FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENT

BUILT (FKAAB)
BACHELOR IN CIVIL ENGINEERING WITH HONOURS

BFC 32002: HYDROLOGY

SEMESTER 2 (2020/2021)

SECTION 4

GROUP 1
FINAL PROJECT

LECTURER: DR. MOHD HAIRUL BIN KHAMIDUN

NO NAME MATRIC NO
1 HARYANTIE BINTI MOKSIN CF190065
2 NUR AFNI BINTI MOHD ALI AF180108

3 MUHAMMAD SHAHIR BIN FITRE CF190173

4 NUR DANISYAH BINTI ANUAR CF190042
5 MUHAMAD ZULHILMI BI ROSLI CF190121

DATE OF SUBMISSION: 4TH JUNE 2021

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

NO TITLE PAGE

1.0 INTRODUCTION 4

2.0 COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW 5

2.1 MEASUREMENT METHODS OF DETERMINING INFILTRATION
2.2 RAINFAL SIMULATOR
2.3 RING INFILTROMETER

3.0 SUMMMARY 12

4.0 RECOMMENDATION 13

5.0 CONCLUSION 14

6.0 REFERENCES 15

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 Abstract
Rate of infiltration is defined in a unit of meters per unit time. In other words, this rate is
investigating the water that move into soil besides the forces or even gradients value. Next, for
hydraulic conductivity defined as water seeping in terms of unit meters per day into soil with
condition gradient of hydraulic or gravity pull. Moreover, regarding the rate of infiltration, there
are several methods that can be used to measure it significantly. There are two main methods
that will be discovered in this investigation. Firstly, the rain simulator is one of infiltration
measurement method that use sprinklers of rainfall. These sprinklers used to conduct in two
separate erosion plots that have same position of slopes under the located land uses. Next, the
simple instrument of double ring infiltrometer. The determination of the infiltration rate is in the
unit water per surface area and unit time. This statement is genuinely same as the Law of Darcy.
These two methods have different in advantage and disadvantage and comparison need to be
made to see the better methods to be used technically.

Keywords: Rate of infiltration, hydraulic conductivity, rainfall stimulator, double ring

infiltrometer, Law of Darcy.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this era of globalization, the urban lakes have difficulties in management of water
quality as the nutrient cycling and hydrology have been altered hugely. This brought a great
impact the stability of environment and surroundings. As a basic knowledge it is known how
big the role of infiltration nowadays. One of the functions is to produce subsurface water and
surface runoff from surface water application. These two components are important as they
will supply water to the agriculture and become the ground water sources.

The capacity of infiltration is the maximum rate of where water entering and absorbed
into the soil. This rate also depending on the soil condition and surroundings. In order to see
this hydrology capacity performance, there are several methods that needed to be considered
and chosen as the most suitable method to measure the infiltration rate. There were both
different as in apparatus, procedure and time taken for completion of the whole method
accurately.
Basically, infiltration is part of the of the hydrologic cycle that become the most
important process of water movement on the earth. It will absorb water from any hydrologic
surface while some of it will evaporate to the atmosphere. This process will allow rain and
ground water storage to be happen. Naturally, these two main water sources were playing
important roles to the ecosystem as they supplied water for any biological and non-biological
microorganisms. A portion of water in this world not just falls as water but some of them are
also fall as snow and these elements will infiltrates into subsurface soil and rock.

In this report, discussion on the selected method to measure infiltration rate will be
made. The main focusing part is the efficiency of the method chosen together with the
physical and chemical impact of the methods toward the various type of ground. Besides, as
stated before, the procedure and apparatus will compare to find the best method among
other.Hydrology is a branch of science that investigates the availability and movement of
water in the earth, which also relates to the occurrence and distribution of natural water. In
studying hydrology, understanding other branches of science and engineering such as
mathematics, physics, statics, and geology will helps. A lot of problems induced with
hydrology can be solved such as water quality and contaminant transport. In order to solve
this, deep understanding on how water can be transported and converted might help.

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2.0 COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW

2.1 MEASUREMENT METHODS OF DETERMINING INFILTRATION

Butler (1959) mentioned that the measurement of infiltration rates and capacity cannot
be assumed or simply estimated precisely unless the estimation made are based on the field
work investigation that follow the several required condition. This is due to the significant
amount of variables that related to the infiltration process applied.

