AMA 1110 Lecture Notes #2

Dr. Ting, Fridolin

(1) Sec 1.4. Elementary functions- (polynomial, rational and trigonometric)

(2) Sec 2.1 and Sec 2.2 Trigonometric identities + equations

Texture
(3) Sec 3.1.1 Limits of Sequences (not Tested)
(4) Sec. 3.1.2 æ 3.1.4: Limit of a function
(5) Sec. 3.2: Continuity

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 1 / 43

 AMA 1110 Lecture Notes #2

Dr. Ting, Fridolin

(1) Sec 1.4. Elementary functions (polynomial, rational and trigonometric)

(2) Sec 2.1 and Sec 2.2 Trigonometric identities + equations
(3) Sec 3.1.1 Limits of Sequences (not Tested)
(4) Sec. 3.1.2 æ 3.1.4: Limit of a function
(5) Sec. 3.2: Continuity

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 1 / 43

Sec. 1. 4 ELEMENTARY Functions

DEF
Polynomials
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + ... + an xn
where
n= degree of polynomial (non-negative) and an ”= 0

n = 0: f (x) = a0 = constant
n = 1: f (x) = a0 + a1 x = linear function e- g. text = It X
-1×2
n = 2: f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 = quadratic function e g 2x
,

fix 7=2 t
. .

n = 3: f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 = cubic function / e .

g. ,
fix 1=1 to X
-
x ?x3
etc

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 2 / 43

Sec. 1. 4 ELEMENTARY Functions
DEF
P (x)
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS of form f (x) = Q(x) ,
P, Q polynomials and Dom (f ) = {x : Q(x) ”= 0}

1
EX (2.1) Find domain of f (x) = (x≠3)3 (x+2)2
and sketch
f- its graph
SOL: Dom Cfl = 9 x
: X 't 3
,
-2 }

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 3 / 43

Sec 1.4: TRIGONOMETRIC Functions
Standard to measure angle in radians : 2fi(rad)= 360¶ IT ? 3-1415 .
. .
.

… 1 rad = 180
¶
fi = 57.3¶
≥ ' '

theta
"

2fi fi fi ① =

e.g. 90 =
¶
rad = rad, 180¶ = fi rad, 45¶ = rad etc. angle
in
4 2 4
-
-

radians

Elementary Trigonometric functions

opp y 1
sin ◊ = csc ◊ = cosecant
hyp r
Sine
sin ◊
adj x 1
cosine cos ◊ = sec ◊ = secant
hyp r cos ◊
opp y 1
tan ◊ = cot ◊ = cotangent
tangent adj x tan ◊

y
(x, y) (hypotenuse)
◊ = angle ray make c
r with +x axis a
y (opposite)
◊
x
10◊ A
x
0 b (adjacent)
AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 4 / 43
Sec 1.4: TRIGONOMETRIC Functions
o
EEE
"

f¥r
" " ooo
. ,
.

IMPORTANT particular values

sin ◊
◊ rad sin◊ cos◊ tan◊ =
0 0
cos ◊ YE
0¶ Ô1 0
fi 1 3 1
30¶ Ô
6 2 2 3
fi 1 1
45¶ Ô Ô 1
4 Ô2 2
fi 3 1 Ô
60¶ 3
3
fi 2 2
90¶ 1 0 Œ
2

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 5 / 43

Sec 1.4: TRIGONOMETRIC Functions
Graphs of Sine and Cosine functions
y
← 1 y = sin ◊ →

◊
≠4fi ≠3fi ≠2fi ≠fi 0 fi 2fi 3fi 4fi

≠1

y
1 y = cos ◊

◊
≠4fi ≠3fi ≠2fi ≠fi 0 fi 2fi 3fi 4fi

≠1

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 6 / 43

Sec 1.4: TRIGONOMETRIC Functions
Graph of Tangent function
y y = tan ◊

◊
0 I
I E ZE
'
-3
≠4fi ≠3fi ≠2fi ≠fi fi 2fi 3fi 4fi
-

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 7 / 43

Sec 1.4: TRIGONOMETRIC Functions
Graph of Cosecant function
y y = csc x =L
Smx

y = sin x
x
≠4fi ≠3fi ≠2fi ≠fi 0 fi 2fi 3fi 4fi

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 8 / 43

Sec 1.4: TRIGONOMETRIC Functions
Graph of Secant function
y y = sec x =

y = cos x
x
≠4fi ≠3fi ≠2fi ≠fi 0 fi 2fi 3fi 4fi

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 9 / 43

Sec 1.4: TRIGONOMETRIC Functions
Graph of Cotangent function
y y = cot x =
¥ ×
y = tan x

x
≠4fi ≠3fi ≠2fi ≠fi 0 fi 2fi 3fi 4fi

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 10 / 43

Sec 1.4: TRIGONOMETRIC Functions

DEF

(i) f : R ¡ R is periodic of period T > 0 if f (x + T ) = f (x) for all x œ R

(ii) f : R ¡ R is even if f (≠x) = f (x) for all x œ R (symmetric in y-axis)

