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Quo Vadis, Ethnic Entrepreneurship? A Bibliometric Analysis of Ethnic Entrepreneurship in Growing Markets
Quo Vadis, Ethnic Entrepreneurship? A Bibliometric Analysis of Ethnic Entrepreneurship in Growing Markets
Quo Vadis, Ethnic Entrepreneurship? A Bibliometric Analysis of Ethnic Entrepreneurship in Growing Markets
https://www.emerald.com/insight/2053-4604.htm
A bibliometric
Quo vadis, ethnic analysis
entrepreneurship? A bibliometric
analysis of ethnic
entrepreneurship in
growing markets Received 5 April 2020
Revised 25 May 2020
25 June 2020
Nurul Indarti and Naya Hapsari Accepted 30 June 2020
Department of Management, Faculty of Economics and Business,
Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Andy Susilo Lukito-Budi
Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta,
Indonesia and Faculty of Economics and Business, Atma Jaya Catholic University
of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia, and
Risa Virgosita
Department of Management, Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Gadjah
Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Abstract
Purpose – This study aims to investigate the trends in existing studies in the field of ethnic
entrepreneurship in the context of growing markets in terms of definitions, theories, themes, methodologies
and settings.
Design/methodology/approach – This study used bibliometric analysis and used Publish or Perish
software with Google Scholar as the database. A total of 183 articles published in 122 journals from 1988 to
2018 were selected. This study used systematic data to reveal trends in growing markets and qualitative
inductive analysis to define relevant themes within the topic.
Findings – The results show that ethnic entrepreneurship is defined as involving immigrants from developing
countries. From a theoretical point of view, socio-cultural theories, socio-economic theories and combinations of
both have been used to explain the phenomenon. Six research themes have been developed indicating potential
explorative and exploitative research themes. This study identified the dominance of the qualitative approach in
ethnic entrepreneurship research and found that the typical research subjects are Asian immigrants, especially
Chinese, in developed countries. The articles reviewed were mainly conducted in developed countries (68.85%)
and a lesser portion in developing countries (13.66%), particularly Asian countries.
Practical implications – This study provides future directions for research on ethnic entrepreneurship,
such as gender studies of ethnic entrepreneurs and factors affecting the opening of new businesses in new
locations.
This study was funded by the Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Indonesia, through the Department Research Grant 2018. The authors would also acknowledge the
Journal of Entrepreneurship in
School of Business, University of Agder, Norway and the Royal Embassy of Norway in Jakarta, Emerging Economies
Indonesia, for the support in the development of this paper through the In Search of Balance project © Emerald Publishing Limited
2053-4604
within PACER Program. DOI 10.1108/JEEE-04-2020-0080
JEEE Originality/value – This study reveals trends in the ethnic entrepreneurship field based on the country in
which the study was conducted, the definition of ethnic entrepreneurship, the theories, the research themes,
the methodologies, the research setting and the ethnicity studied. It also used the framework of input–
process–output to establish a generic road map of the ethnic entrepreneurship research area.
Keywords Emerging market, Bibliometric analysis, Immigrant entrepreneurship,
Ethnic entrepreneurship, Growing markets
Paper type Literature review
Introduction
Studies in ethnic entrepreneurship have gained great attention among academics,
practitioners and policymakers (Aliaga-Isla and Rialp, 2013; Ilhan-Nas et al., 2011). The
urgency of this topic arises as ethnic entrepreneurship has been acclaimed as a means to
secure the economic state of the ethnic group members who have usually been categorized
as immigrants or ethnic minorities in their host countries (Chaganti and Greene, 2002;
Morris, 2010). Ethnic entrepreneurship, which is often co-mingled with immigrant
entrepreneurship, is argued for as an ideal option for reducing unemployment rates in a
specific country, as well as to help underprivileged groups to achieve upward socio-
economic mobility (Kloosterman, 2003).
Ethnic entrepreneurship is essentially defined as business ownership among
immigrants, ethnic group members or both (Valdez, 2008, p. 959). Previous studies have
examined the definitions, roles and characteristics of ethnic groups in entrepreneurship
(Assudani, 2009; Cederberg and Villares-Varela, 2019; Chaganti and Greene, 2002; Drori
et al., 2009; Szkudlarek and Wu, 2018). Ethnic entrepreneurs have usually migrated from
less-developed countries to more developed countries, particularly in attractive demographic
regions in cities (Waldinger, 1989). Immigrants from less-developed countries have different
human, social and economic capitals from the indigenous populations, which equip them in
creating specific market opportunities in the host country (Cruz et al., 2018; Kloosterman and
Rath, 2001). However, ethnic entrepreneurs also target developing countries for many other
reasons; for instance, access to business opportunities (Aldrich and Waldinger, 1990) and
kinship ties with kin groups whose businesses have already been established (Boyd, 1989).
