Faculty of engineering

Mechanical Engineering Dept.

Measurements

Instructor:
Dr. Mohamed Abdallah Bhlol
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering
Helwan University
 Faculty of engineering
Mechanical Engineering Dept.

Measurements

Chapter 4
The Accuracy of
Measurement Systems in
the Steady State
Dr. Mohamed Abdallah Bhlol
Topics
Determination of System Accuracy

Measurement error of a system of ideal elements

The error probability density function of a system of

non-ideal elements

Error reduction techniques

 Determination of System Accuracy

The accuracy of a measurement of a variable is the

closeness of the measurement to the true value of the
variable.

It is quantified in terms of measurement error E, i.e. the

difference between the measured value and the true value.

E = Measured value - True value

or E = System output - System input

 Measurement error of a system of ideal
elements
 For system with ideal elements:

Consider the system shown in Fig. below, consisting of n

elements in series. Suppose each element is ideal. i.e.
perfectly linear and not subject to environmental inputs.

If we also assume the intercept or bias is zero, i.e. a = 0,

then:
 Measurement error of a system of ideal
elements
 For system with ideal elements:

O = Ki . Ii

For i = 1, . . . , n, where Ki is the linear sensitivity or slope

I1  I
O1  K1 I1  K1 I I 2
O2  K 2 I 2  K 2K 1I  I 3
O3  K3 I 3  K 3K 2K 1I  I 4
and for the whole system:
O  On  K 1K 2K 3K 4K iK nI
 Measurement error of a system of ideal
elements
 For system with ideal elements:
If the measurement system is complete, then:

E O  I
 E  ( K 1K 2K 3K 4K iK nI )  I

 E  ( K 1K 2K 3K 4K iK n1) I

Thus if
K 1K 2K 3K 4K iK n 1
we have E = 0 and the system is perfectly accurate
 Measurement error of a system of ideal
elements
 For system with ideal elements:
For perfect system:

K 1K 2K 3K 4K iK n 1 E 0

Example 1:

Is the following system an ideal system?

 Measurement error of a system of ideal
elements
Solution:
Check the value of

( K1 . K 2 . K 3 . K 4 ...... K n )
40
( K1 . K 2 . K 3 )  1000 25
1000000
V V C
C V V
K  1
And thus appears to perfectly accurate
 Measurement error of a system of ideal
elements
Solution:
Actually, the system is not accurate because:
None of the three elements present is ideal.
The thermocouple is non-linear.
The output voltage of the amplifier is also affected by
changes in ambient temperature.
The sensitivity indicator depends on the stiffness of the
restoring spring in the moving coil assembly.

Thus the condition K1 K 2 K 3 = 1 is not satisfied and the

system is in error.
 The error probability density function of
a system of non-ideal elements
The most common cause
of lack of repeatability in the
output O is random
fluctuations with time in the
environmental inputs IM , II

If the coupling constants

KM, KI are non- zero then
there will be corresponding
time variations in O.

The most likely probability

density function for I, IM and
II is the normal or Gaussian
distribution function.
 The error probability density function of
a system of non-ideal elements
For imperfect system
Due to the non-linearity and environmental effects the
element will be not an Ideal element.

So the condition K 1K 2K 3K 4K iK n 1

E 0
To find error for an imperfect system:
 The error probability density function of
a system of non-ideal elements
For imperfect system
Mean values of element outputs:
I1  I
O1  K1 I1 a 1 N 1( I 1)  K M 1I M 1I 1 K I 1I I 1 I 2
O2  K2 I 2 a 2  N 2( I 2)  K M 2 I M 2I 2 K I 2 I I 2 I 3
O3  K3 I3 a 3  N 3( I 3)  K M 3I M 3I 3 K I 3I I 3 I 4

Oi  Ki Ii a i  N i( I i)  K M i I M i I i K I i I I i  I i1

O  On  K n I n a n  N n( I n)  K M n I M nI n K I n I I n
 The error probability density function of
a system of non-ideal elements
For imperfect system
Mean value of system error:
E O I
Standard deviations of element outputs:
 0 2
I1
O1 2 2 O1 2 O1 2 O1 2
 ( 2
)  I 1 ( )  I M (
2
)  I I (
2
)  K21 
I 1 I M 1 I I 1 K 1
O1 1 1

O 2 2 2 O 2 2 O 2 2 O 2 2
 O22 ( )  I 2 ( )  I M 2 ( )  I I 2 ( )  K 22 
I 2 I M 2 2
I I 2 2
K 2

O n 2 2 O n 2 O n 2 O n 2
 O n (
2
)  I n ( )  I Mn (
2
)  I I (
2
)  K 2n 
I n I M n I I n n
K n
 The error probability density function of
a system of non-ideal elements
For imperfect system
Standard deviation of system error:

 E O
Error probability density function:

1 1
p( E )  exp[  (E  E ) ]
2

 E 2 2 2
E
 The error probability density function of
a system of non-ideal elements
Example 2:

A temperature measurement system consists of a platinum

resistance temperature detector, a current transmitter, and a
recorder as shown in figure.

