HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

MEANING AND DEFINITION OF HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

What is Human Resource Planning?

The acquisition of people to perform each job within the organization is the role of the staffing function.
This function is interrelated closely with planning, because human resource needs must be forecasted
sufficiently in advance to enable qualified individuals to be available for job openings as they occur.
Human resource planning, therefore, is the process of systematically reviewing human resource
requirements to ensure that the required number of employees, with the required skills, is available
when they are needed (Mondy & Noe, 1990). Human resource planning, also known as workforce
planning, is the systematic process of matching the internal and external supply of people with
anticipated job openings over a specific period of time. It is a means of deciding the number and type of
personnel that organization needs now and in the future. Then, translates the organization's objectives
into the number of employees required to meet those objectives. Without clear-cut planning estimation
of human resource need is reduced to mere guesswork.

To ensure that people are available to provide the continued smooth development, organizations engage
in human resource planning. The purpose of developing human resource planning is to asses where the
organization is, where it is going, and what implications these assessments have on future supplies of
and demands of human resource. Attempts must then be made to match supplies and demands, making
them compatible with the achievement of the organization's future needs.

THE IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

Organizations are composed of financial, material and human resources. Of these human resource
represents one of the organization's most valuable assets. However, because the organization does not
own people, as it does physical and capital assets, this resource is seldom given proper attention.
Its supply of personnel must be sufficient to ensure the healthy operation of the organization. Toward
this objective of continuing healthy operations, the organization needs to be undertaken human resource
planning. Human resource planning, according to Chatterjee (1995), therefore:
- assumes a crucial role in the future success or failure of an organization.
- enables a manager to predict his/her manpower requirements, to determine the deployment of
personnel and to control wage and salary costs.
- provides management information about the existing strength and weaknesses of the people in
the organization.
- assesses the kinds of skills required to be developed as well as recruited.
- estimates human resource requirements over a specified time frame in relation to the
organization's goals. Provides an indication of the lead-time that is available to evolve new
strategies in selecting and training the required additional manpower or reducing the strength of
the workforce.

In general, the following are the major reasons for undertaking human resource planning.
1. Future Human Resource Requirements
Planning is vital for determining the human resource needs for the future.

2. Cope With Change

Human resource planning enables the management to cope with changes in technology,
competitive forces, markets, government regulations, etc. Such changes often generate changes
in job content, skill demands, number and types of personnel.
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 3. Decreasing or Increasing Growth of Organizations
The manner, the pace and the direction in which an organization is growing dictates the need for
a human resource plan. Years of comfortable growth may give rise to slower growth prospects
or even reduced growth prospect (Chatterjee, 1995).

4. Foundation for Human Resource Functions

The plan provides essential information for designing and implementing human resource
functions such as recruitment, selection, employee mobility (transfers, promotions, lay-off, etc.)
and training and development.

In general, human resource planning:

- Should be planning - something done in advance rather than just as a spur-of-the-moment
reaction to immediate pressure.
- Should guide and coordinate all personnel activities so that they work together to support
the overall strategy rather than operate independently of one another.
- Should be responsive to both the external and the organization environment.
- Should be strategic - linked with high level planning rather than performed in isolation
(Scarpello & Ledvinka, 1995).

THE HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING PROCESS /STEPS IN HUMAN RESOURCE

PLANNING

Planning for human resource should be tied in with overall long-term organizational plan. In other
words, after organizational strategic plans have been formulated, human resource planning can be
undertaken. Strategic plans are reduced to specific quantitative and qualitative human resource plans
(Mondy & Noe, 1990). Many organizations carry out systematic planning only for those categories of
personnel, which have been in short supply or for those types of skills which require a long development
time within the organization. This being as it is, most organizations identify short term and long-term
human resource needs by examining their strategic plan.

As can be seen in the figure (Mondy & Noe, 1990) next page, below, the human resource planning has
two components. These are requirements and availability. Forecasting human resource requirements
involves determining the type and number of people needed in an organization.

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 EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
INTERNAL ENVIRORNMENT

Strategic Planning

Human Resource Planning

Forecasting Comparison of Forecasting

Human Resource Requirements Human Resource
Requirements and Availability Availability

Demand Surplus of Shortage of

Supply Workers Workers

Recruitment

Restricted Hiring
Reduced Hours,
No action Early Retirement
Layoff Selection

The Human Resource Planning Process

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These projections will reflect various factors, such as development plans in government organizations
where as production plans in business firms. Forecasting human resource availability involves
identifying both the internal sources and external sources. It is important here to not that one of the
major objectives of human resource planning is to enable the organization not be understaffed or
overstaffed. Thus, it is the responsibility of the management to compare requirements and availability
to determine whether there will be a surplus or shortage of employees. If a surplus is projected, then,
the organization must use different employee reduction methods, such as early retirements, restricted
hiring, dismissal, etc. On the other hand, if shortage is predicted, the organization must obtain the right
type and number of people from the labor market through recruitment and selection.

Although there is no universally accepted set of procedures for undertaking human resource planning
process, there is a general agreement upon the major processes and contents of human resource planning
as illustrated below.

Organizational Current Forecasting Implementation Audit

Goals & Plans Human Human Programs &
Resource Resource Adjustment
Steps in the Human Resource Planning Process.