(iii) f : R ¡ R is odd if f (≠x) = ≠f (x) for all x œ R (symmetric in origin)

Note. sin x, cos x periodic of period 2fi.

sin x odd function and cos x even function.

sin(≠x) = ≠ sin(x) ∆ odd

cos(≠x) = ≠ cos(x) ∆ even

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 11 / 43

Sec 2.1: TRIGONOMETRIC Identities
(i) unit circle: sin2 ◊ + cos2 ◊ = 1, tan2 ◊ + 1 = sec2 ◊ .

,
cot to + I =
es do

(ii) odd + even functions:

sin(≠◊) = ≠ sin(◊) (sine is odd)

}
cos(≠◊) = cos(◊) (cosine is even) Give
these
you
tan(≠◊) = ≠ tan(◊)
formulas
(iii) addition formulas:
sin(– ± —) = sin – cos — ± cos – sin — mm
cos(– ± —) = cos – cos — û sin – sin — :*:
(iv) double angle formulas:
1-
sin 2◊ = 2 sin ◊ cos ◊
cos 2◊ = cos2 ◊ ≠ sin2 ◊ =2 cos2 ◊ final
(v) half angle formulas : exams
1
sin2 ◊ = (1 ≠ cos 2◊))
2
1
cos2 ◊ = (1 + cos 2◊))
2
AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 12 / 43
Sec 2.1: TRIGONOMETRIC Identities

LAW of SINES/COSINES
sin A sin B sin C
sines:
a = b = c
cosines: c2 = a2 + b2 ≠ 2ab cos(C)
a2 = b2 + c2 ≠ 2bc cos(A)
b2 = a2 + c2 ≠ 2ac cos(B)

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 13 / 43

K : Does the function fix ) -

-
Sink ) have an

AH0OT3
inverse function ? yes thx

(A) No

cc1Yes,butonluyinacertamdomair
(B) Yes I

(D) None of the above

iµ#sx
Ya

is It interval
f HI
-
-
Smx on

[ -
IT ,
IT ]
Sec. 1.4.5: Inverse Trig. Functions

ii
Y S X
'

I u
-

arcsin or sin≠1
y = sin x is 1-1 on ≠ fi2 Æ x Æ fi2 = six
sin x : [≠ fi2 , fi2 ] æ [≠1, 1]
) there exists an inverse function
y = sin≠1 x : [≠1, 1] æ [ fi2 , fi2 ]

arccos or cos≠1
y = cos x is 1-1 on [0, fi] "

cos x : [0, fi] æ [≠1, 1]

y = cos≠1 x : [≠1, 1] æ [0, fi]

÷÷
arctan or tan≠1
y = tan x is 1-1 on (≠ fi2 , fi2 ) .
tan x : (≠ fi2 , fi2 ) æ (≠Œ, Œ)
y = tan≠1 x : (≠Œ, Œ) æ (≠ fi2 , fi2 )
-
- -
-

I
- - - -
-
- -
- -

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 14 / 43

Sec 3.1: Limits

Sec 3.1.1: Limit of a sequence

DEF:
A sequence is a list of real numbers, written in a definite order:

u1 , u2 , u3 , ..., un , ...

could be written as {un } OR

a sequence is a real valued function with domain positive integers

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 15 / 43

 Consider the following defined as follows :
sequence

H
← Im →
✓
.

KANHAI
elevator
A
the
'

Q -
Does this man ever reach end of the

at Im ? Choose the BEST and most CORRECT ANSWER

Yes

E
AT

(B) No

Ccl Almost
of the above
(D) None
Sec 3.1.1: Limit of a sequence

: Define sequences by formulas:

EX (2.2) un = n+1
n
, n = 1, 2, 3, ... :
Ô
vn = n, n = 1, 2, 3, ... :
1

EX (2.3) Recursive relation: u1 = 2, un+1 = un

2
, n = 1, 2, 3, ...

Question: As n gets larger and larger ( or, as n approaches infinity (Œ) ),

what does sequence {un } in EX (2.2) and EX(2.3) "approach" or "get closer"
to some number?

