estimating the flocculation of pigment
- Estimating the loss in colour strength due to chemical, weather. (Fastness rating) or
due temperature (in Plastics & Powder Coatings)

Whiteness and Yellowness Indices

• The program calculates Whiteness/Yellowness index from reflectance or XYZ
• There are many equations for calculating W. I. and Y.I.
• The W. I. equations are Berger, Hunter, Stephenson, Stensby, ASTM E313, CIE 82. Of these,
CIE 82 and ASTM E313 are widely used.
• The Y.I. equations are ASTM E313 and ASTM D1925. Of these, ASTM E313 is commonly
used. ASTM D1925 is used in plastics applications.
• Evaluation of OBA based on Transmittance data does not match after textile application.

Pass/Fail Program
• Pass/Fail program gives status of a batch, whether pass or fail, against a standard using pre-set
tolerances.
• Tolerances are set in terms of dE, dL, da, db, dC or dH

Shade Sort Program

• Shade sort program sorts the passed batches into groups in such a way that the batches within
each group have acceptable colour difference.
• This is required for ready-made garment industry.
• It is also useful for minimizing rejection in batch processing.

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Recipe Prediction Programs
• Recipe prediction programs comprise K/S Data Generation, Colour Matching, Reformulation,
Production Correction and Shade Library programs.

K/S Data Generation Program

• The program generates K/S data from reflectance of primary samples.
• Primary samples are self-shades of dyes or pigments.
• Accuracy of recipe prediction depends on quality of primary samples.

Colour Matching Program

• The program matches an unknown shade which may be fabric, fiber or yarn. It can be any other
material like, paper, paint or plastic chip.
• The program predicts all possible recipes within set tolerances from the selected dyes.
• The program sorts the passed recipes in ascending order of metameric index or in ascending
order of cost.

Colour Matching
• The program requires following as input,
• - substrate reflectance,
• - K/S data related to substrate and dyeing method,
• - dyes for matching,
• - reflectance or XYZ or Lab of target to be matched,
• - tolerances for three illuminants.
• - number of dyes per combination
• Select Dye Groups for matching. Dye Group formation can be as follows :
• - Group 1 for bright green shades : bright yellows, blues, turquoise blue, bright green
• - Group 2 for bright violets : bright orange, scarlet, bright red, violet, blue
• - Group 3 for light & medium tertiary shades : yellow brown, brown, scarlet or orange, dull red,
navy blue
• - Group 4 for dark and very dark tertiary shades : yellow brown, brown, scarlet,
orange, dull red, navy blue
• You can make such groups for different classes of dyes.
• Avoid mixture dyes for matching When you are using a colour matching system.
• Select initially three number of dyes per combination. When shade is very dark use 4 dyes per
combination. When 3 dyes per combination does not predict recipe with low metameric index,
use 4-dyes per combination. 4-dyes per combination helps in minimising metameric index.
• When the new supply of a dye is weak or strong against current supply. Use Strength Factor to
correct recipe. Strength factor is stored in K/S data file.
• Sort the recipes on cost or metameric index. If shade is for export, then sort on metameric index.
• When XYZ or Lab is given as input, metameric index is not possible.
• The program using the above information calculates all possible recipes within the tolerances..
• Examine colour difference under all illuminants for recipe. Examine reflectance graph of recipe
and target. Examine colour-on-screen of recipe and target under all illuminants.

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• Select at least 2-3 recipes for trial dyeing initially.

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