Organizational Goals and Plans

Human resource planning is a part of the strategic planning for the entire organization. Moreover, to
be relevant, a human resource planning process should be clearly tied to the organization's strategic
goals (Mondy & Noe, 1990). For example, a business firm Human Resource Manager and his staff can
not make operational plans, unless they have information about sales forecasts, market trends,
technological advances, organizational expansion, and the like.

The organizational goals are the result of its strategic planning. Different kinds of public or business
plans can be designed ahead for different number of years. Some organizations plan ten to twenty years
ahead. Such long range planning by organizations is an exception. Most organizations plan only for the
fairly short run of say one to five years. Generally speaking, however, human resource planning for up
to one year is considered short range and is widely practiced in many organizations. On the other hand,
planning for two to four years is considered medium range and planning for five years and beyond is
long-range.

Current Human Resource Situation

The second phase of the planning process is the preparation of an inventory of human resource within
the organization. This is often called human resource inventory or a manpower information system.
The inventory consists of up-to-date information concerning each employee's knowledge, skills and
abilities. It enables management to assess the type and number of employees available in the
organization. Moreover, a summary of this sort gives planners a comprehensive understanding of the
capabilities that are to be found in the organization's workforce (Werther & Davis, 1996).

The inventory or employee information has several important uses. The major ones are:
- It enables to compare the number, types and skills specified by the forecast with the present
baseline.
- It enables to ascertain what skills must be developed from the current personnel, via training.
- It enhances the opportunities for employees to satisfy their career aspirations through
promotion and development.
- It enables to reconcile human resource demand with supply.

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Human resource inventory includes job classifications, age, gender, organizational level, rate of pay,
and functions. It may also include resume date, skill, education, training received, and career interest
(Mondy & Neo, 1990). This manpower information can be collected, stored and retrieved manually by
means of filing system in small organizations, where as computerized system is practically a must for
the larger organizations that wish to handle employee information for many years.

This step enables planners to evaluate the status of current human resources. What skills, interests, and
experiences of current employees have? What jobs are being done? How many employees are doing
particular jobs? Current employees are the most likely candidates to meet future needs and should be
the first ones considered for new positions (Baird, 1990).

Human Resource Forecast

Human resource forecasts are attempts to predict an organization's future demand for employees
(Werther & Davis, 1996). It is a determination of the demand for employees for given time periods in
the future such as one, three and five years. The forecast also requires the preparation of an estimate of
the supply of people who will be available for the selected time period. The supply is composed of two
main parts. There are:
- an estimate of the numbers and types of personnel presently on the payroll.
- The portion which must be recruited externally.

These figures for the planning period are obtained by subtracting the current available manpower from
the projected demand. If the figures are positive, employees will have to be recruited, selected and
hired; if the figures show negative, employees may eventually have to be laid off.

The demand forecast is an estimate of types and numbers of personnel the organization will require in
the future. It is derived from goals and plans. For example, the public organization's goals and plans
should provide the human resource planners with information on such factors as projected social
service, development activities, number of population to be served, new bureaus or departments to be
created, and the like.

Generally, human resource planners must use several techniques of forecasting manpower requirement
and availability. Some of the techniques available are qualitative and quantitative in nature.

Human Resource Forecasting Techniques.

Forecasting technique range from judgment to sophisticated quantitative models. The most commonly
used techniques of forecasting are:
 Judgment and Experience
 Zero-Base Forecasting
 Bottom-up Approach
 Work Standard Data
 Key Predicative Factors.

Judgment and Experience

This method is based on the estimates made by people like executives or experts who are very familiar
with the entire nature of the jobs in the organization. It is appropriate for short-range forecasts. The
manager and heads of various units of the organization make estimates of future human resource
requirements by judgmentally converting information on future organizational activities into numbers
and types of personnel needed. For example, these activities in public organization may include
services to be provided, population to be served, projects to be completed, etc.
Zero-Base Forecasting
The zero-base forecasting approach uses the organization's current level of employment as the starting
point for determining future staffing needs (Mondy & Noe, 1990). Whenever vacancies exist due to
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retirement, layoff, death, or resignation, the vacant positions are not immediately filled. Instead,
personnel requirement analysis is made to determine whether the organization can justify filling them.
The same procedure is followed when organizations create new positions. Zero-base human resource
forecasting, therefore, requires management at different levels to thoroughly study and analysis their
human resource needs.

Bottom-up Approach
In bottom-up approach, managers from various levels are asked to contribute to employment
forecasting. It has the advantage of drawing many managers into the process and giving them a sense
that they are participating in one of the important activities of the organization. Here, unit managers
send their employment needs forecasting proposals to the top management who compare these with the
plan and finalize them. According to Mondy and Noe (1990), human resource forecasting is often most
effective when managers periodically project their human resource needs, comparing their current
and anticipated levels, and giving the human resource department adequate lead time to explore internal
and external source.

Work Standard Data

Another means of forecasting human resource requirements is to use work measurement standard.
This is a means of determining the relationship between tasks and the number of employees needed to
perform the tasks. In this case many organizations have established data for man-hours or unit times to
perform tasks. According to Chatterjee (1995), the technique is useful only in cases where the volume
of work can be satisfactorily quantified, total production and activities in terms of clear units are
estimated and the number of man hours required to perform/ produce each unit is carefully calculated.