Furthermore, based on a systematic review conducted by Aliaga-Isla and Rialp (2013), there
has been a shift in immigration in that individuals from developed countries are moving to
emerging countries because of financial crises. Thus, researching ethnic entrepreneurship in
this context presents a promising research avenue (Aliaga-Isla and Rialp, 2013).
Studies of ethnic entrepreneurship in emerging and developing markets are important
because ethnic entrepreneurs contribute to the economic growth of the countries where they
reside (Johnson et al., 2007). This importance is underlined by the increasing studies of
ethnic entrepreneurship that focus on emerging markets (Lin, 2010; Nkongolo-Bakenda and
Chrysostome, 2013; Riddle and Brinkerhoff, 2011; Vaaler, 2011). Furthermore, emerging
markets have unique institutional environments characterized by institutional voids, the
considerable importance of informal institutions, frequent institutional transitions and
greater institutional pressure from local governments, all of which are less visible in
developed markets (Rottig, 2016). These characterized environment items provide
interesting settings for the investigation of the ethnic entrepreneurship phenomenon in
attempts to generalize or modify existing theories (Alon and Rottig, 2013). Therefore, this
systematic review was conducted to fill the academic gap, following up on the call by
Aliaga-Isla and Rialp (2013) for research on ethnic entrepreneurship in emerging markets.
However, in this study, the term “growing markets” is used to refer to the summation of
developing and emerging markets. The segregation is because of the definition about both A bibliometric
markets (i.e. developing represents developing countries and emerging represents semi- analysis
developed countries). While both terms share similar characteristics (Estrin et al., 2019;
Oman et al., 2014), the terms reflect slight differences in the establishment of the countries or
markets (EDT, 2012).
Estrin et al. (2019) indirectly stated emerging as “dynamic development in economies for
several countries in South East Asia [. . .]” (p. 2). They also differentiated emerging markets
and developed markets to take account of the specific characteristics that appear in the
entrepreneurship in emerging markets (i.e. the age of the business, gender dominance,
education and some personal traits, such as occupational choice and social capital). This
paper follows the statement from Oman et al. (2003) that the implementation of corporate
governance (CG) in developing countries is instrumental yet ignored. They noted that the
transition of CG from developing countries to emerging countries has marked the success in
the long run in developing countries as well as in developed countries. Based on this, there
are three levels of countries with regard to the implementation of CG: developing countries,
where CG implementation in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) is poor and often
ignored; emerging countries, where CG is in the early stages of implementation; and
developed countries, where CG is well established. In the present paper, it is appropriate to
use both developing and emerging markets because of the relatively similar characteristics
of entrepreneurship in both market types.
The goal of the current study was to review the extant literature on ethnic
entrepreneurship in growing markets. Thus, the following research questions were
established:
RQ1. What research has been done in the field of ethnic entrepreneurship in the context
of growing markets, in terms of the definitions, theories, research themes, research
methodologies and settings?
RQ2. What are the future research agendas in the ethnic entrepreneurship field?
A literature review paper reflects the knowledge advancement in the field of study and
offers a reference point that leads to conceptualization (or reconceptualization in the case of
existing phenomena) and new understanding (Rocco and Plakhotnik, 2009). The present
literature review paper aims to synthesize and review current literature in the field of ethnic
entrepreneurship with special reference to growing markets by focusing on definitions,
theories, themes, research methodology and research settings. The paper also identifies
research themes using an interpretative approach to map trending topics in the field to
represent clearly the direction(s) of research in the field. To the authors’ knowledge, this is
the first systematic review of ethnic entrepreneurship literature focused on growing
markets. It contributes to the literature of ethnic entrepreneurship by providing an
understanding of previous findings on ethnic entrepreneurship research in the context of
growing markets and as a starting point for future research avenues.
The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the methodology used to conduct
the systematic review with bibliometric analysis, including the steps in searching the
articles by using Publish or Perish (PoP) software and the Google Scholar (GS) database.