The following table gives the model equations, and

parameters for each element. Assuming that all probability
distributions are normal, calculate the mean and standard
deviation of the error probability distribution, when the input
temperature is 117 °C.
The error probability density function of
a system of non-ideal elements
 The error probability density function of
a system of non-ideal elements
Solution:
Mean values of element outputs:
For Platinum resistance temp. detector

R T R O (1   T   T ) 2

R T  100(1  (3.909117)  (5.897 107 1172 ))

R T  144.93
For current transmitter

i  KR T  K M R T T a K I T aa
 The error probability density function of
a system of non-ideal elements
Solution:
Mean values of element outputs:
4
i  (1.4134144.93)  (1.413410 144.93 10) 
2
(1.637 10   10)  (191.76)  13.04mA
For recorder
T M  Ki  a
T M  (1.875 13.04)  92.5  116.95o
C
Mean value of system error:
E T M T  116.95  117  0.05o
C
 The error probability density function of
a system of non-ideal elements
Solution:
Standard deviations of element outputs:
For Platinum resistance temp. detector
 T2 0
R T 2
 RT  (
2
)  R 0 39.4  10
2 4

R 0
For current transmitter

i 2 2 i 2 i 2 2
 (
2
)  RT  ( )  T a( )  a
2

RT T a a
i

4 4 2 2
 78.7 10 8.18 10 5.76 10  6.62 10
 The error probability density function of
a system of non-ideal elements
Solution:
For recorder

T M 2 2 T M 2 2
 T M (
2
)  i ( )  a 24.3  102

i a

Standard deviation of system error:

 E T  0.49 C
M
o
 Error reduction techniques
Compensation methods for non-linear and environmental
effects are:

1. Introducing a compensating non-linear element into the

system.

2. Isolation (i.e. to isolate the transducer from environmental

changes).

3. Zero environmental sensitivity.

4. Opposing environmental inputs (interfering and modifying)

5. Computer estimation of measured value

 Error reduction techniques
1. Introducing a compensating non-linear element
into the system.

Given a non-linear element, described by U(I), we need a

compensating element C(U), such that the overall
characteristics C[U(I )] of the elements together are as close
to the ideal straight line as possible.
 Error reduction techniques
For Example:
The use of a deflection bridge to compensate for the non-
linear characteristics of a thermistor.
 Error reduction techniques
2. Isolation

To isolate the transducer from environmental changes so

that effectively IM= II= 0.

Examples of this are the placing of the reference junction

of a thermocouple in a temperature-controlled enclosure,
and the use of spring mountings to isolate a transducer from
the vibrations of the structure to which it is attached.
 Error reduction techniques
3. Zero Environmental Sensitivity

To make the element completely insensitive to environmental

inputs, (i. e. KM= KI= 0).

An example of this is the use of a metal alloy with zero

temperature coefficients of expansion and resistance as a
strain gauge element.
 Error reduction techniques
4. Opposing environmental inputs (interfering)

By using two identical elements to measure the same

variable and subjected to the same environmental effects then
subtracting the outputs.

This tends to cancel the environmental effect in the final

Output.

This method is used for an element suffers from interfering

environmental effect.
 Error reduction techniques
4. Opposing environmental inputs (interfering)
The example for this technique is the differential opposing
system for strain gauge temperature compensation.

This system uses two matched strain gauges in adjacent

arms of a bridge to provide compensation for ambient
temperature changes. One gauge is measuring a tensile
strain +e and the other an equal compressive strain −e. The
bridge effectively subtracts the two resistances so that the
strain effect is doubled and the environmental effects cancel
out.
+
e

-e
 Error reduction techniques
4. Opposing environmental inputs (interfering)

Ki

+e +ek +
K +
+ek+TKi

+ +2ek
-
-ek+TKi
-e K -ek +
+

Ki

T
 Error reduction techniques
5.Compensating for modifying inputs and non-
linearity by using high-gain negative feedback
method

It Is used with an elements suffering from modifying

environmental effects, and also if the non linearity is
existed.

The force transducer is a very important example for this

case:
 Error reduction techniques
5.Compensating for modifying inputs and non-
linearity by using high-gain negative feedback
method
IM

KM

F
Fin + + + Vout
K KA
-
Sensing element High gain amplifier

FB KF
Feed back
 Error reduction techniques
5.Compensating for modifying inputs and non-
linearity by using high-gain negative feedback
method
•At first consider no modifying effect:

F  Fin  FB ……… I

Vout  F .K .K A ……… II

FB  Vout K F ………III

From I and III:

F  Fin  Vout K F ……… (1)

 Error reduction techniques
From II:
Vout
F  ……… (2)
K .K A
From 1, and 2:

Vout
 Fin  Vout . K F
K .K A
Vout
Fin   Vout . K F
K .K A

1
Fin  Vout (  KF )
K .K A
Error reduction techniques
1  K .K A .K F
Fin  Vout ( )
K .K A
K .K A
Vout  Fin ( )
1  K .K A .K F

If K .K A .K F  1
so the amplifier gain (KA) should be high gain

So 1  K .K A .KF  K .K A .KF
K .K A 1
 Vout  Fin ( )  Vout  Fin ( )
K .K A . K F
KF
 Error reduction techniques
Mathematically K F has the main effect on the Input –
Output relationship and [K, KA] has a little effect on the overall
sensitivity.

Finally the sensitivity of the high gain negative feed back is:

Vout 1
Senstivity  
Fin KF
•If the modifying effect is considered:

Only replace [K + Km Im] instead of [K] in the final equation.

[ K  K m I m ] .K A
Vout  Fin ( )
1  [ K  K m I m ].K A .K F
 Error reduction techniques
also

[ K  K m I m ] .K A .K F  1

finally

Vout 1 with the modifying

Senstivity   environmental
Fin KF effect

Only the Feedback sensitivity KF has the main effect on the

output value.