The total projected units of work for the organization are translated into man-hours or man-days and
the number and type of employees by using the pre-established time standards. However, work
standard technique cannot be applied for estimating professional personnel requirements. For this,
judgment, experience and managerial intent are some of the major determinants of how many and what
types of employees are needed.

Key Predictive Factors

The core element of the "key predictive factors" method is to identify one major indicator with which
total human resource requirement correlates highly. For example, one of the useful predictors of
academic staff employment levels in the Arbaminch University is the number of students to be served.
Moreover, to identify predictor variables, the manpower planning office of business organization must
examine several variables such as sales volume, units produced, or number of customers served to find
which variable or variables provides a good correlation between the number and type of employees
needed.

Implementation Programs
After the optimal alternative for addressing the organization's human resource issues has been chosen, it
is translated into operational programs with specific plans, target dates, schedules, and resource
commitments (Mondy & Noe, 1990). The implementation phase of the human resource planning
requires translating the plan into action. For example, if a shortage of accountants in Region 5 has
been forecasted and if the plans reveal, both recruitment plus upgrading of the present accounting talent,
then both recruitment and training programs will have to be strengthened and expanded. The following
are the major implementation actions.

Recruitment and Selection

The analysis of human resource requirements indicates a shortage of specific skills such as
accountants, economists, administrators and the like. In such case, the human resource manager must

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examine both the internal and the external sources of supply, and then efforts must be made to attract
the best-qualified candidates to the organization.

Most experts are agreed that the search for manpower must always begin within the organization where
a thorough check on the quantity and quality of existing employees can be made to yield a manpower
audit. The organization itself is a captive source and when the qualifications, experiences and capacities
of manpower within is known, offering them new avenues and openings can act as powerful incentives
(Chatterjee, 1995).

After analyzing the internal human resource availability, the organization will have to examine the labor
market. Recruiting new personnel from the open labor market can be costly and complicated process
that has a strong impact on organizational effectiveness. In order to acquire the best-qualified people,
organizations must have a good policy to ensure that employment conditions are sufficiently attractive.
Once a pool of potential applicants has been developed there is a need to assess this pool to predict
which candidates will assist the, organization in the attainment of its objectives if selected. Here,
employee selection refers to the development of policies and procedures, and evaluating potential
employees in terms of job specification. It is a means of determining, which people best meet the needs
of the organization.

Audit and Adjustment

Human resource planning requires considerable time, personnel, and financial resources. The return on
this investment may not justify the expenditure for small firms. Increasingly, however, large
organizations use human resource planning as a means of achieving greater effectiveness (Werther &
Davis, 1996). For any of various reasons, the human resource programs for meeting the desired targets
may be falling short of organizational objectives. A system for evaluating and measuring progress
should be set up. Many systems of measurement can be used depending upon the specific program
being evaluated.

Moreover, another reason for reviewing progress is to check if changes in the human resource plans are
made necessary, because of changed circumstances or because of the original planning has been proven
wrong.

FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

HRP is influenced by several considerations:

 Type and strategy of organization
The type of organization is an important consideration because it determines the production processes
involved, number and type of staff needed, and the supervisory and managerial personnel required.
Manufacturing organizations are more complex in this respect than those that render services. The
strategic plan of the organization defines the organization’s HR needs. For example, a strategy or
organic growth means that additional employees must be hired. Acquisitions or mergers, on the other
hand, probably mean that the organization will need to plan for layoffs, since mergers tend to create,
duplicate or overlapping positions that can be handled more efficiently with fewer employees.
 Organizational growth cycles and planning
The stage of an organization’s growth can have considerable influence on HRP. Small organizations in
the embryonic stage may not have personnel planning. Need for planning is felt when the organization
enters the growth stage. HR forecasting becomes essential.
 Environmental uncertainties
Personnel planners deal with environmental uncertainties by carefully formulating recruitment,
selection, and training and development policies and programs.

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  Time horizons
Yet another major factor affecting personnel planning is the time horizon. On one hand, there are short
term plans spanning six months to one year. On the other hand, there are long term plans which spread
over three to twenty years. The exact time span, however, depends on the degree of uncertainty
prevailing in an organization’s environment.

 Type and quality of forecasting information

The information used to forecast personnel needs originates from a multitude of sources. A major issue
in personnel planning is the type of information which should be used in making forecasts. Closely
related to the type of information is the quality of data used. Generally speaking, organizations
operating in a stable environment are in a better position to obtain comprehensive, timely and accurate
information because of longer planning horizons, clearer definition of strategy and objectives and fewer
disruptions.

 Nature of jobs being filled

Personnel planners must consider the nature of jobs being filled in the organization. Job vacancies arise
because of separations, promotions and expansion strategies. It is easy to employ shop-floor workers,
but a lot of sourcing is required for hiring managerial personnel.

 Outsourcing
Outsourcing of non-critical activities through subcontracting or ancillarisation determines HRP.