Section 3 presents the clustering results and a detailed discussion to answer the research
questions, using the form of systematic literature review. Finally, the conclusions,
limitations and recommendations for future research are discussed in Sections 4 and 5,
respectively.
JEEE Methodology
The study applied a systematic review to produce a scientific summary of the studies
conducted in the area of ethnic entrepreneurship. The nature of the study of this topic is a
theoretical one concerned with technical procedures. It is categorized as a bibliography
study because it analyzes already published studies on the subject (Creswell, 2017). The
main objectives of the study were exploratory and descriptive, seeking specific information
on what is being studied (Ferenhof et al., 2014).
Because of the lack of articles in the field of ethnic entrepreneurship in growing markets,
we set three flexible criteria. The first criterion was keywords. As the focal variable of this
study was “ethnic entrepreneurship,” and this term is usually associated with “immigrant
entrepreneurship,” both terms were used as keywords. In addition, the terms “emerging
markets” and “developing countries,” which reflect the term growing markets, were also
used to search relevant articles in electronic databases. Those four keywords were used to
ensure that the selected articles addressed the significant themes and the study objective.
The second criterion was the type of article. Only peer-reviewed journal articles were
selected, because this type of article usually contains a field’s most recent theories and
findings, as well as representing the most advanced level of research (Mustak et al., 2013).
Thus, conference proceedings, unpublished theses and other types of articles were excluded
from the list. The peer-reviewed articles were then selected for inclusion by reading the titles
and abstracts. In essence, every article that discussed entrepreneurship related to ethnicity
in developing countries or emerging markets was included in the review. The third criterion
was the multidisciplinary fields of the articles. Thus, the possibility of including articles
from other fields of social sciences was expanded to enhance the diversity of perspectives.
In terms of language and publication outlets, three criteria were defined for selecting the
peer-reviewed articles included in this analysis. First, only articles presented in English and
published in reputable international journals (mainly based on Scopus index rankings Q1–
Q4) were included. Second, for articles published in journals not listed in the Scopus index,
the articles were read thoroughly to identify and assess the relevance of the content. Third,
the researchers also considered articles from non-indexed journals as long as they were not
listed in Beall’s list of predatory journals (beallslist.weebly.com). In the selection process,
two authors were responsible for identifying and assessing the quality of the journals, and
the other two were responsible for re-validating the results.
Bibliometric analysis is usually used in the scientific disciplines and focuses on
representing the quantitative side of research performance (Heersmink et al., 2011; Raan,
2003). However, the present review used both quantitative and qualitative analysis, as
conducted by Apriliyanti and Alon (2017). Our study followed the protocol for bibliometric
analysis method introduced by Fahimnia et al. (2015). The protocol consists of five steps,
including:
(1) defining research keywords;
(2) obtaining initial search results;
(3) refining the search results;
(4) compiling the initial data; and
(5) analyzing the data.
To obtain more comprehensive results for analysis, an Excel workbook was created to
dissect and code the content of the objectives, theoretical frameworks and methodologies of
the selected articles. The summary of the process is presented in Figure 1. All steps are
explained in detail in the following sub-sections.
Beginning A bibliometric
analysis
1) Defining search keywords:
1: “ethnic entrepreneurship” and “emerging markets”
2: “ethnic entrepreneurship” and “developing countries”
3: “immigrant entrepreneurship” and “emerging markets”
4: “immigrant entrepreneurship” and “developing markets”
Articles from
Journals
Extracting the necessary information from the selected articles, such as,
publication journal, year of publication, publisher, etc.
1. Journal*
Q1 journal 73
Q2 journal 46
Q3 journal 35
Q4 journal 4
No Rank journal 25
Unidentified/Repeated/Unable to access/Non-English 47
2. Books/Book chapter/Report/Review 110
3. Conference proceedings 27
4. Working paper/Thesis 88
5. Unidentified/Citation only/Rejected website 43
Table 1. Total 498
Number of articles
based on the source Note: *Ranked based on ScimagoJR list
Tables 2 and 3 summarize the metrics of the articles obtained from the first and second A bibliometric
search process, respectively. The metrics information includes the citations per year and the analysis
Hirsch index (h-index) scores of the articles. After the refinement, the latest articles to be
analyzed are from 2018 (articles published in 2019 are excluded because they do not meet the
criteria). Of 183 articles, 158 articles were published in reputable journals (Q1–Q4), based on
the SCImago Journal and Country Rank website. The remainder (25) were published in peer-
reviewed journals outside of the scope of SCImago, but the content fulfilled the criteria and
was relevant to the Asian context; for instance, The China Quarterly. These findings
indicate that in ethnic entrepreneurship, especially in the context of growing markets, other
publication types aside from peer-reviewed journals (for example, books/book chapters,
reports and conference proceedings) have a considerable impact on citations.