SOL

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 16 / 43

Sec 3.1.1: Limit of a sequence

DEF
The limit of a sequence write

lim un = L …
næŒ

for every ‘ > 0, there exists a positive integer N such that if n Ø N , then
|un ≠ L| < ‘.

Notation:

un æ L as n æ Œ and say ”{un } converges to L". If un æ L, {un } is

convergent.
If {un } doesn’t converge, it is divergent, or we say the have limit does
not exist (DNE)) (or diverges)

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 17 / 43

Sec 3.1.1: Limit of a sequence

EX (2.4) Find limnæŒ n+1

3n+1
( and optional prove it)

SOL:

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 18 / 43

Sec 3.1.1: Limit of a sequence

FACTS!
limnæŒ un = L (un æ L), limnæŒ vn = K (vn æ K)

(a) limnæŒ (un + vn ) = L + K (un + vn æ L + K)

(b) limnæŒ (un vn )=L · K (un + vn æ L + K) and limnæŒ cun = cL for
any constant c
(c) limnæŒ un
vn
= L
K
, if K ”= 0. un
vn
æ L
K
(d) (Sandwich principle) {un }, {vn }, {wn } sequences with
(i) un Æ vn Æ wn and
(ii) limnæŒ un = limnæŒ wn = L
THEN limnæŒ vn = L

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 19 / 43

Sec 3.1.1: Limit of a sequence
EX (2.5). Find limits of following sequences:
3+5n2 6n5 ≠n4 +3n n2 +1
(a) an = n+n3 (b) n2 ≠3n3 +4n5 (c) n+2
SOL:

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 20 / 43

Sec 3.1.1: Limit of a sequence
n cos(n) Ô Ô
EX (2.6) (a) an = 1+n2
(b) an = n+2≠ n
SOL:

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 21 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS

LIMITS
Idea is FUNDAMENTAL to Calculus
The derivative and integral are defined in terms of a limit process

slope/tangent line=limit of slopes secant lines

area underneath curve=limit of sums of areas of rectangles

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 22 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS

DEF:
Let c œ R, Suppose f is defined on an open interval containing c but
*(not defined, necessarily, at c)*.

SAY: "f (x) has limit L at pt c", OR "the limit of f (x)

as x approaches c is L" and
WRITE: lim f (x) = L or f (x) æ L as x æ c
xæc

MEANS: For each Á > 0, there exists a ” > 0 such that

if 0 < |x ≠ c| < 8Á, then |f (x) ≠ L| < Á
INTUITIVELY: Means we can make f (x) as close as we are like to
L by taking x sufficiently close to c.
CAUTION: We never consider x = c in finding the limit of
f (x) as x æ c. Only values near x = c (but not
x = c) MATTER!!!

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 23 / 43

 ¥i÷
:
y a
" "
Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS
PICTURE
y
y = f (x)
L+Á

L
L≠Á
x
c≠” c c+”

y y y
(a) y = f (x) (b) y = f (x) (c) y = f (x)

L L L
x x x
c c c

In ALL 3 cases (a), (b), (c), lim f (x) = L!

xæc

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 24 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS

INTUITIVELY lim f (x) = L y

xæc y = f (x)
… An ant on the graph of y = f (x)
approaches c on the x-axis,
the height of the ant approaches L L
(without ant stepping on point x = c)!! x
c
FACTS ABOUT LIMITS

limxæc f (x) = L
Suppose
limxæc g(x) = M

(a) lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = L ± M

xæc

(b) lim [k · f (x)] = k · L, k œ R

xæc

(c) lim [f (x) · g(x)] = L · M

xæc

a
f (x) L
(d) lim = , provided M ”= 0
xæc g(x) M
(e) If p(x) a polynomial, then lim p(x) = p(c)
xæc

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 25 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS
EX (3.1): f (x) = 1 ≠ 2x, lim f (x) =
xæ1

Ô Ô
EX (3.2): f (x) = 4 ≠ x2 , lim f (x) = 4≠0=
xæ0

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 26 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS
x2 ≠ 3x + 5
EX (3.3): Find lim
xæ≠1 x≠4
SOL:

x2 ≠ 4
EX (3.4): Find lim
xæ2 x≠2
SOL:

;
x2 + 2 x ”= 2
EX (3.5): f (x) = . Find lim f (x)
8, x=2 xæ2

SOL:

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 27 / 43

 X -12 Xtz

f
'

f- KK X -

y
=
,

⇒ undefined , X=2

Graph ?