Review and Discussion Questions

1. What is human resource planning? Why is it necessary?
2. Human resource represents one of the organization's most valuable assets-Discuss.
3. Describe the major importance of human resource planning.
4. Briefly describe the human resource planning process.
5. In what way human resource planning interact with the organizational strategic plan?
6. Suppose you as administrative head or region 5 and HR department head estimated that because
of several technological innovations your region will need 25 percent fewer employees in the
coming three years. What actions should you recommend to be taken today?
7. As a human resource planning head in region 6 what actions should you recommend if there are
employees shortage:
- Too many employees in financial area.
- Too few employees in administrative area.
8. What are the purposes of inventory or employee information system?
9. What is the distinction between supply and demand forecast?
10. Identify and discuss the commonly used methods of forecasting future employment
requirements.
11. Describe the implementation phase of human resource planning.
12. Explain the main uses of performance appraisal, promotion, transfer, layoff, and retirement in
human resource planning.
13. Explain the necessity of human resource audit.
14. Identify the factors affecting HRP and briefly describe how they affect it.

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 Job Analysis

Job Analysis

A job in an organization is created when tasks, duties and responsibilities justify

hiring of one or more people for accomplishing the organizational purposes. A Job
according to Mondy and Noe (1990) consists of a group of tasks that must be
performed for an organization to achieve its goals. A job may need the services of one
individual, such as that of the Prime Minister or the services of ten or more, as might
be the case with ministers in a country. In a work group consisting of an auditor,
two chief accountants, and three accounting clerks, there are a total of three jobs
and six positions. A position is the collection of tasks and responsibilities performed
by one person; there is a position for every individual in an organization (Mondy &
Noe, 1990). If a job is so fundamentally important in an organization, what then is a
job analysis?

Job analysis is the systematic process of determining the skills, duties and
knowledge required for performing jobs in an organization (Mondy & Noe, 1990). It is
an important human resource techniques and is also a method that enable to obtain
information regarding jobs available in the organization.

The major purpose of job analysis is to provide answers to the following six important
questions ( Mondy & Noe, 1990).
1. What physical and mental tasks does the worker accomplish?
2. When is the job to be completed?
3. Where is the job to be accomplished?
4. How does the worker do the job?
5. Why is the job done?
6. What qualifications are needed to perform the job?

Job analysis is a procedure used to determine:

- tasks, duties and responsibilities
- the relationships of one job to other jobs
- the working conditions
- the qualifications needed for each job.
The job facts are gathered, analyzed and recorded with respect to the job as it exists.
Moreover, job analysis is conducted after the job has been designed, the necessary
training has been given to the employees to perform job. According to Mondy & Noe,
1990, job analysis is performed on three different occasions. These are:
1) It is done when the organization is founded and a job analysis program
is initiated for the first time.
2) It is performed when new jobs are created
3) It is used when jobs are changed significantly as a result of new
technology, methods, procedures, or systems.

In most cases, job analysis is carried out because of changes in the nature of jobs.
It is used to prepare both job descriptions and job specifications. The job
description is a written statement that explains the title, duties, responsibilities,
working conditions, and other aspects of a specified job. Job specification, on the
other hand, describes the skill, knowledge, work experiences required to perform the
job. (Milkovich & Bourdean, 1991)
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Reasons For Conducting Job Analysis
Data obtained from job analysis has an impact on every aspect of human resource
management as shown in figure (Mondy & Noe 1990) below.

Job Analysis: The Most Basic Human Resource Management Tool

As can be seen above, a major use of job analysis data is in the area of human
resource planning. Since jobs in an organization are different in nature, each
requires different knowledge, skills and experiences. Hence, effective human
resource planning can only take place when these job requirements are taken into
account.

Human resource activities, such as recruitment and selection largely depend on job
information. In order to match the personnel to the job, the recruiter must know the
qualifications and other pertinent features of the job. It is only then can
organizations select and hire the right person for the right job. Furthermore, job
analysis information can help organizations to decide the nature of examinations or
interviews to be conducted.

Job specification information, such as the knowledge, skills and abilities an

employee need to perform a task is crucial in identifying human resource training
and development requirements. Mondy & Noe (1990) state that if the specification
suggests that the job requires a particular knowledge, skill, or ability and the person
filling the position does not possess all the qualifications required-training and/or
development is probably in order.

Performance standards are developed from job information and then actual
employee performance is measured (Werther & Davis, 1996). It is important to note
here that employee would be evaluated in terms of how well they discharge their
responsibilities specified in the job descriptions. Thus, performance appraisal, which
is based on job analysis information, enables organization to measure employee
performance against written standard and provide feedback concerning their
contribution. The relative value of a particular job to the organization must be well
known before a monetary value can be allotted to it. Mondy & Noe (1996) believe
that the more significant its duties and responsibilities, the more the job is worth
relatively. Jobs that require greater knowledge, skills, and abilities should be worth
more to the organization. For example, the relative value of a teaching job that calls
for doctorate's degree normally would be higher than that of a teaching job that
requires a master's degree.

Information obtained from job analysis is also important in identifying safety and
health considerations. It, according to Chatterjee, (1995), enables management to
provide for special measures for the physically handicapped or infirm employee, the
pregnant mother or other vulnerable sections among workers. Job analysis
information is also important to employee and labour relationships. Management
relies on job description to consider promotion, transfer, or demotion, on the basis
of comparison of talent. Moreover, information derived from job analysis enables
management to make decisions regarding employees in the organization.

In general, job studies are undertaken in order to bring about improvement in work
methods, reduction in errors, elimination of handling unnecessary materials

10
and duplication of effort, reduction in fatigue, increased employee
commitment and responsibility and consequently to improve the performance of
the employee. These studies, therefore, enable the job analyst to think in terms of
designing/ redesigning jobs to achieve the above objectives (Chateerjee, 1995).