Several techniques have been developed and use for a long time in order to determine
the infiltration rates of the certain area. These methods were used according to the different
purposes and based on the accessibility of the certain facilities available. There are two main
alternatives methods that have been use in order to determine the infiltration rates that is;
1. Ring infiltrometers
2. Rain simulator method.

Generally, the measurement procedures are carried out on the soil in-situ, since the soil
structure is the main variables that control the rate of infiltration. Experiments that are
performed in the laboratory or the determination of soil infiltration from altered structures
usually give results that are significantly different from those that occur on fields.

2.2 RAINFALL SIMULATOR

Rainfall simulators are used in soil studies and hydrological science to study how soils
respond to rainwater. Rainfall simulator was a instrument that were creates to represent the
natural rainfall features and characteristics to the nearest possible. It is used to specify the
infiltration rate and it dependent rainfall and soil parameters. Rainfall simulator also has been
used as main instrument for research purposes in agricultures since centuries ago and also been
used as main instrument for research purposes in agriculture for centuries and also in various
studies of soil from determination of soil characteristics from different category such as
infiltration rates, surface runoff, storage water basin and erosion study. Natural rainfall is
difficult to use in experiments because the timing and intensity of rainfall itself cannot be
replicated. By using simulated rainfall events, studies such as soil erosion studies, surface
runoff, and leaching can be speed up.

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 The data that was obtained from this simulation is very important for the analysis of the
simulation process and input data for soil erosion modelling. The data obtained from this
simulation is very important to analyse the simulation process and enter the data for soil
erosion modelling. The rain simulator is also an excellent educational tool that allows students
to visually experience the hydrological processes and erosion that occur in natural landscapes.
According to its transportability, rainfall simulators are classified as indoor simulator where the
rain simulate and the modelling precipitation in a controlled environment or in laboratory scale
model while the outdoor simulator is a portable model and can be use for a large scale project.

2.2.1 RAINFALL SIMULATOR CLASSIFICATION

Generally, there are three classifications of rainfall simulator that is drip simulator, pressurised
nozzle and hybrid rainfall simulator.

1. Drip Simulator (DS) also known as drop former to produce drops of necessary size at
zero velocity. Drip simulator also defined as non-pressurised simulator because of the
impact velocity is attained by free fall. The diameters of the raindrop and kinetic energy
are determines by the drilled holes and drop heights. Drip simulator, is capable of
producing drops which ranges from 3 to 6 mm depending on the diameter holes and
able to produce large drops at low application rates is the main ability of drip simulator.

2. Pressured Simulator (PS) produces a drop distribution covering small and large
ranges of the drop measure with a non -zero initial velocity and a shock velocity similar
to the rain terminal velocity. High discharge nozzles are required to obtain a suitable
size droplet while maintaining a high velocity. Pressurized simulators can be used in the
field and their intensity can vary much more than the type of simulator that drop
forming simulator. In addition, the nozzle simulator has an initial velocity greater to
zero; it requires a shorter height to reproduce the terminal velocity obtained from
natural infiltration and this simulator is more portable compared to drop former.

3. Hybrid Type Simulator uses the principles of pressurised and drip former technique of
simulation incorporated together. The results varied based on the aperture of the meshes
employed. Conclusively, the hybrid simulator was noted as suitable tools to assessing
erodibility of different types of soils.

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2.2.2 DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF SIMULATED RAIN

It is desirable that all physical characteristics of natural rainfall need to be made as accurate as
possible, but some latitudes may be acceptable for the sake of simplicity and cost. There are
main features that need to be considerate for the rain simulator such as:

1. Drop size. Raindrops vary from minute droplets in the fog to a maximum diameter of 6
or 7 mm. This is the physical upper limit for the drop measurement and above this each
droplet formed from the aggregation of more than one droplet is unstable and will split
into smaller droplets. The average drop diameter by volume is between 2 and 3 mm and
varies in intensity, as shown in Figure 1.0.

Figure 1.0
2. The droplets distribution with various sizes. Cyclone rainfall in temperate climates
mainly consists of small and average size drops, but high-intensity thunderstorms have
a large proportion of droplets.

3. Fall velocity. The falling raindrops reach a maximum velocity (or terminal) when the
force of gravitational acceleration is equated with the resistance of the falling raindrops
through the air. The terminal velocity is a function of the size of the decrease and
increases to about 9 m/s for the largest drops, as shown in Figure 2.0.