20
19 19
18 18
Number of Publicaons
16
14 14 14
12
10 10 10
8 8
7 7 7
6 6
5 5 5
4 4 4
3 3
Figure 2. 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
Number of 0
publications per year 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
(1988–2019)
Years
of ethnic
Table 4.
entrepreneurs
Various definitions
Author(s) Specific term(s) used Definition Emphasized aspect(s)
Evans (1989) Immigrant The immigrant group acts as an economic niche for a small business, Diversity
entrepreneurs and how it survived is defined by human capital matters and
characteristics of the immigrant group, such as the size of ethnic
market and size of the linguistically isolated labor force
Bonacich (1973) Ethnic entrepreneurs Group of people who strive for upward mobility within a competitive Economy
framework and take care of their social welfare by opening a
business
Li (1993) Ethnic enterprise A business in which an ethnic group can prosper, typically located in Chinese business
a limited number of industries such as retailing food services and
other personal services
van Delft et al. (2000) Ethnic Business activities, mainly of small or medium size, executed by Economy
entrepreneurship foreign migrants with the main aim of covering the socio-economic
needs of immigrants of various ethnic or socio-cultural classes
Baycan-Levent et al. Ethnic entrepreneurs; Special groups of entrepreneurs, ethnic and female, who share Gender
(2006) female entrepreneurs common characteristics, such as needs to improve weak socio-
economic position and the discrimination they usually face in society
Koning and Verver Chinese Ethnic or immigrant entrepreneurship consists of not only the first Hereditary
(2013) entrepreneurs generation that “experiences” the adaptation challenges during the
migration process, but there are also the second and third
generations that had to be embedded in various aspects of a minority
business inherited from their predecessor
Somashekhar (2018) African-American A business owned and operated by entrepreneurs who share an Black-owned businesses
entrepreneurs ethnic identity and are often faced by the unique disadvantage of
formal residential segregation that forces them to coexist in the same
neighborhoods
In general, other definitions by other authors appear to be similar. Some authors A bibliometric
modified the notion of ethnic entrepreneurs by adding the specific context of the study (see analysis
Table 4). For example, the earliest article reviewed in this study, written by Evans (1989),
focused on describing diversity as an aspect that influences the sustainability of businesses
operated by immigrants. Thus, he formulated ecological factors that encourage (or hinder)
immigrants in setting up their businesses. Another definition of ethnic entrepreneurship
was proposed by Baycan-Levent et al. (2006) in studying gender. They added the
characteristics of female entrepreneurs, particularly the issue of discrimination, to define the
term ethnic entrepreneurs. Meanwhile, Koning and Verver (2013) added the patrimonial
aspect in understanding ethnic entrepreneurship, as they focused on analyzing how Chinese
entrepreneurs passed their businesses on from generation to generation.
The common characteristics of ethnic entrepreneurs are their immigrant status, often
with distinctive languages and customs, engaged in formal, informal or illegal self-
employment and/or business in the adopted country (Drori et al., 2009). Because one of the
characteristics often associated with ethnic entrepreneurs is being an immigrant, it is
common for researchers to use the term immigrant entrepreneurship as another term for
ethnic entrepreneurship (Collins, 2003; Evans, 1989; Kloosterman and Rath, 2001; Tavassoli
and Trippl, 2019). In short, ethnic entrepreneurs are defined as a group of people bound by a
common cultural heritage who move from their home countries to destination countries, as
immigrants, opening businesses there to improve their social and economic well-being.
The first category, the socio-cultural field, consists of six theories and approaches: the
culturalist approach, social learning theory (Bandura, 1978), the ethnic tourism perspective
(Wood, 1984), entrepreneurial familism (Wong, 1993), the organizational ecology perspective
(Singh and Lumsden, 1990) and the interactionist perspective (Tsui-Auch, 2005). This group
of theories draws on social and cultural issues to explain how an ethnic group initiates and
operates a business. The socio-cultural context of human society represents the need to
fulfill the collective or ecological aspects of human life, including social contacts, norms and
values, ideals, cultural identity and even coping with the discrimination usually faced by
minorities (Chiesura and de Groot, 2003; Kim et al., 2011). In entrepreneurship, the cultural
JEEE approach has an unavoidable role as ethnic minority businesses are often confined in tight
social networks in which ethnic businesses deal with goods that are mainly consumed by co-
ethnic customers (Ibrahim and Galt, 2003).