Human Resource
Planning

Recruitment

Tasks Responsibilities Duties Selection

Human Resource
Development

Job Performance
Description Appraisal

Job Compensation
Analysis and Benefits
Job
Specifications Safety and
Health

Employee and
Labour Relations
Knowledge Skills Abilities
Human Resource
Research

Equal
Employment

Types of Job Analysis Information

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All relevant information concerning the job is vital for successful accomplishment of
job analysis. The job analysts seek to identify the job's actual duties and
responsibilities and collect other types of data as shown in the table (Glueck, 1978)
below.

1. Work activities
a. Work activities and processes
b. Activity records (in film form, for example)
c. Procedures used
d. Personal responsibility
2. Worker-oriented activities
a. Human behaviors, such as physical actions and communicating on the job.
b. Elemental motions for methods analysis.
c. Personal job demands, such as energy expenditure.

3. Machines, tools, equipment, and work aids used

4. Job-related tangibles and intangibles

a. Knowledge dealt with or applied (as in accounting).
b. Materials processed.
c. Products made or services performed.
5. Work performance
a. Error analysis
b. Work standards
c. Work measurements, such as time taken for a task
6. Job context
a. Work schedule
b. Financial and non-financial incentives
c. Physical working conditions
d. Organizational and social contexts
7 Personal requirements for the job
a. Personal attributes such as personality, interests
b. Education and training required
c. Work experience.
Types of Data Normally Gathered in Job Analysis.

Job analysis information is used to define staffing needs of an organization. It,

according to Baird et.al., (1990), includes analysis of:
Work activities - What needs to be done.
Work tools and technology - What machines, tools and technology people will use.
Knowledge requirement - What people must know to perform the job.
Personal requirement - What skills and experience people must possess to perform
well.
Job context - the work schedules, physical conditions, and social environment of the
job.
Performance Standards - expected results.

This information enables the job analyst to determine the type and level of education,
training and work experience.

Job Analysis Methods

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Job analysis information provides the base for human resource information system.
Basically, in order to get information for job analysis, the job analyst need to know
that organization and the work it performs.

Methods used to conduct job analysis are different, this is because organizational
needs and resources for conducting job analysis differ. However, some of the most
common methods of obtaining information for job analysis are:
1) Questionnaires
2) Interviews
3) Observation
4) Employee Log
5) Combination of Methods

Questionnaires
To study jobs, job analyst design questionnaires to collect information uniformly.
These questionnaires reveal the duties and responsibilities, human characteristics and
working conditions and performance standards of the job to be investigated. The
questionnaire method is quick and economical to use. However, accuracy is lower
because of misunderstood questionnaires (Werther & Davis, 1996). Since, there is a
possibility that some workers may tend to exaggerate the significance of their tasks,
suggesting more responsibility than actually exists, the same type of questionnaire
can also be administered to supervisors to verify the worker responses.

Interviews
Face-to-face conversation is an effective method to collect job information. This
method provides an opportunity for the interviewer "to explain unclear questions and
probe into uncertain answers (Werther & Davis, 1996). The job analyst often talks
with a limited number of employees first, and then contacts the supervisors for
checking the accuracy of the information obtained from the employees. Although,
the interview method is time-consuming and expensive, but the method ensures a
high level of accuracy.

Observation
The observation method is slow and less accurate than other methods. This is
because the job analyst may miss irregularly occurring activities. Nevertheless,
actual observation acquaint the analyst with the machines, tools, equipment's and
work aids used, the work environments and to obtain visual impression of what is
involved in the job. According to Armstrong (1996), this method is used primarily to
study jobholders at work, noting what they do, how they do it, and how much time it
takes. Moreover, it enables the analyst to see the interrelationships between mental
and physical tasks. However, observation alone is usually an insufficient means of
conducting job analysis, particularly when mental skills are dominant in a job
(Mondy & Noe, 1990).
Employee Log
This method enables the job analyst to collect job data by having the employees
summarize their work activities in a diary or log. If entries are made over the entire
job cycle, the diary can be quite accurate and feasible way of collecting job
information (Chatterjee, 1995). This method is not popular because it is time-
consuming and less reliable as some employees may tend to exaggerate their tasks.
However, valuable understanding of highly specialized jobs, such as a financial
analyst, may be obtained in this way (Mondy & Noe, 1990).
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Combination of Methods
Since each method of obtaining information for job analysis has its own defects, job
analyst often rely on combinations where two or more techniques are used
concurrently. For example, in annualizing clerical and administrative jobs, the
analyst might use questionnaires supported by interviews and limited observation
(Mondy & Noe, 1990). On the other hand, in analyzing production jobs, interviews
supplemented by work observation may provide the required information.
Combination of methods can ensure high accuracy at minimum costs. Basically, the
job analyst would employ the combination of methods required to carry out an
effective and efficient job analysis.