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 Figure 2.0
4. Kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of a moving body, and the kinetic energy
of rain is the sum of the kinetic energy of each drop. Kinetic energy is a function of the
measurement and speed of the fall velocity and is often used as a desired parameter for
simulators because it is known that kinetic energy is closely related to the ability of rain
to cause erosion. Rainfall intensity is not related to average annual rainfall-dry or semi-
arid rainfall can reach intensities as high as in the humid tropics, although it is rare
thing to happen.

5. Rainfall intensity or rate of rainfall. The intensity or rate of rainfall can vary rapidly in
natural rainfall, but it is usually not practical or necessary to develop a rainfall
simulator the ability to change the intensity during testing. Usually select and design for
a single intensity value, for example 25 mm / h to simulate moderate rainfall, or 75
mm/h for tropical or semi-arid rainfall. Usually to select and design for a single
intensity value, a setting will be specified for example 25 mm / h to simulate moderate
rainfall, or 75 mm / h for tropical or semi-arid rainfall.

6. Uniformity. Uniformity of rainfall distribution in the test plots is highly expected, it is

required to have the same distribution with the real rain.
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2.3 RING INFILTROMETER

2.3.1 SINGLE RING AND DOUBLE RING

The single ring and double-ring techniques are the most regularly utilized soil infiltration rate
measuring techniques. These two methods are fairly similar in theory. The equipment and
apparatus, limits, advantages and disadvantages of these two methods are explained below. The
single ring procedure normally employs a ring with a diameter of 30 cm or a bit bigger and a
height of 20 cm. The double ring approach employs an outside ring of 60 cm in diameter and
the same height as an inside ring in the middle, which is the same as the one-ring approach.
These two rings must be sturdy enough to stand without deformation in the soil. The single
ring and double-ring devices are given in Figures 3a and 3b, respectively.

a. Single ring b. Double ring

Figure 3.0 Single ring and double ring method device

The single ring method is performed in the same way as the double ring method, but the
outer ring is not employed to assure the vertical water passage from the inner ring, which
significantly decreases the horizontal leakage in the single ring technique. In the double-ring
method, the rings are thoroughly driven into the ground 10 cm deep, preventing the soil surface
being disturbed concentrated. The heights of the two rings should be nearly the same over the
surface of the earth. Water is supplied concurrently within the two rings and 5-cm depth of
water is maintained through the whole experiment. In order to maintain a constant head of
water, the water volume provided on the inner ring is recorded as a time function and then
utilized for the calculation of infiltrability. The average soil infiltration rate for a particular
period is measured by the amount of water provided to the inner ring separated by the internal
ring area.
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 The basic experimental apparatus and the basic mathematical model allow both these
approaches to be adapted readily to the field settings.

The ring approach has various drawbacks. The early phase of soil infiltration is
probably hampered by inadequate water availability. As explained above, the soil infiltration
process is regulated by the inflow rate rather than the actual initial soil infiltration. A very high
flow rate of water should be injected within a short time when the infiltration process begins to
keep the water within the rings deep. Furthermore, fast soil surface weathering happens with
such high flow rates, which is likely to affect the disintegration of surface soil aggregates
owing to slaking that might accelerate the sealing of soil surface that substantially reduces soil
infiltrability. When double rings are driven into the earth, the soil structure is also disturbed.
The initial soil infiltrability may be extremely difficult to quantify with either the double ring
or the single ring approach. The ring methods are also not applicable on a sloping soil surface.

Procedures on how to measure using the method of double-ring infiltrometer:

1. Choose a suitable location to conduct the infiltration test and make sure that the
site chosen are not a very soft soil or a very hard soil. Remove any obstruction
such as stone, branches away from the site.

2. Place the 30cm diameter stainless steel ring. Insert the ring 5cm submerged into
the soil by using rubber hammer. Use timber to protect the stainless-steel ring
from any damage during hammering process.

3. Repeat step 2 using different size of stainless-steel ring with the diameter of
60cm, submerged with the same height as the 30cm diameter stainless steel ring
into the soil.
4. The ruler must attach to the inner ring and zero level must be exactly on the ground
surface.
5. The ruler must attach to the inner ring and zero level must be exactly on the ground
surface.

6. Record the time by using stopwatch and record the water level by using the ruler.

7. Record the level of water for every 3 minutes.

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 8. Then, pour the water into the inner ring until the depth is approximately 150mm.
Then, pour the water at the space between the rings with the same depth.