One of the theories that represents the socio-cultural perspective in ethnic
entrepreneurship studies is social learning theory, which was introduced by Bandura (1978).
Social learning theory holds that people are able to acquire their patterns of behavior by
observing and imitating the behavior of others. This explanation depicts the intention of
ethnic group members to open a business based on the behavior of other members in the
group. This theory helps to explain the presence of environmental factors such as “role
models” that act as the stimulus for ethnic group members to decide on being entrepreneurs
as a career choice. For example, a study by Butler and Herring (1991) found that children
who are exposed to entrepreneurial behavior from their parents are likely to pursue the same
path. This explanation is reasonable, especially if associated with the hereditary aspect of
ethnic family businesses (Adendorff and Halkias, 2014; Koning and Verver, 2013), and helps
to elucidate another socio-cultural theory, specifically entrepreneurial familism in Chinese
entrepreneurship, as proposed by Wong (1993).
The second category is the socio-economic field, which represents theories and
perspectives that focus on discussing how the economic aspect matters to ethnic groups in
the intention to build a business. Theories that are included in this category are the orthodox
economic perspective or old institutionalist economics, the middleman minorities
perspective (Bonacich, 1973), the ethnic enclaves perspective (Wilson and Martin, 1982), the
laws of migration perspective or push–pull migration laws (Dorigo and Tobler, 1983;
Ravenstein, 1885), the bootstrap capitalism perspective (Basu and Werbner, 2001) and the
self-employment perspective (Blanchflower, 2004). These theories stress that one of the main
reasons ethnic groups start businesses is the need to improve their economic status despite
their limited capital and the discrimination they face. This idea is clearly defined especially
in push–pull migration laws (Dorigo and Tobler, 1983) that point out the need to achieve a
better economic condition and opportunities by moving to other countries. Furthermore, the
economic reason is also described in bootstrap capitalism theory (Basu and Werbner, 2001),
which explains how ethnic minorities build up their businesses with limited capital and
determine their economic position by embedding themselves in the environment.
In the socio-economics category, there are also two primary classic perspectives in the
literature on ethnic entrepreneurship, namely, the middleman minorities perspective
(Bonacich, 1973) and the ethnic enclaves perspective (Wilson and Martin, 1982). The
perspectives complement each other in explaining how ethnic businesses survive and
prosper despite their minority status and the discrimination they encounter in the host
country. The middleman minorities perspective introduces the idea that the economic status
of ethnic minorities is often in the middle position, and, to survive in daily life and blend
with society, they build businesses in the economic system of the host country (Assudani,
2009; Bonacich, 1973). The ethnic enclave perspective adds the explanation that ethnic
minority businesses are often located in an area with a certain proximity to other similar
businesses (Wilson and Martin, 1982).