Conducting Job Analysis

The expert who conducts job analysis is interested in collecting information on what
is involved in doing a particular job. Job analysis is not one man affair, it requires
the participation of employees and their immediate supervisors. Organizations may
use employed human resource experts or use outside consultants to perform job
analysis. Before conducting job analysis, the analyst seeks to gain general
understanding of the organization and the job/jobs to be studied. Then, the analyst
develops the desired job analysis methods to gather information about the jobs;
employee characteristics, and job performance standards. Before starting to gather
data, the employees' supervisor should introduce the analyst to the employees and
explain the main purpose of the job analysis. The job information collected by using
one or more job analysis methods allow management to draw up a job description,
job specifications and job standard.

Job Descriptions
Information collected by using one or more job analysis techniques allows
management to develop job descriptions. A job description is a written statement of
what employee does, how it is done and why it is done. In other words, the job
description contains the total requirements of the job, i.e. who, what, where, when
why and how.

According to Mondy and Noe (1990), among the items frequently included in a job
description is:
- Major duties performed
- Percentage of time devoted to each duty.
- Performance standards to be achieved.
- Working conditions and possible hazards.
- Number of employees performing the job and how they report to.
- The machines and equipment used on the job.

Within an organization, all the job descriptions should follow the same format,
although the form and content may differ from organization to organization. A
sample of job description for a secretary in an-organization is provided in the exhibit
(Mondy & Noe, 1990) below.

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 POSITION TITLE POSITION NUMBER
SECRETARY II

DIVISION OR STAFF DEPARTMENT REPORTS TO EFFECTIVE DATE

January 2000

DEPARTMENT SECTION GRADE REVISES

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JOB SUMMARY
Performs clerical and administrative duties for a manager and often one or
more staff members of a major function.

NATURE OF WORK
Performs a wide variety of office duties including most of the following:
a. Typing correspondence, report, manuscripts, graphs, charts, etc., from
notes, dictating machine, and/or hand written drafts proficiently and with
minimum, direction and instructions.
b. Receiving telephone calls and visitors skillfully and handling incoming mail
efficiently.
c. Originating routine correspondence and handling inquiries, and routing &
non-routine inquiries and correspondence to proper persons.
d. Establishing and maintaining department files and records.
e. Assuming responsibility for arranging appointments and meetings, screening
calls, and handling personal and confidential matters for superior.
f. Assembling, organizing, processing, and evaluating data and reports;
operating office machines needed for accomplishing this.
g. Performing administrative duties and special projects as directed, such as
collecting and compiling general reference materials and information
pertaining to company, division, or department practices and procedures.
QUALIFICATIONS
h. High school education or its equivalent plus three years of clerical
experience, and a typing skill of at least 60-WPM. Demonstrated proficiency
in English grammar, punctuation, spelling, and proper word usage.

A Job Description

Job description outlines what the jobholder is actually supposed to do how he does it
and why it is done. Although the contents of the job description vary, most job
descriptions include:
- Job Identification
- Date of the Job Analysis
- Job Summary
- Duties Performed

Job Identification
The section on job identification includes the title of the job, department/section,
and reporting relationship, date of the job description, and job code or
number. A good job title, according to Mondy and Noe, (1990), will closely
approximate the nature of the work content and will distinguish that job from others.

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Date of the Job Analysis
The date of the job analysis is indicated on the job description to help in identifying
how old the description is. It ensures periodic review of the job content and
minimizes the number of obsolete job descriptions.

Duties Performed
This section provides the major duties to be performed. Usually one sentence
beginning with an action verb such as receives, performs, establishes, or
assembles, adequately explains each duty (Mondy & Noe, 1990).

Job Specification
Job description and specification are essential documents when management begins
recruiting and selecting employees. According to Werther and Davis, 1996, a job
description defines what a job is; it is a profile of the job, on the other hand, job
specification describes the job demands on the employees who do it and the human
skills that are required. It is a profile of human characteristics needed by the person
performing the job. These requirements include experience, training, education, and
the ability to meet physical and mental demands (Werther & Davis 1996). In other
words, job specification is identification of knowledge, skill and attitude needed to
perform a particular job. It is important to not here that since job descriptions and
specifications both focus on the job, job specifications are often included as one
section of job description. For example, the qualifications required for the job of
"secretary II" include typing at least sixty words per minute and demonstrated
proficiency in English. This type of information, as stated earlier, is extremely
important in recruiting and selection process.

Job Performance Standards

Job performance standard is the third application of job analysis. Job

descriptions as stated earlier are statements of what activities are to be performed,
where as performance standards make explicit the quantity and/or quality of
performance expected in basic tasks indicated in the job description. Job
performance standards, according Chatterjee (1995), are statements of the
acceptable as well as attainable levels of achievement on a particular job. Job
performance standards serve three functions. These are:

1) Standards become objectives or targets for employee effort. The challenge

or pride of meeting objectives may serve to motivate employees. Once
standards are met, workers may feel a sense of accomplishment and
achievement. This outcome contributes to employee satisfaction.

2) Standards are criteria against which job success is measured. Without

standards, no control system can evaluate job performance (Werther &
Davis, 1996). When measured performance strays from the job
standard, corrective action is taken. As illustrated in figure below, the
action serves as feedback, which in turn can lead to change standards
if they are in appropriate or improve the actual performance.

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 3) JobActual
Correction of
Actual Deviations
Job Job Performance
Performance
standard

A job control system

4) Performance standards benefit both the jobholder and the superior who
evaluates him. The more the employee understands what is expected of
him, the more likely it is that he or she will be able to carry out the
responsibilities of the position successfully. On the other hand, in
evaluating the performance of each employee, the supervisor can compare
the actual performance of each person with the written standard.
Performance appraisals can never become fully objective, but the usage of
written standards helps to make them more objective (Chatterjee, 1995).