Figure 4

2.3.1 DOUBLE RING METHOD (MARIOTTE)

The apparatus employed in the Mariotte-double-ring technique is made up of two main

parts: a cumulative infiltration measuring device consisting of a Mariotte flash and modified
double rings and a gamma ray detector, consisting of a radioactive source, detector and tube for
soil water content measurement.

The following are the main concepts of the Mariotte double-ring approach. The
Mariotte bottle and the twin ring system manage the delivery of water to the inside ring. This
enhances water supply accuracy throughout the studies. The gamma ray detector is used to
monitor changes in the soil water content over time. A comparison of the cumulative
infiltration and the distribution of the water content using the mass balance principle estimates
the relative inaccuracy.

The double ring process Mariotte enhanced the precision of the double ring technique.
In addition, the real-time distribution of the water content may be studied throughout the
experiment to assess the relative inaccuracy of the experiment. However, the faults in the Dual-
Ring Mariotte technique include that the experimental equipment for field experiments is
somewhat sophisticated and costly. This approach does not solve issues related to the double-
ring approach such as limiting it to soil-level surfaces and disturbing the basic structure of the
soil. The possible threat experienced by employing the radioactive gamma ray source is also a
big worry for operator health and safe.

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3.0 SUMMARY

The ring infiltrometer is a simple instrument for determining the rate of water penetration
into the soil. The amount of water per surface area and time unit that penetrates the soils
determines the infiltration rate.

Based on the measurements and Darcy's law, this rate can be determined. Multiple
measurements can be carried out at the same time, resulting in a very accurate and precise
mean result. Water that has been penetrated vertically rushes away to the side. The
infiltrometer's outer ring acts as a separator. The water streams almost vertically into the inner
ring, which is where the measuring takes place.

It is critical to consider numerous elements that may influence the measurement,

including surface vegetation, the extent to which the soil has been compacted, soil moisture
content, and soil layers, in order to produce good measuring findings (strata).

Rainfall simulators can be used to evaluate soil infiltration rates. In hydrology, a rainfall
simulator is used to examine how the soil reacts to rainfall. The study of erosion, surface
runoff, and leaching is considerably accelerated by using simulated rainfall events. This
method can be used to investigate the infiltration of rainwater into the soil. This method can
also be used to examine the impacts of precipitation. In general, relatively high initial soil
infiltrability cannot be measured.

The capacity to swiftly take many measurements without needing to wait for rain. The
ability of this method to work with continual controlled rain, which eliminates natural rain's
random and unpredictable unpredictability. Setting up a simulator over existing cropping
treatments is frequently faster and easier than establishing treatments on runoff plots.

Simulator testing on tiny plots cannot be generalized to field settings for runoff and
erosion. They are best used for comparisons, such as determining which of three cropping
regimens suffers the least erosion under the simulator test's specific conditions or comparing
relative erodibility values of different soil types. Wind is likely to impact simulators but having
to install windshields negates the benefit of simplicity.

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4.0 RECOMMENDATION

The recommendation for the rain simulator data method is must start with defining the
information is required. Some purpose might be a helpful with the help of rain simulator but
can be unsuitable for other. To choose the most suitable method the objective will play the
important role. In some studies of infiltration, it is not necessary for the simulated precipitation
to have the same characteristics as natural rain while other researches might need the same
characteristics of natural rain to study the erosion processes. The rain infiltrometer has a few
recommendations that need to comply where the researcher need to be kept of placement as
limited as possible so its is not disturb the top layer soil properties. If the horizontal insertion of
the infiltration ring and if the driving is not successful, a stone or a root might impede the
process. The methods to solve this method is by choosing another spot for measuring.

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5.0 CONCLUSION

Based on the data above there are a few ways of infiltration measurement method in the
field. As mention there are two method of infiltration bis review in the data above that is rain
simulator data and ring infiltration that obtain from 10 years recent research.

The first method is rain simulator data that is used to study the reaction of soil when it
come in contact with the rainfall precipitation. The study as proven that this method could
increase the study speed of soil erosion and surfaces runoff.

The other method that reviews by this report is the ring infiltrometer. The ring
infiltrometer is the infiltration that used to study the field saturated hydraulic conductivity of
the soil surfaces. The ring infiltrometer method in the research has be known for its suitability
for almost all type of soil with the excluded of clogging soils and soil that has steep slopes.