Finally, this study also found that some theories/perspectives combine social, cultural
and economic factors in explaining ethnic entrepreneurship. These theories are included in
the socio-cultural and economics group. Six theories were identified in this category, namely,
the interactive model of ethnic business development (Waldinger et al., 1990), the blocked
mobility perspective (Gold and Kibria, 1993), (ethnic) the social capital perspective (Sanders
and Nee, 1996; Woolcock and Narayan, 2000), (mixed) embeddedness in entrepreneurship
(Kloosterman and Rath, 2001; Kloosterman et al., 1999; Uzzi, 1997), female entrepreneurship/
A bibliometric
Field Theoretical approach/perspective and description
analysis
Socio-cultural Culturalist perspective from classic sociological literature
Ethnic minority businesses often confined in tight social networks, in which ethnic
business transacts in goods mainly consumed by co-ethnic customers. Cultural
factors play an important role for ethnic entrepreneurs to maintain their relationship
with co-ethnic customers (Ibrahim and Galt, 2003, 2011)
Social learning perspective by Bandura (1978)
People are able to control their own behavior to some degree, and the patterns of
behavior of an individual are acquired and regulated by the interplay of self-
generated and other sources of influences (observing and imitating others)
Ethnic tourism perspective by Wood (1984)
How ethnicity and culture play as tourist attractions
Chinese entrepreneurship: entrepreneurial familism by Wong (1993)
The essence of Chinese economic organization is familism
Organizational ecology perspective by Singh and Lumsden (1990)
Investigating how social conditions, such as population dynamics, density
dependence, resource partitioning and others influence the processes of
organizational foundings, mortality and change
Interactionist perspective (Tsui-auch, 2005)
A synthesis of the structuralist and culturalist perspectives which emphasize the
interaction between the opportunity structure in the country of residence and the
ethnic resource of an immigrant group
Color-blind racism (Bonilla-Silva, 2003)
A “new” form of racism, characterized by, but not limited to, covert racial discourse
and practices
Socio-economics Orthodox economic perspective/old institutionalist economics by neoclassical
economists
The intention to become an entrepreneur is influenced by preferences in fulfilling
economic needs; for example, difference expected from present value of earnings
from building their own business or self-employment compared with the expected
present value of wages from being an employee (Ibrahim and Galt, 2003, 2011)
Laws of migration perspective by Ravenstein (1885)
This perspective follows the push–pull migration laws (Dorigo and Tobler, 1983).
Immigration as a product of push factors in the home country and pull factors in the
receiving country
Middleman minorities perspective by Bonacich (1973)
Immigrants or ethnic minorities in the host country mostly occupy an intermediate
rather than a low position in terms of their economic status. This leads them to
develop enterprises that are located in the middle of the economic system of the host
country such as broker and labor contractor, despite the discrimination and hostility
faced as they mingle in society
Ethnic enclaves perspective (Vij and Bedi) (Wilson and Martin, 1982)
A model of economy that is composed of clusters of small businesses, usually
minority-owned businesses. Departing from an idea similar to the middleman
minorities perspective, this perspective emphasizes the geographical proximity of
the enterprise locations
Bootstrap capitalism perspective (Basu and Werbner, 2001)
Capitalism starting from the bottom upwards. The condition arises when many Table 5.
ethnic group immigrants, who had to overcome extreme discrimination, have to Perspectives/
establish, sustain and develop businesses in a low capital and low knowledge
approaches in the
environment
field of ethnic
(continued) entrepreneurship
gender-based differences (Baycan-Levent et al., 2003, 2006) and ethnic diversity focused on
JEEE
Field Theoretical approach/perspective and description
diversity competitiveness (Smallbone et al., 2010). Theories in this category explain that the
intention of ethnic groups in initiating a business is to survive in society (by increasing their
social mobility) and to achieve better economic conditions.
A more detailed description of each theory used in ethnic entrepreneurship
studies is summarized in Table 5. This study also provides an analysis of 25 selected
Research themes # Papers Research themes # Papers
Notes: The base line is 183 papers. The gender study has redundancy with other topics
Table 6.
A bibliometric
themes
analysis
Clusters of research
JEEE articles (out of the 183 reviewed in this study) with more than 50 citations based on
the theories and perspectives used in the ethnic entrepreneurship field (see
Appendix 2).
In addition to the five research themes, the study also grouped 11 papers into a gender/female
theme focusing on engagement, development and barriers in businesses run by female
entrepreneurs. Compared with other entrepreneurship study topics, female entrepreneurs are
becoming interesting and relevant topics of study in the field of ethnic entrepreneurship. For
example, studies by Baycan-Levent et al. (2003) and Chreim et al. (2018) addressed the
entrepreneurship engagement and establishment for a new business set up by female
Turkish immigrants in Amsterdam. Similar studies have also been conducted in many
locations, such as New Zealand (Pio, 2007), North Carolina (Wang and Morrell, 2015), Berlin
(Lidola, 2014), Canada (Maitra, 2013) and The Netherlands (Verduijn and Essers, 2013). Other
studies have focused on barriers and challenges for female entrepreneurs in Japan (Billore
et al., 2010), the availability of opportunities for female entrepreneurs (Billore, 2011) and
leadership models for female entrepreneurs (Mauro et al., 2017).
Figure 5.