-
-
Sec 3.1.3 : Left and Right hand limits

DEF:
Left hand limit: 1
lim f (x) = L … "as x approaches c from left, f (x) æ L”
xæc≠

Right hand limit:

lim f (x) = L … "as x approaches c from right, f (x) æ L”
xæc+

FACT:

lim f (x) = L … lim f (x) = L = lim f (x)

xæc xæc≠ xæc+

i.e. limit exists and equals L …

both left & right hand limits exist and are equal.

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 28 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS
EX (3.6)

y = f (x)
3

≠2 1 x

≠2
Find lim f (x) and lim f (x)
xæ≠2 xæ1

SOL:

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 29 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS
;
x2 , x < 0
EX (3.7) f (x) = . Find lim f (x)
1 + x, x > 0 xæ0

SOL
-

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 30 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS
ΠLIMITS
1
EX (3.8) Find lim
xæ0 x2
y
1
y= x2

x
SOL:

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 31 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS
2
EX (3.9) For f (x) = , find a) lim f (x)
x≠5 xæ1
b) lim f (x)
xæ5

SOL:

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 32 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS
Ô
x2 + 9 ≠ 3
EX (3.10) Find lim
xæ0 x2
SOL:

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 33 / 43

Sec 3.1.4: SPECIAL LIMITS

SANDWICH PRINCIPLE

IF y

f (x) Æ g(x) Æ h(x)

lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L h(x)

xæc xæc
g(x)
Then lim g(x) = L f (x) x
xæc
c
ANT GETS SQUISHED!!

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 34 / 43

Sec 3.1.4: SPECIAL LIMITS

EX (3.11) Show lim x cos x = 0

xæ0

SOL:

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 35 / 43

Sec 3.1.4: SPECIAL LIMITS

2 IMPORTANT TRIG LIMITS

sin x 1 ≠ cos x
(i) lim =1 and (ii) lim =0
xæ0 x xæ0 x

(i) can be shown thru Sandwich principle (see textbook, p65-66)

(ii) For x ”= 0,
1 ≠ cos x 1 ≠ cos x 1 + cos x 1 ≠ cos2 x sin2 x
= · = =
x x 1 + cos x x(1 + cos x) x(1 + cos x)
sin x sin x
= ·
x3 (1 + cos43 x) 4
1 ≠ cos x sin x sin x 0
) lim = lim lim =0· =0
xæ0 x xæ0 x xæ0 1 + cos x 1+1

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 36 / 43

Sec 3.2: CONTINUITY

-"continuous" means without interruption or breaks

DEF
We say f is continuous at c if

lim f (x) = f (c) , c œ Dom(f )

xæc

y y

f cont. at x = c break at x = c
) not continuous

x x
c c

INTUITIVELY f (x) is cont. at x = c … An ant can walk accross x = c (from

left to right (or right to left)) WITHOUT jumping, skipping or falling the hole.

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 37 / 43

Sec 3.2: CONTINUITY

Facts about continuity

f , g are continuous at c.
(i) f ± g is continuous at c
(ii) f · g is continuous at c
(iii) f
g
is continuous at c if g(c) ”= 0
(iv) f ¶ g is continuous at c if f is is continuous at g(c)

EXAMPLES OF CONTINUOUS FCTS

Polynomials p(x) are continuous everywhere
P (x)
Rational functions f (x) = Q(x)
are continuous where Q(x) ”= 0
Trig. fcts y = sin x and y = cos x are continuous everywhere too.

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 38 / 43

Sec 3.2: CONTINUITY
EX (3.12) At which points are f continuous and discontinuous (not continuous)
y
4
3
2
1

≠5 ≠4 ≠3 ≠2 ≠1 1 2 x
≠1
≠2
SOL:

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 39 / 43

Sec 3.2: CONTINUITY
EX (3.13)
Y
]4x ≠ 3, x < 1
_
f (x) = 0, x = 1 . Is f continuous at x = 1?
[1,
_
x>1
x2
SOL:

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 40 / 43

Sec 3.2: CONTINUITY
FACTS
If f strictly ø and continuous on [a, b], then f ≠1 is also strictly ø and
continuous.

INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM (IVT)

IF
*f continuous on [a, b]*.
-
f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs.
THEN
there exists a point c œ (a, b) such that f (c) = 0 Ω c called a root or zero of f.

PICTURE

y y
f (b) f (a)

a c b x a c b x
f (a) f (b)

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 41 / 43

Sec 3.2: CONTINUITY

EX. (3.14) (APPLICATION OF IVT):

Show f (x) = 3x3 ≠ 4x2 + x ≠ 4 has a root in [1, 2].

SOL

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 42 / 43

Sec 3.2: CONTINUITY
1

3
EX. (3.15) f (x) = Any zeros of f (x) inside [≠1, 1]?
x
SOL

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 43 / 43

a