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6.0 REFERENCES

1. Ward, R.C. & M. Robinson, 1990. Principles of Hydrology. McGraw-Hill Book

Company, London.
2. Bouwer, H., 1986. Intake rate: cylinder infiltrometer. In: methods of soil analysis, part
I. Physical and mineralogical methods. Agronomy Monograph no. 9 (2nd ed.). Am.
Soc. of Agronomy, Soil Sc. Soc. of America

3. Adnan, M. S., Anuar, M. A. M., Nda, M., & Rahmat, S. N. (2017). Investigation of
Infiltration Rate onSoft Claythat Affecting the Ponding Time. In MATEC Web of
Conferences (Vol. 103, p. 04021). EDP Sciences.

4. Musa, S., Rahmat, S. N., Md Ali, Z., Mohd Arish, N. A., Wan Mohamed, W. A.,
Baharuddin, M. F. T. (2020). BFC 32002 Hydrology. UTHM Publisher.

5. UMS. (2016, November 16). WHY UMS. Retrieved from University Malaysia Sabah:
https://www.ums.edu.my/v5/en/about/why-ums

6. Balliette, J. F., K. C. McDaniel, and M. K. Wood. 1986. Infiltration and sediment

production following chemical control of sagebrush in New Mexico. J. Range Mgmt.
39(2): 160‐165.
7. J. J. Stone, G. B. Paige, R. H. Hawkins, Rainfall Intensity‐Dependent Infiltration Rates
On Rangeland Rainfall Simulator Plots.
https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/download/14189/PDF
8. Philip, J.R., (1957) “The Theory of Infiltration: 1. The infiltration equation and its
solution, Soil Science., 83: pp 345-357.
9. Sherman, L. K., and Musgrave,G.W. (1949) “ Methods of measuring infiltration” [In:
Hydrology, Ed. : Meinzer, O.E.J. , Dover Publication Inc., , New York,pp. 712.
10. Adaras, J.E., D. Kirkham & D. Nielsen, 1957. A portable rainfall simulator-
infiltrometer and physical measurements of soil in place. Proceedings Soil Science
Society of America 21: 473-477.
11. Horton, Robert E. (1933). "The Role of Infiltration In The Hydrologic Cycle".
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227686824_Robert_E_Horton's_perceptual_
model_of_infiltration_processes

12. Bouwer H. Intake rate: Cyliner infiltrometer. In: Klute A, ed. Methods of Soil
Analysis, Part 1. Physical and Mineralogical Methods. Am Soc Agron Madison, WI.

1986; 760－784.
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13. Dixon R M. Design and use of closed-top infiltrometers. Soil Science Society of America
Proceedings. 1975; 39, 755－ 763.

14. Topp G C, Zebchuk W D. A closed adjustable head infiltrometer. Canadian Agricultural

Engineering. 1985; 27, 99－104.

15. Mohd Shalahuddin, M. A. (2017). Investigatiin of Infiltration Rate on Soft Clay that
Affecting the Ponding Time.

16. Eijelkamp (2021). “Field Measurement Equipment”

https://en.eijkelkamp.com/products/field-measurement-equipment/rainfall-
simulator.html

17. SDEC (2021). “Double Ring Infiltrometer for Soil”

https://www.sdec-france.com/double-ring-infiltrometer-for-soil-science.html

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 MINUTE OF MEETING
HYDROLOGY (INFILTRATION MEASUREMENT PROJECT)
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING & BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Date: 7th May 2021

Time: 1100 hrs- 1200hrs
Venue: Google Meet

Member Presents:

1. Nur Shafiqah binti Abdullah

2. Haryantie binti Moksin
3. Muhamad Zulhilmi bin Rosli
4. Nur Afni Binti Mohd Ali
5. Muhammad Shahir bin Fitre

AGENDA ITEMS
1.0 Appoint a secretary of the group for
correspondence purposes
2.0 Discussion on the project.
3.0 Tasks divided among the group members to
resolve.
 MINUTE OF MEETING
HYDROLOGY (INFILTRATION MEASUREMENT PROJECT)
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING & BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Date: 28th May 2021

Time: 1100 hrs- 1200hrs
Venue: Google Meet

Member Presents:

1. Nur Shafiqah binti Abdullah

2. Haryantie binti Moksin
3. Muhamad Zulhilmi bin Rosli
4. Nur Afni Binti Mohd Ali
5. Muhammad Shahir bin Fitre

AGENDA ITEMS
1.0 Discussion of the progress of the hydrology
project.
2.0 Discussion on the issues, risks and delay time
of the ongoing plan.
3.0 Tasks divided among the group members to
resolve.

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