Research themes
To provide a comprehensive picture of the current research themes in the field of ethnic A bibliometric
entrepreneurship, the six research themes summarized in Table 6 were framed using the analysis
IPO framework (see Figure 5). The IPO approach is used as part of a system thinking model
to illustrate the theme’s position within the entrepreneurship process (Waring, 1996). The
IPO model consists of three main blocks (input, process and output) and two additional
blocks (foundation improvement and contemporary issues). The input block refers to
individual and external factors that can be considered the antecedents of the
entrepreneurship process. With regard to the individual factors, the study found that many
studies on ethnic entrepreneurship have focused mainly on the individual factors, which
contributed to a 57% rate of convergence (8/14; for detail explanation, see notes in Figure 5).
This indicates that many different topics related to individual factors have been discussed.
Moreover, related topics in the individual theme consist of values and beliefs that influence
the immigrant entrepreneur (Cruz et al., 2018; Li, 2007; Robertson and Grant, 2016), whereas
the values shared by individual immigrants were further discussed as motivation studies
(Ramadani et al., 2014; Shinnar and Zamantılı Nayır, 2019). Others discussed adapting in the
new environment with respect to open business (Ruiz et al., 2017), finding opportunity
(Billore, 2011) and building risk-averse behavior preferences in the new business
environment (Batista and Umblijs, 2014).
The other theme in the input block, the external factors, includes several topics related to
the attachment factors related to the immigrant roots, such as cultural ties (Heberer, 2005;
Milanesi et al., 2016; Moyo, 2014; Wang and Warn, 2018), ethnicity ties (Cruz et al., 2018),
religious ties (Constantin et al., 2008; Gbadamosi, 2015) and family ties (Cruz et al., 2017;
Johnson et al., 2007; Pyong and Bozorgmehr, 2000). The external factors also include
external support factors, mainly in setting rules and policy (Collins, 2003; Rath and
Swagerman, 2016; van Delft et al., 2000; Yasmin and Koivurova, 2019) and financial support
(Godley, 1996). Barriers to starting a business, especially in relation to female ethnic
entrepreneurs, have also been discussed (Billore, 2011; Billore et al., 2010).
The process block represents topics on the processes of entrepreneurial activities ranging
from the establishment of the business to the growth and engagement of the business. A
total of 13 of these topics are used among the 61 papers in the process block, which
contributed to a 21% rate of convergence. Meanwhile, the rate of convergence for the output
block was 29% from 28 articles on the impacts or consequences of entrepreneurship.
In the process block, the theme of engagement mainly consists of topics on setting up
new businesses (Baycan-Levent et al., 2003; de Vries, 2014; Howell, 2019; Rahman, 2018),
business strategies (Kim, 2009; McPherson, 2016; Smart, 2003; Song, 2013), engagement
process in the new location (Li, 2007; Munkejord, 2017; Ojo, 2012) and historical overview
(Boyd, 2018; Clark and Drinkwater, 2010; Rath and Swagerman, 2016; Rogoff et al., 1998).
Several minor topics were also covered, such as experience collected by the entrepreneur in
the new environment (Phizacklea and Ram, 1995), succession strategies from one generation
to the next (Kim and Koo, 2017) and illegal issues that occur in certain contexts (Ojo et al.,
2013).
The two additional blocks, foundation improvement and contemporary issues,
contributed to an 11% and a 45% rate of convergence, respectively. The findings indicate
that topics discussed in the foundation improvement block are less diverse than those in the
contemporary issues block, although the number of papers on foundation improvement is
greater than on contemporary issues. It should be noted that, in most cases, the
contemporary issues also related to other themes, such as the engagement process (Lidola,
2014; Pio, 2007) and opportunities for and barriers to opening a business (Billore, 2011;
Billore et al., 2010).
JEEE Furthermore, the more converged discussions (smaller percentage rate) in one theme, the
more established the theme is. The lower convergence rate indicates the more converged
discussion topics in a theme. This could mean that generalization has been achieved at some
points or that there is no significant novelty to be explored further. Hence, less variation in
the topics within a theme indicates that studies have reached a certain level of agreement or
understanding about that topic.
Grounded theory 2
Case Study 9
Survey (Questionaires) 25
References
Adendorff, C. and Halkias, D. (2014), “Leveraging ethnic entrepreneurship, culture and family
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JEEE Appendix 1
ethnic
entrepreneurship
used in the field of
List of articles with
A bibliometric
Table A2.