JOB DESIGN
Jobs are the foundation of organizational productivity and employee satisfaction.
How well jobs are designed will play an important role in the realization of
organizational objectives. Well-designed jobs, therefore, enable to attract and retain
motivated employees capable of discharging their work responsibilities.

Job design is the process of determining the specific tasks to be performed, the
methods used in performing these tasks, and how the job relates to other work in the
organization (Mondy & Noe, 1990). It specifies how the job is to be done and how
workers can be satisfied doing the job. Workers must also sense that they are
accountable for specific results and feel that the job has meaning beyond pay (Mondy
& Noe, 1990). According to Werther and Davis (1996), the design of a job reflects the
organizational, environmental, and behavioral demands placed on it. Job designers
need to consider these elements and try to create jobs that are productive. The figure
below illustrates a systems view of job design.

Elements of Job Design

Organizational Elements

Organizational elements of job design according to Werther and Davis (1996),

includes:
- Mechanistic approach
- Work flow
- Work practices
- Ergonomics

Mechanistic Approach

This approach involves identifying every task in a job so that task can be arranged
to minimize the time and expended by workers. Once task identification is complete,
a limited number of tasks are grouped into a job. The result is specialization:
Specialized jobs lead to a short job cycle, the time to complete every task in a job.

17
The mechanistic approach stresses efficiency in effort, time, labour costs, training
and employee learning time.

Work Flow

The product or service usually suggests the sequence of and balance between jobs if
the work is to be done efficiently. For example, the frame of a car must be built
before doors can be added. Once the sequence of jobs is determined, the balance
between jobs is established.

Ergonomics

Optimal productivity requires that the physical relationship between the worker and
the work be considered in designing jobs. Ergonomics is the study of how human
beings physically interface with their equipment. The apparatus and other related
work product must be modified for ease of work process.

Environmental Elements

Environmental elements of job design are concerned with ability and availability
of potential employees and their social expectations (Werther & Davis, 1996).

Employee Abilities and Availability

Efficiency considerations must be balanced against the abilities and availability of

the people who are to do the work. The level of technology and the type of work in an
organization should not exceed the abilities of the organization's workforce.

Social and Cultural Expectations

Job design can also be influenced by workers social and cultural expectations.
Working hours, holidays, religious beliefs, management styles, are some of the
factors that must be considered when designing jobs. Failure to consider these
social expectations can create dissatisfaction, low motivation, low quality of work life
and the like.

Behavioral Elements

Jobs cannot be designed by using only the elements that aid efficiency. Instead, job
designers draw heavily on behavioral research to provide a work environment that
helps satisfy individual needs. Any job, according to Scarrpello and Ledvinka (1988)
can be described in terms of five core dimensions. These are:

 Skill variety. The extent to which the job requires a variety of activities, skills,
and talents to carry out the work.

 Task identity. The extent to which the job allows its employees to complete
whole tasks rather than just parts of tasks.

 Task significance. The extent to which the job can be regarded as important to
others inside and outside the organization.

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 Autonomy. The extent, to which the job provides freedom to plan, schedules and
decides about work procedures.

 Feedback. The extent to which the job allows its employees to obtain clear and
direct knowledge about how well they perform.

Further more, there are factors that play a vital role in job design or redesign.
These are:

Technology

Technology has an impact on job design. The type of machines, tools,

equipment, and other work aids, as well as particular work layout and
methods, used in producing goods and/or services tend to act as constraints.

Economic Factors

Economic factors also affect job design. If management believes that job
redesigning can improve output and the level of workers satisfaction, it must
consider the adequacy of the firm's other resources. Since job redesign is an
expensive undertaking, the management must carefully balance the benefits of
job design or redesign with its costs.

Laws and Government Regulations

Job design or redesign is also affected by government regulations.

Management needs to observe whether or not laws relating to labour,
environment and the like are being violated.

Union Pressure

The philosophy, policy, and strategy of the union can affect Job design or
redesign. The contact between union and management specifies and defines
the type of jobs and the duties and responsibilities of employees. In most
cases, unions may perceive job redesign to be attempts by management to
squeeze more work out of the workers without increasing wages.

Employees' Potential

The abilities, attitudes, and motivation of the organization's workers must be

considered when planning to design or redesign a job. Designing a job that
would be far more complex than the ability level of employees available to do it
wouldn't make sense unless they are willing to be trained or new employees
with the necessary capabilities can be hired (Mondy & Noe, 1990).

Management Philosophy

The general organizational policies and strategies can determine the degree to
which job redesign is possible. Top management must be convinced regarding
the beneficial outcomes of the job redesign before it is undertaken.

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Techniques of Job Redesign

The major purpose of job design and redesign is to improve employee performance.
There are many methods of enhancing jobs through job design/redesign. The
following represent the more viable techniques of job redesign.

Job Rotation

This technique refers to the movement of employees from one job to another. It is
important to bear in mind that jobs themselves are not actually changed only the
employees are rotated. As Werther and Davis (1990), stated rotation breaks the
monotony of highly specialized work by calling on different skills and abilities. The
organization benefits because workers become competent in several jobs rather than
one. Learning and developing new skills,
- helps the worker's self-image
- provides personal growth, and
- makes the worker more valuable to the organization (Werther & Davis,
1996).