No. Citation Title Author(s) (year) Journal (tier) Theories and approaches used
10 95 Noneconomic Effects of Ethnic Zhou and Cho (2010) Thunderbird International Ethnic enclave perspective,
Entrepreneurship: A Focused Business Review (Q2) Mixed embeddedness
Look at the Chinese and Korean
Enclave Economies in Los
Angeles
11 93 Cultural Resources and Ethnic Teixeira (1998) The Canadian Geographer Culturalist approach,
Entrepreneurship: A Case Study (Q2) Interactive model of ethnic
of the Portuguese Real Estate business development
Industry in Toronto
12 85 Recent Trends in Minority Clark and Drinkwater (2010) International Small Business Self-employment
Ethnic Entrepreneurship in Journal (Q1)
Britain
13 82 Ethnic Diversity, Smallbone et al. (2010) International Small Business Ethnic diversity: diversity
Entrepreneurship and Journal (Q1) competitiveness link
Competitiveness in a Global City
14 79 Bootstrap Capitalism and the Basu and Werbner (2001) Ethnic and Racial Studies (Q1) Cultural approach, Bootstrap
Culture Industries: A Critique of capitalism
Invidious Compassions in the
Study of Ethnic
Entrepreneurship
15 77 Ethnic Entrepreneurship: Li (2007) Journal of Developmental Cultural approach
Studying Chinese and Indian Entrepreneurship (Q4)
Students in the United States
16 76 Ethnic Entrepreneurship in Phizacklea and Ram (1995) International Journal of Interactive model of ethnic
Comparative Perspective Entrepreneurial Behavior and business development
Research (Q1)
17 68 International Ethnic Ilhan-Nas et al. (2011) International Business Review Immigration laws (push and
Entrepreneurship: Antecedents, (Q1) pull laws of migration)
Outcomes and Environmental
Context
(continued)
No. Citation Title Author(s) (year) Journal (tier) Theories and approaches used
18 67 Explaining Ethnic Ibrahim and Galt (2011) International Business Review Cultural approach, Orthodox
Entrepreneurship: An (Q1) economic approach/old
Evolutionary Economics institutional economic
Approach
19 67 In Search of Ethnic van Delft et al. (2000) Environment and Planning C: Self-employment
Entrepreneurship Opportunities Government and Policy (Q1)
in the City: A Comparative
Study
20 64 Ethnic Tourism and Yang and Wall (2008) Tourism Geographies (Q1) Ethnic tourism theory
Entrepreneurship:
Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, China
21 62 Ethnic Entrepreneurship: The Assudani (2009) Journal of Small Business and Middleman minorities
Distinct Roles of Ties Entrepreneurship perspective, Ethnic enclave
perspective, social capital,
(Mixed) Embeddedness
22 60 Ethnic Entrepreneurship Pio (2007) Gender, Work and Mixed embeddedness, female
Among Indian Women in New Organization (Q1) entrepreneurship/gender-
Zealand: A Bittersweet Process based differences
23 57 Ethnic minority businesses and Piperopoulos (2010) Journal of Small Business and Culturalist approach, blocked
immigrant entrepreneurship in Enterprise Development (Q2) mobility
Greece
24 56 Gender differences in ethnic Baycan-Levent et al. (2006) International Journal of Female entrepreneurship/
entrepreneurship Entrepreneurship and gender-based differences
Innovation Management (Q3)
25 54 Unpacking Regional Ethnicity Tsui-auch (2005) Organization Studies (Q1) Culturalist approach,
and the Strength of Ties in Middleman minorities
Shaping Ethnic perspective, Interactionist
Entrepreneurship perspective
Note: A total of 25 selected articles from 108 reviewed articles that have more than 50 citations
A bibliometric
Table A2.
analysis
JEEE About the authors
Nurul Indarti is an Associate Professor from the Department of Management, Faculty of Economics
and Business, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia. She holds a PhD degree from the Faculty of
Economics and Business, University of Groningen, The Netherlands.
Naya Hapsari is a junior lecturer from the Department of Management, Faculty of Economics and
Business, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia. She holds a Master of Science degree from the
Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Gadjah Mada.
Andy Susilo Lukito-Budi is a lecturer from Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia. Currently
he is enrolled as a Doctorate student at the Department of Management, Faculty of Economics and
Business, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia. Andy Susilo Lukito-Budi is the corresponding author
and can be contacted at: jkbudi@yahoo.com
Risa Virgosita is a lecturer from the Department of Management, Faculty of Economics and
Business, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia. She holds a PhD degree from the School of Business,
University of Agder, Norway.
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