On the other hand, according to Chatterjee (1995), job rotation is not without its
drawbacks. The main drawbacks are:

- Apart from costs involved in the movement of personnel, productivity

inevitably drops in the initial phase of a worker's taking on a new job.
Also, efficiencies derived through experience are lost as a result of job
rotation and these can be substantial.

- Job rotations also create disruptions. Members of work groups have to

adjust to the new employees as much as he/she to them. The supervisor
has to spend more time answering questions and monitoring the work of
the recently rotated employee.

- Job rotation is a weak solution to jobs that score low on motivation

potential. Critics point out that this approach involves nothing more than
having people performing several boring and monotonous jobs rather
than one.

Job Enlargement

Job enlargement is a technique used to expand the number of related tasks in a

job. In other words, it increases job scope. According to Beard Well and Holden
(1999), job enlargement gives greater variety in job content and thereby helps to
relieve monotony in repetitive jobs. For example, instead of knowing how to operate
only one particular machine, a worker is taught to operate two or even three with the
same level of responsibility. Here, through job enlargement, management can
reduces monotony, and increase job satisfaction by creating task variety.

Job Enrichment

Job enrichment is a technique is which employees are given autonomy to set their
own work pace, design their own work methods, participate in making decisions
20
affecting their work units, and evaluate their accomplishments (Baird, et.al, 1990). It
refers to basic changes in the content of the job and increasing the level of
responsibility, autonomy, and control. It is a means of expanding jobs vertically.
Job enrichment, add more planning and control responsibilities. These additions
to the job, in-turn, can lead to increased motivation.

According to Herzberg (1979), job enrichment efforts should be based on the

following principles:

1. Increase job demands: Changing the increase the levels of difficulty and
responsibility of the job.

2. Increase Worker's accountability: Allowing more worker control and

authority over the work, while retaining the manager's ultimate
accountability.

3. Providing Work Scheduling freedom: Within limits, allowing workers to

schedule their own work.

4. Providing feedback: making timely periodic reports on performance

directly to the worker.

5. Providing New Learning experience: Creating opportunities for new

personal experiences and growth.

The management would make use of job enrichment techniques based on the nature
of the job, and the prevailing environment.

As discussed above, job redesign options also includes job rotation and job
enlargement. The major differences between these two techniques and job
enrichment are:

- Job enlargement and job rotation are horizontal expansions while job
enrichment is a vertical expansion.

- Job enlargement and job rotation increase job scope while job enrichment
increases job depth. Job depth is the degree of control or autonomy and
individual has over his/her own work (Baird, et.al, 1990).

Potential problems with job analysis

Certain problems crop up while conducting job analysis. The major ones are
described below:

 Support from top management- in most cases, top management support is

missing. The top management should make it clear to all employees that
their full and honest participation is extremely important for the process. This
message is often, not communicated.

 Single means and source- this relates to the defect in the process of job
analysis. There are many proven methods and sources of collecting data. All

21
 too often analysts rely on only one of the methods when a combination of the
two methods might provide a better life.

 No training or motivation-this also relates to the defect in the job analysis

process. Job holders are a great source of information about the job. But they
are not trained or motivated to generate quality data for job analysis.

 Activities may be distorted-where training and preparedness do not exist,

job holders tend to submit distorted data, either intentionally. For example,
employees are likely to speed up, if they know they are being watched.

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Review and Discussion Questions

1. What is job analysis? Why is it conducted?

2. What is the difference between a job and a position?
3. State the different conditions that initiate the performance of job analysis.
4. Name and describe the components of job analysis.
5. Describe the various techniques of collecting job analysis information.
6. Define:
- Job description
- Job specification
- Job standard
7. What are the major issues to consider when a job description is prepared?
8. Discuss the benefits of job performance standard.
9. What is job design? Name and describe the important elements of job design.
10. What are the different methods of job design and what are the advantages of
each method?
11. What are the items included in job specification?
12. Job enrichment is a means of expanding jobs vertically. Discuss.

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References:
1. Mondy, R. Wayne & Noe, Robert M., Human Resource Management,
(Massachusetts: Simon & Schuster, Inc., 1990).
1. Werther, William B. & Davis, Keith, Human Resources and Personnel
Management, (New York: McGraw-Hill Inc., 1996).
2. Milkovich, George T. & Boudreau, John W., Human Resource Management,
(USA: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1991).
3. Chatterjee, Bhaskar, Human Resource Management, (New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers Private Limited., 1995),
4. Baird, Lloyd S., e al., Management: Functions and Responsibilities, (New
York: Harper & Row, Publishers. Inc., 1990).
5. Glueck, William F., Personnel: A Diagnostic Approach, (Texas: Business
Publications, Inc., 1978).
6. Armstrong, Michael, A Handbook of Personnel Management Practice, (London:
Clays' Ltd., St Ives Plc, 1996).
7. Scarpello, Vida G. & Ledvinka Personnel/Human Resource Management,
(Boston: PWS-Kent Publishing Company, 1988).
8. Beardwell, Ian & Holden, Len, Human Resource Management: A Contemporary
perspective, (Delhi: Macmillan India Ltd., 1996).

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